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Ilic-Tomic T, Kramar A, Kostic M, Vojnovic S, Milovanovic J, Petkovic M, D’Agostino PM, Gulder TAM, Nikodinovic-Runic J. Functionalization of silk with actinomycins from Streptomyces anulatus BV365 for biomedical applications. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2024; 12:1466757. [PMID: 39364265 PMCID: PMC11447452 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1466757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 09/05/2024] [Indexed: 10/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Silk, traditionally acclaimed as the "queen of fiber," has been widely used thanks to its brilliant performance such as gentleness, smoothness and comfortableness. Owing to its mechanical characteristics and biocompatibility silk has a definitive role in biomedical applications, both as fibroin and fabric. In this work, the simultaneous dyeing and functionalization of silk fabric with pigments from Streptomyces anulatus BV365 were investigated. This strain produced high amounts of orange extracellular pigments on mannitol-soy flour agar, identified as actinomycin D, C2 and C3. The application of purified actinomycins in the dyeing of multifiber fabric was assessed. Actinomycins exhibited a high affinity towards protein fibers (silk and wool), but washing durability was maintained only with silk. Acidic condition (pH5) and high temperature (65°C) facilitated the silk dyeing. The morphologies and chemical components of the treated silk fabrics were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The results showed the pigments bind to the silk through interaction with the carbonyl group in silk fibroin rendering the functionalized, yet surface that does not cause skin irritation. The treated silk exhibited a remarkable antibacterial effect, while the biocompatibility test performed with 3D-reconstructed human epidermis model indicated safe biological properties, paving the way for future application of this material in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Ilic-Tomic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ana Kramar
- Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
- Novel Materials and Nanotechnology Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Paterna, Spain
| | - Mirjana Kostic
- Department of Textile Engineering, Faculty of Technology and Metallurgy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sandra Vojnovic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Milovanovic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Milos Petkovic
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Paul M. D’Agostino
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany
- Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Saxony, Germany
| | - Tobias A. M. Gulder
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Saarbrücken, Saarland, Germany
- Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Saxony, Germany
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Raabe HA, Costin GE, Allen DG, Lowit A, Corvaro M, O'Dell L, Breeden-Alemi J, Page K, Perron M, Flint Silva T, Westerink W, Baker E, Sullivan K. Human relevance of in vivo and in vitro skin irritation tests for hazard classification of pesticides. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2024:1-21. [PMID: 39180341 DOI: 10.1080/15569527.2024.2387596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/24/2024] [Indexed: 08/26/2024]
Abstract
Background: Test methods to inform hazard characterization and labeling of pesticides to protect human health are typically conducted using laboratory animals, and for skin irritation/corrosion the rabbit Draize test is currently required by many regulatory agencies. Although the Draize test is generally regarded to provide protective classifications for human health, new approach methodologies (NAMs) have been developed that offer more human relevant models that circumvent the uncertainty associated with species differences that exist between rabbits and humans. Despite wide applicability and use of these test methods across a broad range of chemicals, they have not been widely adopted for testing pesticides and pesticidal formulations. One of the barriers to adoption of these methods in this sector is low concordance with results from the Draize rabbit test, particularly for chemicals within the mild to moderate irritation spectrum. Methods: This review compares and contrasts the extent to which available models used in skin irritation testing mimic the anatomy and physiology of human skin, and how each aligns with the known key events leading to chemically-induced adverse skin irritation and corrosion. Doing so fully characterizes the human relevance of each method. Results: As alternatives to the rabbit Draize test, several protocols using ex vivo, in chemico, and in vitro skin models are available as internationally harmonized test guidelines. These methods rely on a variety of models of human skin, including excised rodent skin, synthetic biochemical models of barrier function, cell culture systems, and reconstructed human tissue models. We find these models exhibit biological and mechanistic relevance aligned with human skin irritation responses. Further, recent retrospective analyses have shown that the reproducibility of the Draize test is less than 50% for mild and moderate responses, with many of the replicate predictions spanning more than one category (e.g., a moderate response reported in one study followed by a non-irritant response reported in another study). Conclusions: Based on this comparative evaluation, we recommend top-down and bottom-up testing strategies that use the most human relevant in vitro test methods for skin irritation and corrosion classification of pesticides and pesticide formulations. To further discriminate among mild and non-irritant formulations, optimization of a cytokine release protocol and subsequent analyses of reference formulation test results is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans A Raabe
- Institute for In Vitro Sciences, Gaithersburg, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Anna Lowit
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Elizabeth Baker
- Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, Washington, DC, USA
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McLean P, Marshall J, García-Bilbao A, Beal D, Katsumiti A, Carrière M, Boyles MSP. A comparison of dermal toxicity models; assessing suitability for safe(r)-by-design decision-making and for screening nanomaterial hazards. Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 97:105792. [PMID: 38364873 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
The objective of Safe-by-Design (SbD) is to support the development of safer products and production processes, and enable safe use throughout a materials' life cycle; an intervention at an early stage of innovation can greatly benefit industry by reducing costs associated with the development of products later found to elicit harmful effects. Early hazard screening can support this process, and is needed for all of the expected nanomaterial exposure routes, including inhalation, ingestion and dermal. In this study, we compare in vitro and ex vivo cell models that represent dermal exposures (including HaCaT cells, primary keratinocytes, and reconstructed human epidermis (RhE)), and when possible consider these in the context of regulatory accepted OECD TG for in vitro dermal irritation. Various benchmark nanomaterials were used to assess markers of cell stress in each cell model. In addition, we evaluated different dosing strategies that have been used when applying the OECD TG for dermal irritation in assessment of nanomaterials, and how inconsistencies in the approach used can have considerable impact of the conclusions made. Although we could not demonstrate alignment of all models used, there was an indication that the simpler in vitro cell model aligned more closely with RhE tissue than ex vivo primary keratinocytes, supporting the use of HaCaT cells for screening of dermal toxicity of nanomaterials and in early-stage SbD decision-making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polly McLean
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Jessica Marshall
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Amaia García-Bilbao
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - David Beal
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes, CEA, CNRS, SyMMES-CIBEST, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Alberto Katsumiti
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - Marie Carrière
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes, CEA, CNRS, SyMMES-CIBEST, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Matthew S P Boyles
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK; Centre for Biomedicine and Global Health, School of Applied Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, UK.
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4
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Ruffo M, Parisi OI, Dattilo M, Patitucci F, Malivindi R, Pezzi V, Tzanov T, Puoci F. Synthesis and evaluation of wound healing properties of hydro-diab hydrogel loaded with green-synthetized AGNPS: in vitro and in ex vivo studies. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2022; 12:1881-1894. [PMID: 35359261 PMCID: PMC9242975 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-022-01121-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In diabetic patients, the presence of neuropathy, peripheral vascular diseases and ischemia, leads to the formation of foot ulcerations with a higher risk of infection because the normal response to bacterial infection is missing. In the aim to control and treat diabetic foot ulcerations (DFUs), wound dressings that are able to absorb exudate, to prevent infections, and to promote wound healing are needed. For this reason, the aim of the present research was to synthetize a biocompatible hydrogel (called HyDrO-DiAb) composed of carboxymethylcellulose loaded with silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) for the treatment of diabetic foot ulcers. In this study, AgNPs were obtained by a green synthesis and, then, were dissolved in a CMC hydrogel that, after a freeze drying process, becomes a flexible and porous structure. The in vitro and in ex vivo wound healing activity of the obtained HyDrO-DiAb hydrogel was evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariarosa Ruffo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Ortensia Ilaria Parisi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Marco Dattilo
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy
| | - Francesco Patitucci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Rocco Malivindi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Pezzi
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy.,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy
| | - Tzanko Tzanov
- Molecular and Industrial Biotechnology Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic University of Catalonia, Terrassa, Spain
| | - Francesco Puoci
- Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, CS, Italy. .,Macrofarm S.R.L, Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Calabria, 87036, Rende, Italy.
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5
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Jurek I, Szuplewska A, Chudy M, Wojciechowski K. Soapwort ( Saponaria officinalis L.) Extract vs. Synthetic Surfactants-Effect on Skin-Mimetic Models. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26185628. [PMID: 34577098 PMCID: PMC8467643 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26185628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Our skin is continuously exposed to different amphiphilic substances capable of interaction with its lipids and proteins. We describe the effect of a saponin-rich soapwort extract and of four commonly employed synthetic surfactants: sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), sodium laureth sulfate (SLES), ammonium lauryl sulfate (ALS), cocamidopropyl betaine (CAPB) on different human skin models. Two human skin cell lines were employed: normal keratinocytes (HaCaT) and human melanoma cells (A375). The liposomes consisting of a dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine/cholesterol mixture in a molar ratio of 7:3, mimicking the cell membrane of keratinocytes and melanoma cells were employed as the second model. Using dynamic light scattering (DLS), the particle size distribution of liposomes was analyzed before and after contact with the tested (bio)surfactants. The results, supplemented by the protein solubilization tests (albumin denaturation test, zein test) and oil emulsification capacity (using olive oil and engine oil), showed that the soapwort extract affects the skin models to a clearly different extent than any of the tested synthetic surfactants. Its protein and lipid solubilizing potential are much smaller than for the three anionic surfactants (SLS, ALS, SLES). In terms of protein solubilization potential, the soapwort extract is comparable to CAPB, which, however, is much harsher to lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Jurek
- Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland; (I.J.); (A.S.); (M.C.)
| | - Aleksandra Szuplewska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland; (I.J.); (A.S.); (M.C.)
| | - Michał Chudy
- Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland; (I.J.); (A.S.); (M.C.)
| | - Kamil Wojciechowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Technology, Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland; (I.J.); (A.S.); (M.C.)
- SaponLabs Ltd., Noakowskiego 3, 00-664 Warsaw, Poland
- Correspondence:
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6
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Ramadan Q, Fardous RS, Hazaymeh R, Alshmmari S, Zourob M. Pharmacokinetics-On-a-Chip: In Vitro Microphysiological Models for Emulating of Drugs ADME. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2021; 5:e2100775. [PMID: 34323392 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202100775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite many ongoing efforts across the full spectrum of pharmaceutical and biotech industries, drug development is still a costly undertaking that involves a high risk of failure during clinical trials. Animal models played vital roles in understanding the mechanism of human diseases. However, the use of these models has been a subject of heated debate, particularly due to ethical matters and the inevitable pathophysiological differences between animals and humans. Current in vitro models lack the sufficient functionality and predictivity of human pharmacokinetics and toxicity, therefore, are not capable to fully replace animal models. The recent development of micro-physiological systems has shown great potential as indispensable tools for recapitulating key physiological parameters of humans and providing in vitro methods for predicting the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in humans. Integration of Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) processes within one close in vitro system is a paramount development that would meet important unmet pharmaceutical industry needs. In this review paper, synthesis of the ADME-centered organ-on-a-chip technology is systemically presented from what is achieved to what needs to be done, emphasizing the requirements of in vitro models that meet industrial needs in terms of the structure and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qasem Ramadan
- Alfaisal University, Riyadh, 11533, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Roa Saleem Fardous
- Alfaisal University, Riyadh, 11533, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.,Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Strathclyde University, Glasgow, G4 0RE, United Kingdom
| | - Rana Hazaymeh
- Almaarefa University, Riyadh, 13713, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Sultan Alshmmari
- Saudi Food and Drug Authority, Riyadh, 13513-7148, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Validation study of a new reconstructed human epidermis model EPiTRI for in vitro skin irritation test according to OECD guidelines. Toxicol In Vitro 2021; 75:105197. [PMID: 34062233 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2021.105197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Following the global trend of reducing animal testing, various reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) models for skin irritation test (SIT) have been developed, verified, validated and included in OECD TG 439. We developed a new RHE called EPiTRI and a SIT method using EPiTRI (EPiTRI-SIT model) following the OECD guidelines. EPiTRI possesses morphological, biochemical and physiological properties similar to human epidermis with well-differentiated multilayered viable cells with barrier function. The EPiTRI-SIT model was tested for 20 reference chemicals in Performance Standard of OECD TG 439 (GD 220), showing good predictive capacity with 100% sensitivity, 70% specificity and 85% accuracy. EPiTRI had sensitivity in detecting di-n-propyl disulphate, as an irritant chemical (UN GHS Category 2), whereas most validated reference methods detected it as a non-irritant. An international validation study of EPiTRI-SIT was conducted in four laboratories to confirm the within- and between-laboratory reproducibility, as well as predictive capacity. The phase I/II within-laboratory and between-laboratory reproducibility was 100%/95% and 95%, respectively. The overall sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of EPiTRI-SIT was 96%, 70% and 83%, respectively, which fulfilled the OECD criteria. Thus, EPiTRI, meets the criteria of Performance Standards of OECD TG 439 (GD 220) and is suitable for screening irritating chemicals in vitro.
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8
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Jiang Y, Murnane KS, Bhattaccharjee SA, Blough BE, Banga AK. Skin Delivery and Irritation Potential of Phenmetrazine as a Candidate Transdermal Formulation for Repurposed Indications. AAPS JOURNAL 2019; 21:70. [PMID: 31152318 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-019-0335-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Phenmetrazine, a selective dopamine and norepinephrine releaser, previously available as an oral anorectic, is prone to be abused. This study aimed to assess the feasibility of delivering phenmetrazine via the transdermal route for a new indication, while also minimizing its abuse potential. The passive permeation of phenmetrazine through dermatomed human cadaver skin was evaluated using static Franz diffusion cells at 10 mg/mL for the fumarate salt, and at 20, 40, and 80 mg/mL for the free base in propylene glycol for 24 h. Further, oleic acid (5% w/w), oleyl alcohol (5% and 10% w/w), and lauric acid (10% w/w) were investigated as chemical permeation enhancers to enhance the delivery. Skin irritation potential was assessed using EpiDerm™ in vitro reconstructed human epidermal model. The free base showed superior 24-h delivery (8.13 ± 4.07%, 10.6 ± 2.5%, and 10.4 ± 1.4% for groups with 20, 40, and 80 mg/mL of the free base, respectively) to phenmetrazine fumarate salt (undetectable). The successful screening of effective chemical enhancers, oleyl alcohol (5% and 10% w/w), oleic acid (5% w/w), and lauric acid (10% w/w) resulted in significant enhancement of delivery. The calculated therapeutic relevant flux for the potential indication, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 20 μg/cm2/h was met, where a 24-mg daily dose from a 50-cm2 patch was projected to be delivered to a 60-kg individual. Irritation study results suggest that formulations with therapeutically relevant delivery are likely to be non-irritant. In conclusion, it is feasible to deliver therapeutically relevant amounts of phenmetrazine via the transdermal route.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Jiang
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kevin S Murnane
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Sonalika A Bhattaccharjee
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Bruce E Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ajay K Banga
- Center for Drug Delivery Research, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA.
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Effect of synthetic surfactants and soapwort (Saponaria officinalis L.) extract on skin-mimetic model lipid monolayers. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2019; 1861:556-564. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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10
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Lee H, Cheong KA, Kim JY, Kim NH, Noh M, Lee AY. IL-1 Receptor Antagonist Reduced Chemical-Induced Keratinocyte Apoptosis through Antagonism to IL-1α/IL-1β. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2018; 26:417-423. [PMID: 29310426 PMCID: PMC6029682 DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2017.167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 10/12/2017] [Accepted: 10/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular interleukin 1 alpha (IL-1α) released from keratinocytes is one of the endpoints for in vitro assessments of skin irritancy. Although cells dying via primary skin irritation undergo apoptosis as well as necrosis, IL-1α is not released in apoptotic cells. On the other hand, active secretion has been identified in interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra), which was discovered to be a common, upregulated, differentially-expressed gene in a microarray analysis performed with keratinocytes treated using cytotoxic doses of chemicals. This study examined whether and how IL-1ra, particularly extracellularly released IL-1ra, was involved in chemically-induced keratinocyte cytotoxicity and skin irritation. Primary cultured normal adult skin keratinocytes were treated with cytotoxic doses of chemicals (hydroquinone, retinoic acid, sodium lauryl sulfate, or urshiol) with or without recombinant IL-1ra treatment. Mouse skin was administered irritant concentrations of hydroquinone or retinoic acid. IL-1ra (mRNA and/or intracellular/extracellularly released protein) levels increased in the chemically treated cultured keratinocytes with IL-1α and IL-1β mRNAs and in the chemically exposed epidermis of the mouse skin. Recombinant IL-1ra treatment significantly reduced the chemically-induced apoptotic death and intracellular/extracellularly released IL-1α and IL-1β in keratinocytes. Collectively, extracellular IL-1ra released from keratinocytes could be a compensatory mechanism to reduce the chemically-induced keratinocyte apoptosis by antagonism to IL-1α and IL-1β, suggesting potential applications to predict skin irritation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyejin Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Dongguk University Seoul, Graduate School of Medicine, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Ah Cheong
- Department of Dermatology, Dongguk University Seoul, Graduate School of Medicine, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Young Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Dongguk University Seoul, Graduate School of Medicine, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Nan-Hyung Kim
- Department of Dermatology, Dongguk University Seoul, Graduate School of Medicine, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
| | - Minsoo Noh
- Department of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Ai-Young Lee
- Department of Dermatology, Dongguk University Seoul, Graduate School of Medicine, Goyang 10326, Republic of Korea
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11
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Comparative assessment of local tolerance of alcohols commonly used in alcohol-based hand rubs for hand hygiene. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 44:142-153. [PMID: 28700953 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hand hygiene plays a key role in nosocomial infection prevention. To achieve users' adherence, products' dermal tolerance is essential. We aimed at making a comparative assessment of skin irritation and phototoxicity of the 3 alcohols commonly used in alcohol-based hand rubs (Ethanol, Propan-2-ol, Propan-1-ol) at 60, 70, 80 or 85% w/w in water or with co-formulates (hydrating, emollient and skin protective agents). In vitro validated OECD methods 439 and 432 were used. For irritation, EpiSkin™ Small Model was the chosen Reconstructed Human Epidermis (RhE). For phototoxicity, co-formulates alone or in mixture with and without alcohol were tested using BALB/c 3T3 cell cultures. Whilst Ethanol and Propan-2-ol could not be differentiated and displayed good skin tolerance profiles, Propan-1-ol based products lead to significant viability impairments of RhE at 60, 70 or 80% and at 60% in the presence of co-formulates. However, these results could not be reproduced in another RhE model. Taking also into account bibliographic data on Propan-1-ol, this suggests that our results are probably related to a lack of specificity of the used RhE. Therefore, it can be relevant in case of significant results to use two different RhE models before performing any classification and/or performing any complementary tests.
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12
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Miyani VA, Hughes MF. Assessment of the in vitro dermal irritation potential of cerium, silver, and titanium nanoparticles in a human skin equivalent model. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2016; 36:145-151. [PMID: 27439971 DOI: 10.1080/15569527.2016.1211671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Metal nanoparticles can potentially contact human skin during their manufacture and use in commercial products. This study examined the potential of metal nanoparticles to elicit irritant contact dermatitis in a human skin equivalent model (HSEM) derived from keratinocytes. Ag (10-100 nm), TiO2 (22-214 nm), and CeO2 (15-40 nm) nanoparticles were studied. The Ag particles were either coated/shelled with silica or capped with citrate or polyvinylpyrrolidone and were in water. The TiO2 and CeO2 particles were suspended in media containing 10% fetal bovine serum. The particles (1 mg/ml) were applied to the epidermal surface of the HSEM. Positive (5% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)) and negative controls (saline or media) were included. After 1-h exposure at 37 °C, the HSEM was washed with saline to remove the nanoparticles. Following a 42-h incubation (37 °C), HSEM viability was assessed using the MTT assay. A test substance is considered a dermal irritant if the HSEM viability is < 50%. The mean viability for the SDS-treated HSEM was 7.8%. The viabilities of the nanoparticle-treated HSEM were 91% or greater. The Ag, TiO2, and CeO2 nanoparticles examined were not dermal irritants under the conditions used in this study. The stratum corneum of the HSEM may limit penetration of metal nanoparticles to induce toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek A Miyani
- a Student Services Contractor , Morrisville , NC , USA and
| | - Michael F Hughes
- b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory , Research Triangle Park , NC , USA
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Ramadan Q, Ting FCW. In vitro micro-physiological immune-competent model of the human skin. LAB ON A CHIP 2016; 16:1899-908. [PMID: 27098052 DOI: 10.1039/c6lc00229c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Skin allergy, in particular, allergic contact dermatitis and irritant contact dermatitis, are common occupational and environmental health problems affecting the quality of life of a significant proportion of the world population. Since all new ingredients to be incorporated into a product are potential skin allergens, it is essential that these ingredients be first tested for their allergenic potential. However, despite the considerable effort using animal models to understand the underlying mechanism of skin sensitization, to date, the molecular and cellular responses due to skin contact with sensitizers are still not fully understood. To replace animal testing and to improve the prediction of skin sensitization, significant attention has been directed to the use of reconstructed organotypic in vitro models of human skin. Here we describe a miniaturized immune competent in vitro model of human skin based on 3D co-culture of immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT) as a model of the epidermis barrier and human leukemic monocyte lymphoma cell line (U937) as a model of human dendritic cells. The biological model was fitted in a microfluidic-based cell culture system that provides a dynamic cellular environment that mimics the in vivo environment of skin. The dynamic perfusion of culture media significantly improved the tight junction formation as evidenced by measuring higher values of TEER compared to static culture. This setting also maintained the high viability of cells over extended periods of time up to 17 days. The perfusion-based culture also allows growth of the cells at the air-liquid interface by exposing the apical side of the cells to air while providing the cell nutrients through a basolateral fluidic compartment. The microsystem has been evaluated to investigate the effect of the chemical and physical (UV irradiation) stimulation on the skin barrier (i.e. the TJ integrity). Three-tiered culture differential stimulation allowed the investigation of the role of the keratinocyte layer as a protection barrier to chemical/biological hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qasem Ramadan
- Department of Bioelectronics, Institute of Microelectronics, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), Singapore.
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Silveira JEPS, Pereda MCV, Nogueira C, Dieamant G, Cesar CKM, Assanome KM, Silva MS, Torello CO, Queiroz MLS, Eberlin S. Preliminary safety assessment of C-8 xylitol monoester and xylitol phosphate esters. Int J Cosmet Sci 2015; 38:41-51. [PMID: 26193758 DOI: 10.1111/ics.12262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2015] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Most of the cosmetic compounds with preservative properties available in the market pose some risks concerning safety, such as the possibility of causing sensitization. Due to the fact that there are few options, the proper development of new molecules with this purpose is needed. Xylitol is a natural sugar, and the antimicrobial properties of xylitol-derived compounds have already been described in the literature. C-8 xylitol monoester and xylitol phosphate esters may be useful for the development of skincare products. As an initial screen for safety of chemicals, the combination of in silico methods and in vitro testing can aid in prioritizing resources in toxicological investigations while reducing the ethical and monetary costs that are related to animal and human testing. This study was designed to evaluate the safety of C-8 xylitol monoester and xylitol phosphate esters regarding carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, skin and eye irritation/corrosion and sensitization through alternative methods. METHODS For the initial safety assessment, quantitative structure-activity relationship methodology was used. The prediction of the parameters carcinogenicity/mutagenicity, skin and eye irritation/corrosion and sensitization was generated from the chemical structure. The analysis also comprised physical-chemical properties, Cramer rules, threshold of toxicological concern and Michael reaction. In silico results of candidate molecules were compared to 19 compounds with preservative properties that are available in the market. Additionally, in vitro tests (Ames test for mutagenicity, cytotoxicity and phototoxicity tests and hen's egg test--chorioallantoic membrane for irritation) were performed to complement the evaluation. RESULTS In silico evaluation of both molecules presented no structural alerts related to eye and skin irritation, corrosion and sensitization, but some alerts for micronucleus and carcinogenicity were detected. However, by comparison, C-8 xylitol monoester, xylitol phosphate esters showed similar or better results than the compounds available in the market. Concerning experimental data, phototoxicity and mutagenicity results were negative. As expected for compounds with preservative activity, xylitol-derived substances presented positive result in cytotoxicity test. In hen's egg test, both molecules were irritants. CONCLUSION Our results suggested that xylitol-derived compounds appear to be suitable candidates for preservative systems in cosmetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E P S Silveira
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - M C V Pereda
- Research and Development Department, Chemyunion Química Ltda, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil
| | - C Nogueira
- Research and Development Department, Chemyunion Química Ltda, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil
| | - G Dieamant
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - C K M Cesar
- Research and Development Department, Chemyunion Química Ltda, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil
| | | | - M S Silva
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - C O Torello
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - M L S Queiroz
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - S Eberlin
- Department of Pharmacology/Hemocenter, Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Ramadan Q, Gijs MAM. In vitro micro-physiological models for translational immunology. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:614-36. [PMID: 25501670 DOI: 10.1039/c4lc01271b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The immune system is a source of regulation of the human body and is key for its stable functioning. Animal models have been successfully used for many years to study human immunity and diseases and provided significant contributions to the development of powerful new therapies. However, such models inevitably display differences from the human metabolism and disease state and therefore may correlate poorly with the human conditions. This explains the interest for the use of in vitro models of human cells, which have better potential to assist in understanding the physiological events that characterize the immune response in humans. Microfluidic technologies offer great capabilities to create miniaturized in vivo-like physiological models that mimic tissue-tissue interactions and simulate the body metabolism in both the healthy and diseased states. The micro-scale features of these microfluidic systems allow positioning heterogeneous cellular cultures in close proximity to each other in a dynamic fluidic environment, thereby allowing efficient cell-cell interactions and effectively narrowing the gap between in vivo and in vitro conditions. Due to the relative simplicity of these systems, compared to animal models, it becomes possible to investigate cell signaling by monitoring the metabolites transported from one tissue to another in real time. This allows studying detailed physiological events and in consequence understanding the influence of metabolites on a specific tissue/organ function as well as on the healthy/diseased state modulation. Numerous in vitro models of human organs have been developed during the last few years, aiming to mimic as closely as possible the in vivo characteristics of such organs. This technology is still in its infancy, but is promised a bright future in industrial and medical applications. Here we review the recent literature, in which functional microphysiological models have been developed to mimic tissues and to explore multi-tissue interactions, focusing in particular on the study of immune reactions, inflammation and the development of diseases. Also, an outlook on the opportunities and issues for further translational development of functional in vitro models in immunology will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qasem Ramadan
- Bioelectronics Laboratory, Institute of Microelectronics, 11 Science Park II, Singapore 117685.
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16
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Ooi N, Eady EA, Cove JH, O'Neill AJ. Redox-active compounds with a history of human use: antistaphylococcal action and potential for repurposing as topical antibiofilm agents. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 70:479-88. [PMID: 25368206 PMCID: PMC4291238 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dku409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives To investigate the antistaphylococcal/antibiofilm activity and mode of action (MOA) of a panel of redox-active (RA) compounds with a history of human use and to provide a preliminary preclinical assessment of their potential for topical treatment of staphylococcal infections, including those involving a biofilm component. Methods Antistaphylococcal activity was evaluated by broth microdilution and by time–kill studies with growing and slow- or non-growing cells. The antibiofilm activity of RA compounds, alone and in combination with established antibacterial agents, was assessed using the Calgary Biofilm Device. Established assays were used to examine the membrane-perturbing effects of RA compounds, to measure penetration into biofilms and physical disruption of biofilms and to assess resistance potential. A living skin equivalent model was used to assess the effects of RA compounds on human skin. Results All 15 RA compounds tested displayed antistaphylococcal activity against planktonic cultures (MIC 0.25–128 mg/L) and 7 eradicated staphylococcal biofilms (minimum biofilm eradication concentration 4–256 mg/L). The MOA of all compounds involved perturbation of the bacterial membrane, whilst selected compounds with antibiofilm activity caused destructuring of the biofilm matrix. The two most promising agents [celastrol and nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA)] in respect of antibacterial potency and selective toxicity against bacterial membranes acted synergistically with gentamicin against biofilms, did not damage artificial skin following topical application and exhibited low resistance potential. Conclusions In contrast to established antibacterial drugs, some RA compounds are capable of eradicating staphylococcal biofilms. Of these, celastrol and NDGA represent particularly attractive candidates for development as topical antistaphylococcal biofilm treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Ooi
- Antimicrobial Research Centre and School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - E A Eady
- Harrogate and District NHS Foundation Trust, Harrogate, UK
| | - J H Cove
- Antimicrobial Research Centre and School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - A J O'Neill
- Antimicrobial Research Centre and School of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Effect of choline carboxylate ionic liquids on biological membranes. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2014; 123:575-81. [PMID: 25444662 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2014.09.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Choline carboxylates, ChCm, with m=2-10 and choline oleate are known as biocompatible substances, yet their influence on biological membranes is not well-known, and the effect on human skin has not previously been investigated. The short chain choline carboxylates ChCm with m=2, 4, 6 act as hydrotropes, solubilizing hydrophobic compounds in aqueous solution, while the longer chain choline carboxylates ChCm with m=8, 10 and oleate are able to form micelles. In the present study, the cytotoxicity of choline carboxylates was tested using HeLa and SK-MEL-28 cells. The influence of these substances on liposomes prepared from dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) was also evaluated to provide insights on membrane interactions. It was observed that the choline carboxylates with a chain length of m>8 distinctly influence the bilayer, while the shorter ones had minimal interaction with the liposomes.
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18
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Ionic liquids as a class of materials for transdermal delivery and pathogen neutralization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:13313-8. [PMID: 25157174 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1403995111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 207] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm-protected microbial infections in skin are a serious health risk that remains to be adequately addressed. The lack of progress in developing effective treatment strategies is largely due to the transport barriers posed by the stratum corneum of the skin and the biofilm. In this work, we report on the use of Ionic Liquids (ILs) for biofilm disruption and enhanced antibiotic delivery across skin layers. We outline the syntheses of ILs, analysis of relevant physicochemical properties, and subsequent neutralization effects on two biofilm-forming pathogens: Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella enterica. Further, the ILs were also examined for cytotoxicity, skin irritation, delivery of antibiotics through the skin, and treatment of biofilms in a wound model. Of the materials examined, choline-geranate emerged as a multipurpose IL with excellent antimicrobial activity, minimal toxicity to epithelial cells as well as skin, and effective permeation enhancement for drug delivery. Specifically, choline-geranate was comparable with, or more effective than, bleach treatment against established biofilms of S. enterica and P. aeruginosa, respectively. In addition, choline-geranate increased delivery of cefadroxil, an antibiotic, by >16-fold into the deep tissue layers of the skin without inducing skin irritation. The in vivo efficacy of choline-geranate was validated using a biofilm-infected wound model (>95% bacterial death after 2-h treatment). This work establishes the use of ILs for simultaneous enhancement of topical drug delivery and antibiotic activity.
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Jung KM, Lee SH, Jang WH, Jung HS, Heo Y, Park YH, Bae S, Lim KM, Seok SH. KeraSkin-VM: a novel reconstructed human epidermis model for skin irritation tests. Toxicol In Vitro 2014; 28:742-50. [PMID: 24625437 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2014.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 02/01/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Several alternative in vitro methods to evaluate skin irritants have been developed recently. In July 2010, OECD officially endorsed the validated reference method (VRM) that uses reconstituted human epidermis (RhE) models as replacements for the in vivo skin irritation test. This study evaluated the KeraSkin-VM model, a novel human epidermis model that was reconstructed with Asian skin tissue using 20 reference chemicals according to the OECD TG 439 performance standard. The test chemicals were applied to the epidermal surface side for 45 min and then rinsed, and then incubated for 42 h post-treatment. An overall accuracy of 80%, sensitivity of 90% and specificity of 70% were obtained when the results from KeraSkin-VM were compared with UN GHS categories, which was comparable to the EpiDerm Skin irritation test (SIT) rates. Furthermore, KeraSkin-VM demonstrated good performance in terms of within-laboratory reproducibility and predictive capacity to screen skin irritants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung-Mi Jung
- Amorepacific Co. R&D Center, Yongin 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Su-Hyon Lee
- Modern Cell & Tissue Technologies Inc., Seoul 139-743, Republic of Korea
| | - Won-Hee Jang
- Amorepacific Co. R&D Center, Yongin 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - Haeng-Sun Jung
- Modern Cell & Tissue Technologies Inc., Seoul 139-743, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong Heo
- Department of Occupational Health, College of Natural Sciences, Catholic University of Daegu, Daegu 712-702, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Ho Park
- Amorepacific Co. R&D Center, Yongin 446-729, Republic of Korea
| | - SeungJin Bae
- College of Pharmacology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-808, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Min Lim
- College of Pharmacology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 120-808, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seung Hyeok Seok
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, and Institute of Endemic Disease, Seoul National University Medical College, Seoul 110-799, Republic of Korea.
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20
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Catalano E, Cochis A, Varoni E, Rimondini L, Azzimonti B. Tissue-engineered skin substitutes: an overview. J Artif Organs 2013; 16:397-403. [PMID: 24096542 DOI: 10.1007/s10047-013-0734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Extensive skin loss and chronic wounds are still a significant challenge to clinicians: even if injured epidermis is normally able to self-renew, deep injuries can cause negative regulation of the wound healing cascade, leading to chronic wound formation. Skin-autografting surgical procedures are often limited by the poor availability of healthy tissue, whereas the use of non-self-tissues for allografts presents some severe risks. Tissue-engineered skin substitutes have recently become viable as a suitable alternative to auto- and allografts. However, biologists, biochemists, and technical engineers are still struggling to produce complex skin substitutes that can readily be transplanted in large quantities. The ambitious goal is now to construct a dermoepidermal substitute that rapidly vascularizes and optimally supports a stratifying epidermal graft on a biodegradable matrix. This review analyzes these aspects in light of the available literature and the authors' experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Catalano
- Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Department of Health Sciences, University of Piemonte Orientale "A. Avogadro", Via Solaroli 17, 28100, Novara, NO, Italy
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Casas JW, Lewerenz GM, Rankin EA, Willoughby JA, Blakeman LC, McKim JM, Coleman KP. In vitro human skin irritation test for evaluation of medical device extracts. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:2175-83. [PMID: 23999410 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2013] [Revised: 08/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine if the EpiDerm™ reconstructed human skin model (MatTek Corp.) could be an acceptable alternative to the ISO 10993-required rabbit skin irritation test for assessing medical device biocompatibility. Eleven medical device polymers were tested. Four extracts were prepared per polymer, two each with saline and sesame oil; half were spiked with two R-38 irritants, lactic acid for saline extracts and heptanoic acid for the sesame oil extracts. Tissue viability was assessed by MTT reduction and the proinflammatory response was assessed by IL-1α release. LOAELs of 2% for lactic acid in saline and 0.7% for heptanoic acid in sesame oil were determined. A cell viability reduction of >50% was indicative of skin irritation. Cells exposed to saline extracts spiked with 3.25% lactic acid had significantly reduced mean cell viabilities (12.6-17.2%). Cells exposed to sesame oil extracts spiked with 1.25% heptanoic acid also exhibited reduced mean cell viabilities (25.5%-41.7%). All spiked cells released substantial amounts of IL-1α (253.5-387.4pg/ml) signifying a proinflammatory response. These results indicate that the EpiDerm™ model may be a suitable in vitro replacement for the assessment of the irritation potential of medical device extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Casas
- Medtronic, Inc., 11520 Yellow Pine St. N. W., C202, Minneapolis, MN 55448, USA.
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22
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Klein R, Müller E, Kraus B, Brunner G, Estrine B, Touraud D, Heilmann J, Kellermeier M, Kunz W. Biodegradability and cytotoxicity of choline soaps on human cell lines: effects of chain length and the cation. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra42812e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Pappinen S, Pryazhnikov E, Khiroug L, Ericson MB, Yliperttula M, Urtti A. Organotypic cell cultures and two-photon imaging: Tools for in vitro and in vivo assessment of percutaneous drug delivery and skin toxicity. J Control Release 2012; 161:656-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Abstract
Significant progress has been made over the years in the development of in vitro-engineered substitutes that mimic human skin, either to be used as grafts for the replacement of lost skin or for the establishment of human-based in vitro skin models. This review summarizes these advances in in vivo and in vitro applications of tissue-engineered skin. We further highlight novel efforts in the design of complex disease-in-a-dish models for studies ranging from disease etiology to drug development and screening.
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25
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Almeida JAS, Faneca H, Carvalho RA, Marques EF, Pais AACC. Dicationic alkylammonium bromide gemini surfactants. Membrane perturbation and skin irritation. PLoS One 2011; 6:e26965. [PMID: 22102870 PMCID: PMC3213113 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0026965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Dicationic alkylammonium bromide gemini surfactants represent a class of amphiphiles potentially effective as skin permeation enhancers. However, only a limited number of studies has been dedicated to the evaluation of the respective cytotoxicity, and none directed to skin irritation endpoints. Supported on a cell viability study, the cytotoxicity of gemini surfactants of variable tail and spacer length was assessed. For this purpose, keratinocyte cells from human skin (NCTC 2544 cell line), frequently used as a model for skin irritation, were employed. The impact of the different gemini surfactants on the permeability and morphology of model vesicles was additionally investigated by measuring the leakage of calcein fluorescent dye and analyzing the NMR spectra of 31P, respectively. Detail on the interaction of gemini molecules with model membranes was also provided by a systematic differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. An irreversible impact on the viability of the NCTC 2544 cell line was observed for gemini concentrations higher than 25 mM, while no cytotoxicity was found for any of the surfactants in a concentration range up to 10 mM. A higher cytotoxicity was also found for gemini surfactants presenting longer spacer and shorter tails. The same trend was obtained in the calorimetric and permeability studies, with the gemini of longest spacer promoting the highest degree of membrane destabilization. Additional structural and dynamical characterization of the various systems, obtained by 31P NMR and MD, provide some insight on the relationship between the architecture of gemini surfactants and the respective perturbation mechanism.
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26
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Skin tissue engineering--in vivo and in vitro applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2011; 63:352-66. [PMID: 21241756 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2011.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2010] [Revised: 12/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Significant progress has been made over the years in the development of in vitro-engineered substitutes that mimic human skin, either to be used as grafts for the replacement of lost skin or for the establishment of human-based in vitro skin models. This review summarizes these advances in in vivo and in vitro applications of tissue-engineered skin. We further highlight novel efforts in the design of complex disease-in-a-dish models for studies ranging from disease etiology to drug development and screening.
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27
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Rasmussen C, Gratz K, Liebel F, Southall M, Garay M, Bhattacharyya S, Simon N, Vander Zanden M, Van Winkle K, Pirnstill J, Pirnstill S, Comer A, Allen-Hoffmann BL. The StrataTest® human skin model, a consistent in vitro alternative for toxicological testing. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:2021-9. [PMID: 20688150 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2010] [Revised: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional in vitro skin models provide an alternative to animal testing for assessing tissue damage caused by chemical or physical agents and for the identification and characterization of agents formulated to mitigate this damage. The StrataTest® human skin model made with pathogen-free NIKS® keratinocyte progenitors is a fully-stratified tissue containing epidermal and dermal components that possesses barrier function as determined by measurements of electrical impedance. Independent batches of skin tissues responded consistently to known chemical irritants even after refrigerated storage for up to 7 days. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were detected after exposure of skin tissues to ozone, cigarette smoke or ultraviolet (UV) irradiation. Pretreatment with the antioxidant parthenolide-depleted (PD)-Feverfew extract prevented cigarette smoke-induced or UV irradiation-mediated increases in ROS. Interleukin (IL)-1α and IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA) secretion increased in a dose dependent manner following UV irradiation but cytokine release was abrogated by pretreatment with a UVA/UVB sunscreen. Similarly, immunohistochemical detection showed increased thymidine dimer formation in UV-irradiated skin tissue that was prevented with sunscreen pretreatment. These results demonstrate that the StrataTest® human skin model is broadly applicable to a wide range of in vitro toxicological assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy Rasmussen
- Stratatech Corporation, 505 S. Rosa Rd. Madison, WI 53719, USA
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28
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Macfarlane M, Jones P, Goebel C, Dufour E, Rowland J, Araki D, Costabel-Farkas M, Hewitt NJ, Hibatallah J, Kirst A, McNamee P, Schellauf F, Scheel J. A tiered approach to the use of alternatives to animal testing for the safety assessment of cosmetics: Skin irritation. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2009; 54:188-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2009] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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29
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Batheja P, Song Y, Wertz P, Michniak-Kohn B. Effects of Growth Conditions on the Barrier Properties of a Human Skin Equivalent. Pharm Res 2009; 26:1689-700. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-009-9879-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2008] [Accepted: 03/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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30
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Cornelissen LH, Bronneberg D, Bader DL, Baaijens FPT, Oomens CWJ. The transport profile of cytokines in epidermal equivalents subjected to mechanical loading. Ann Biomed Eng 2009; 37:1007-18. [PMID: 19234790 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-009-9652-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Pressure ulcer risk assessment might be optimized by incorporating the soft tissue reaction to mechanical loading in the currently used risk assessment scales. Cytokines, like IL-1alpha, IL-1RA, IL-8, and TNF-alpha, might be used to determine this tissue reaction, since they are released after 24 h of mechanical loading of epidermal equivalents. In the current study, the release and transport of these cytokines with time was evaluated. Epidermal equivalents were subjected to 20 kPa for different time periods (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 16, and 24 h). Compared to the unloaded control group, a significant increase was found for IL-1alpha (4.7-fold), IL-1RA (4.8-fold), and IL-8 (3.6-fold) release after 1 h loading. For TNF-alpha, the release was significantly increased after 4 h of loading (5.1-fold compared to the unloaded situation), coinciding with the first signs of gross structural tissue damage. These cytokine values were determined in the surrounding medium and a transport model was developed to evaluate the distribution of cytokines inside the culture. These simulations revealed that all IL-8 and TNF-alpha was released from the keratinocytes, whereas most of the IL-1alpha and IL-1RA remained inside the keratinocytes during the 24 h loading period. In conclusion, IL-1alpha, IL-1RA, and IL-8 appear promising biochemical markers for pressure ulcer risk assessment, since their release is increased after 1 h of epidermal loading and before the onset of structural tissue damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisette H Cornelissen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Laboratory for Biomechanics and Tissue Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Building W-hoog 4.11, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Diaper dermatitis is a highly prevalent condition that causes discomfort and stress for patients and frustration for healthcare staff. Diaper technology has evolved to substantially lessen the severity of diaper dermatitis, but additional improvements are needed. Premature infants and incontinent adults are particularly at risk for developing diaper dermatitis and its potential consequences. Contributing factors include overhydration, irritants, friction, increased skin pH, diet, gestational age, antibiotic use, diarrhea and medical condition. Treatments aim to reduce hydration, provide a semipermeable ‘layer’ to facilitate skin barrier repair, shield the skin from irritants, deactivate specific fecal components and maintain skin surface contact. The published research on the effects of diaper dermatitis treatments is especially sparse. Controlled clinical trials are needed to provide definitive evidence for selection of effective treatments. This article discusses the incidence and etiology of diaper dermatitis in infants and adults. It provides the scientific basis for repair of diaper skin barrier damage and describes recent developments that will be available in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marty O Visscher
- The Skin Sciences Institute, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center, 3333 Burnet Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA
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32
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Sanchez L, Mitjans M, Infante MR, Vinardell MP. Determination of interleukin-1α in human NCTC 2544 keratinocyte cells as a predictor of skin irritation from lysine-based surfactants. Toxicol Lett 2006; 167:40-6. [PMID: 16996234 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2006.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2006] [Revised: 08/17/2006] [Accepted: 08/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Lysine derivative surfactants are a class of amino acid-based surfactants synthesized as lecithin analogues that deserve particular attention because of their low toxicity and high biocompatibility. To complete the toxicological profile of these surfactants, IL-1 alpha production (cell-associated and release to the culture medium) was determined as an in vitro method for predicting skin irritation. In addition, an MTT assay was used as a viability marker in keratinocytes NCTC 2544. Keratinocytes are a biologically relevant target for developing in vitro techniques to assess skin irritants: moreover, they are the principal source of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1 alpha in the epidermis. Lysine derivatives proved to be less potent in stimulating IL-1 alpha synthesis and induced a lower release of this cytokine into the culture medium when compared to the anionic surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate. Due to their low irritancy potential, lysine-based surfactants may offer promising applications in pharmaceutical and cosmetic preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Sanchez
- Departament de Fisiologia, Facultat de Farmàcia, Universitat de Barcelona, Av Joan XXIII, s/n, Barcelona, Spain
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33
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Yasui H, Hakozaki T, Date A, Yoshii T, Sakurai H. Real-time chemiluminescent imaging and detection of reactive oxygen species generated in the UVB-exposed human skin equivalent model. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2006; 347:83-8. [PMID: 16808904 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2006.06.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2006] [Accepted: 06/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study is to image and detect reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated in the UVB-exposed three-dimensional human skin equivalent model (HSEM), EpiDermtrade mark 200, because the alternative system needs to be urgently established as a replacement for the skin of experimental animals. Evidence that the ROS generation is enhanced in the skin of live animals after the UVB exposure was already obtained, by using the real-time chemiluminescent (RT-CL) method consisting of a sensitive CL probe (CLA) and an ultra-low light imaging apparatus. In this study, CL emission due to the reaction of CLA with endogenously generated ROS increased significantly in the UVB-treated HSEM compared with that in the intact HSEM, the maximum level being observed at a dose of 27mJ/cm(2). ROS under UVB exposure was identified to be ()O2- and (1)O(2) as observed by suppressive effects of SOD and beta-carotene topically applied on sample surface before the UVB exposure. The results for UVB-induced ROS generation in HSEM were consistent with those observed in the skin of live animals. HSEM combined with the RT-CL method was shown to be useful system not only to predict UVB-induced ROS-related skin responses in human but also to find protective agents against UVB-stimulated oxidative stress in place of animals and ex vivo human skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Yasui
- Department of Analytical and Bioinorganic Chemistry, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Misasagi, Yamashina-ku, Japan
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34
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Theiszová M, Jantová S, Dragúňová J, Grznárová P, Palou M. COMPARISON THE CYTOTOXICITY OF HYDROXYAPATITE MEASURED BY DIRECT CELL COUNTING AND MTT TEST IN MURINE FIBROBLAST NIH-3T3 CELLS. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2005. [DOI: 10.5507/bp.2005.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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Cotovio J, Grandidier MH, Portes P, Roguet R, Rubinstenn G. The in vitro skin irritation of chemicals: optimisation of the EPISKIN prediction model within the framework of the ECVAM validation process. Altern Lab Anim 2005; 33:329-49. [PMID: 16185103 DOI: 10.1177/026119290503300403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In view of the increasing need to identify non-animal tests able to predict acute skin irritation of chemicals, the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) focused on the evaluation of appropriate in vitro models. In vitro tests should be capable of discriminating between irritant (I) chemicals (EU risk: R38) and non-irritant (NI) chemicals (EU risk: "no classification"). Since major in vivo skin irritation assays rely on visual scoring, it is still a challenge to correlate in vivo clinical signs with in vitro biochemical measurements. Being particularly suited to test raw materials or chemicals with a wide variety of physical properties, in vitro skin models resembling in vivo human skin were involved in prevalidation processes. Among many other factors, cytotoxicity is known to trigger irritation processes, and can therefore be a first common event for irritants. A refined protocol (protocol 15min-18hours) for the EPISKIN model had been proposed for inclusion in the ECVAM formal validation study. A further improvement on this protocol, mainly based on a post-treatment incubation period of 42 hours (protocol 15min-42hours), the optimised protocol, was applied to a set of 48 chemicals. The sensitivity, specificity and accuracy with the MTT assay-based prediction model (PM) were 85%, 78.6% and 81.3% respectively, with a low rate of false negatives (12%). The improved performance of this optimised protocol was confirmed by a higher robustness (homogeneity of individual responses) and a better discrimination between the I and NI classes. To improve the MTT viability-based PM, the release of a membrane damage marker, adenylate kinase (AK), and of cytokines IL-1alpha and IL-8 were also investigated. Combining these endpoints, a simple two-tiered strategy (TTS) was developed, with the MTT assay as the first, sort-out, stage. This resulted in a clear increase in sensitivity to 95%, and a fall in the false-positive rate (to 4.3%), thus demonstrating its usefulness as a "decision-making" tool. The optimised protocol proved, both by its higher performances and by its robustness, to be a good candidate for the validation process, as well as a potential alternative method for assessing acute skin irritation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Cotovio
- L'OREAL Recherche, 1 Avenue Eugène Schueller, 93601 Aulnay Sous Bois, France.
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36
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Welss T, Basketter DA, Schröder KR. In vitro skin irritation: facts and future. State of the art review of mechanisms and models. Toxicol In Vitro 2005; 18:231-43. [PMID: 15046769 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2003.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2003] [Accepted: 09/19/2003] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The skin is the main target tissue for exogenous noxes, protecting us from harmful environmental hazards, UV-irradiation and endogenous water loss. It is composed of three layers, whereas the outermost epidermis is a squamous epithelium that mainly consists of keratinocytes. These cells execute a terminal differentiation, which finally results in the assembly of the stratum corneum. This layer, consisting of cornified keratinocytes, is an effective barrier against a vast number of substances. Apart of this, keratinocytes play crucial roles in the immune surveillance and the initiation, modulation and regulation of inflammation in the epidermis. Regarding cutaneous inflammatory reactions, skin irritation is one of the most common adverse effect in humans. For reasons of human safety assessment new chemicals are still evaluated for irritant potentials by application to animals followed by visible changes such as erythema and oedema. Testing for skin irritation in animals potentially cause them pain and discomfort. Furthermore, the results are not always predictive for those found in humans. In order to replace animal testing and to improve the prediction of irritants, the cosmetic and toiletry industry, in Europe represented by Colipa, develops and uses several alternative in vitro test systems. In this respect, the use of in vitro reconstructed organotypic skin equivalents are mostly favored, because of their increasingly close resemblance to human skin. Due to ethical and scientific questions and on account of the 7th amendment of the European Council Directive 76/768/EEC, the authors see the requirement to drive the development of alternative tests for irritants. Therefore, this article centres on cosmetic ingredients and provides the readership an overview of the state of art of cellular mechanisms of skin irritation and summarizes the results of the commonly used skin equivalents to evaluate irritation in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Welss
- VTB-Skin Biochemistry, Henkel KGaA, Building Z33, Henkelstrasse 67, D-40191, Duesseldorf, Germany.
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zur Mühlen A, Klotz A, Weimans S, Veeger M, Thörner B, Diener B, Hermann M. Using Skin Models to Assess the Effects of a Protection Cream on Skin Barrier Function. Skin Pharmacol Physiol 2004; 17:167-75. [PMID: 15258447 DOI: 10.1159/000078819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2003] [Accepted: 04/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a basic necessity to understand the mechanisms of the protective effects of emulsions. This would promote the development of protective cosmetics and therefore improve the prevention and treatment of occupational skin diseases. However, for such studies, no reliable skin model is available. OBJECTIVE An in vitro skin model test was developed to evaluate the protective mechanism of cosmetic ingredients. METHODS The efficacy of three products was assessed by an in vivo test (Repetitive Occlusive Irritation Test) and then 3-dimensional skin model tests were carried out. RESULTS In vivo test results demonstrate that the best protection against sodium dodecyl sulphate is offered by a multiple emulsion. In the case of a skin model test, sodium dodecyl sulphate led to cell damage, an increase in pro-inflammatory markers and some barrier lipids. The multiple emulsion increased the content of skin lipids, without inducing irritation or cell death. CONCLUSION Skin models react similarly to sodium dodecyl sulphate compared to human skin and therefore they are suitable to study barrier repair after sodium dodecyl sulphate damage. It is likely that the superior protective effect of the multiple emulsion in vivo is based on the increased amount of skin barrier lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- A zur Mühlen
- Degussa, Stoko Skin Care, Laboratory for Toxicology and Ecology, Krefeld, Germany.
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Fichorova RN, Bajpai M, Chandra N, Hsiu JG, Spangler M, Ratnam V, Doncel GF. Interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and IL-8 predict mucosal toxicity of vaginal microbicidal contraceptives. Biol Reprod 2004; 71:761-9. [PMID: 15128598 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.104.029603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation of the female reproductive tract increases susceptibility to HIV-1 and other viral infections and, thus, it becomes a serious liability for vaginal products. Excessive release of proinflammatory cytokines may alter the mucosal balance between tissue destruction and repair and be linked to enhanced penetration and replication of viral pathogens upon chemical insult. The present study evaluates four surface-active microbicide candidates, nonoxynol-9 (N-9), benzalkonium chloride (BZK), sodium dodecyl sulfate, and sodium monolaurate for their activity against human sperm and HIV, and their capacity to induce an inflammatory response on human vaginal epithelial cells and by the rabbit vaginal mucosa. Spermicidal and virucidal evaluations ranked N-9 as the most potent compound but were unable to predict the impact of the compounds on vaginal cell viability. Interleukin (IL)-1 release in vitro reflected their cytotoxicity profiles more accurately. Furthermore, IL-1 concentrations in vaginal washings correlated with cumulative mucosal irritation scores after single and multiple applications (P < 0.01), showing BZK as the most damaging agent for the vaginal mucosa. BZK induced rapid cell death, IL-1 release, and IL-6 secretion. The other compounds required either more prolonged or repeated contact with the vaginal epithelium to induce a significant inflammatory reaction. Increased IL-8 levels after multiple applications in vivo identified compounds with the highest cumulative mucosal toxicity (P < 0.01). In conclusion, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 in the vaginal secretions are sensitive indicators of compound-induced mucosal toxicity. The described evaluation system is a valuable tool in identifying novel vaginal contraceptive microbicides, selecting out candidates that may enhance, rather than decrease, HIV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- R N Fichorova
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA.
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Coleman CA, Hull BE, McDougal JN, Rogers JV. The effect of m-xylene on cytotoxicity and cellular antioxidant status in rat dermal equivalents. Toxicol Lett 2003; 142:133-42. [PMID: 12765247 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4274(03)00020-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Exposure of the skin to volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) can lead to irritation, inflammation and cytotoxicity. Since VOCs are used in industrial, commercial and military applications, concern is mounting with respect to VOC safe exposure limits. Although traditional toxicological assessment of VOCs has utilized animal models, the use of alternative in vitro models is becoming more widespread. We have previously developed a sealed exposure system that prevents chemical loss through evaporation and enables calculation of target cell chemical dose. The present study utilized this in vitro exposure method to assess m-xylene-induced cytotoxicity and antioxidant status in dermal equivalents (dermal fibroblasts in a collagen matrix). At the end of a 1- or 4-h exposure, cytotoxicity was measured using the MTT assay and the EC50 values determined were 1481 +/- 88 and 930 +/- 33, respectively. Decreases in cellular thiols and catalase activity were observed, which occurred in a time and dose-dependent manner. Treatment of dermal equivalents with the antioxidants N-acetylcysteine (NAC) and catalase provided some protection against m-xylene-induced cytotoxicity. When compared to m-xylene exposures, treatment with either 1.0 or 5.0 mM NAC led to increases in the EC50 values at 1 and 4 h. Increases in these EC50 values ranged from 1.22- to 1.32-fold at 1 h and 1.27- to 1.54-fold at 4 h. Although treatment with catalase (1000 U/ml) led to a 1.35-fold increase in cell viability at 1 h, no significant differences were observed at either 1 or 4 h when compared to dermal equivalents exposed to m-xylene alone. These results suggest that exposure to m-xylene leads to a time- and dose-dependent decrease in cellular antioxidants and that cellular thiols may provide protection against the cytotoxic properties of m-xylene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clint A Coleman
- ManTech, 2856 G Street, Building 79, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH 45433, USA
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40
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Robinson MK, Schwartz JF, Perkins MA. Application of a Novel and Noninvasive Skin Sampling Technique for Analyzing Cytokine-Mediated Inflammation in Rosacea. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1081/cus-120019326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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41
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Robinson MK, Cohen C, de Fraissinette ADB, Ponec M, Whittle E, Fentem JH. Non-animal testing strategies for assessment of the skin corrosion and skin irritation potential of ingredients and finished products. Food Chem Toxicol 2002; 40:573-92. [PMID: 11955663 DOI: 10.1016/s0278-6915(02)00005-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The dermatotoxicologist today is faced with a dilemma. Protection of workers and consumers from skin toxicities (irritation and allergy) associated with exposure to products, and the ingredients they contain, requires toxicological skin testing prior to manufacture, transport, or marketing. Testing for skin corrosion or irritation has traditionally been conducted in animals, particularly in rabbits via the long established Draize test method. However, this procedure, among others, has been subject to criticism, both for its limited predictive capacity for human toxicity, as well as for its use of animals. In fact, legislation is pending in the European Union which would ban the sale of cosmetic products, the ingredients of which have been tested in animals. These considerations, and advancements in both in vitro skin biology and clinical testing, have helped drive an intensive effort among skin scientists to develop alternative test methods based either on in vitro test systems (e.g. using rat, pig or human skin ex vivo, or reconstructed human skin models) or ethical clinical approaches (human volunteer studies). Tools are now in place today to enable a thorough skin corrosion and irritation assessment of new ingredients and products without the need to test in animals. Herein, we describe general testing strategies and new test methods for the assessment of skin corrosion and irritation. The methods described, and utilized within industry today, provide a framework for the practicing toxicologist to support new product development initiatives through the use of reliable skin safety testing and risk assessment tools and strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Robinson
- Human & Environmental Safety Division, The Procter & Gamble Co., Miami Valley Laboratories, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
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42
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Watanabe T, Hasegawa T, Takahashi H, Ishibashi T, Itagaki H, Sugibayashi K. Utility of MTT assay in three-dimensional cultured human skin model as an alternative for draize skin irritation test: approach using diffusion law of irritant in skin and toxicokinetics-toxicodynamics correlation. Pharm Res 2002; 19:669-75. [PMID: 12069171 DOI: 10.1023/a:1015366331634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE A cytotoxicity assay using a three-dimensional cultured human skin model, Living Skin Equivalent-high (LSE-high) was evaluated as an alternative to the Draize skin irritation tests using animals. A relation between the cytotoxicity and calculated concentration of an irritant in skin was also evaluated. METHODS Colorimetric thiazoyl blue (MTT) conversion assay and a surfactant, cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC), were selected as a cytotoxicity assay and a model irritant. The fraction of dead cell number in the MTT assay or the Draize irritation score (in vitro and in vivo irritation data, respectively) was treated as a function of CPC concentration in the viable skin of LSE-high and guinea pig. Separately, in vitro permeations of CPC through the LSE-high or excised guinea pig skin were determined to calculate the average concentration of CPC in the viable skin using the Fickian diffusion theory. The obtained relations between the irritation scores and CPC concentration were evaluated by the Emax model (Hill equation). RESULTS CPC concentration showing 50% irritation (IC50) was similar for the MTT assay (18.9%) and Draize test (12.3%), and a good relationship (r = 0.981) was observed between the fraction of dead cell number and the Draize score. In contrast, IC50, 1.32%, for the MTT assay in LSE-high was much lower than that using guinea pig skin. We then corrected the results for the MTT assay using a ratio of IC50 in guinea pig skin against LSE-high, resulting in a good relation between both MTT results in guinea pig skin and LSE-high. CONCLUSION The present results suggest that the MTT assay using LSE-high may be utilized as an alternative for the Draize test in animals for evaluating skin irritation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Watanabe
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Josai University, Sakado, Saitama, Japan
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Fletcher ST, Baker VA, Fentem JH, Basketter DA, Kelsell DP. Gene expression analysis of EpiDerm following exposure to SLS using cDNA microarrays. Toxicol In Vitro 2001; 15:393-8. [PMID: 11566569 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(01)00042-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
There is a need to investigate the mechanistic basis of the human skin irritation response if relevant in vitro test systems for the predictive identification of skin irritation hazards are to be developed. Recent progress in genomics technologies mean that tools for the identification and investigation of important biochemical events in the processes of skin irritation are now available. The aim of this work was to identify genes (for further mechanistic investigation) which may be regulated in response to skin irritation, following exposure of the EpiDerm skin model to the known skin irritant sodium lauryl sulphate (SLS). EpiDerm cultures were treated in triplicate with a non-cytotoxic dose of SLS (0.1 mg/ml, as determined by the MTT assay and histological examination) for 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, 4 h and 24 h. Total RNA was extracted from the pooled EpiDerm cultures and used to probe Atlas human arrays (Clontech) covering approximately 3600 genes. Preliminary data indicated an up-regulation at early time points (15-30 min) of a number of genes involved in transportation (e.g. the sodium and chloride dependent taurine transporter) and receptors (e.g. ZAP70 and protocadherin 42 precursor). The gene encoding the UV excision repair protein and other DNA repair genes (e.g. DNA-directed RNA polymerase II) were up-regulated after 1-3 h, along with TGF beta 3 and other tumour suppressors, which play a role in cellular development and wound healing. At the later time points of 4-24 h, genes involved in protein translation (e.g. Cathepsin D receptor) and metabolism (e.g. CYP27A) were up-regulated. In addition, a number of genes were down-regulated in response to treatment with SLS, although these followed less of a time dependent pattern. These results indicate the differential regulation of a number of genes in response to treatment with SLS, some of which may provide additional clues to the molecular events underpinning the irritation response to this particular surfactant and possibly to other chemical irritants.
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Affiliation(s)
- S T Fletcher
- SEAC Toxicology Unit, Unilever Research, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK.
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44
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Robinson MK, McFadden JP, Basketter DA. Validity and ethics of the human 4-h patch test as an alternative method to assess acute skin irritation potential. Contact Dermatitis 2001; 45:1-12. [PMID: 11422260 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0536.2001.045001001.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
For more than 50 years, the Draize rabbit skin irritation test has reigned supreme as the regulatory method of choice for the identification of skin irritant chemicals. To date no in vitro alternative test has been validated as an adequate replacement. However, one potential option, to test the endpoint of concern (skin irritation) in the species of concern (man) has been overlooked. The advent of predictive in vitro tools for the identification of substances corrosive to the skin has opened up the practical possibility of carrying out safe and ethical studies on small panels of humans. The human 4-h patch test has been developed to meet the needs of identifying chemical skin irritation potential, providing data which is inherently superior to that given by a surrogate model, such as the rabbit. This paper reviews in detail the present state of the human 4-h patch test, highlighting its advantages and noting its utility as the 'gold standard' on which to build future in vitro models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Robinson
- The Procter & Gamble Co., Miami Valley Laboratories, Cincinnati, Ohio 45253-707, USA
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45
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Affiliation(s)
- R Wolf
- Department of Dermatology, Tel-Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, and the Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.
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46
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Abstract
Prior to the manufacture, transport, and marketing of chemicals or products, it is critical to assess their potential for skin toxicity (corrosion or irritation), thereby protecting the worker and consumer from adverse skin effects due to intended or accidental skin exposure. Traditionally, animal testing procedures have provided the data needed to assess the more severe forms of skin toxicity, and current regulations may require animal test data before permission can be obtained to manufacture, transport, or market chemicals or the products that contain them. In recent years, the use of animals to assess skin safety has been opposed by some as inhumane and unnecessary. The conflicting needs of the industrial toxicologist to (1) protect human safety, (2) comply with regulations, and (3) reduce animal testing have led to major efforts to develop alternative, yet predictive, test methods. A variety of in vitro skin corrosion test methods have been developed and several have successfully passed initial international validation. These have included skin or epidermal equivalent assays that have been shown to distinguish corrosive from noncorrosive chemicals. These skin/epidermal equivalent assays have also been modified and used to assess skin irritation potential relative to existing human exposure test data. The data show a good correlation between in vitro assay data and different types of human skin irritation data for both chemicals and consumer products. The effort to eliminate animal tests has also led to the development of a novel human patch test for assessment of acute skin irritation potential. A case study shows the benefits of in vitro and human skin irritation tests compared to the animal tests they seek to replace, and strategies now exist to adequately assess human skin irritation potential without the need to rely on animal test methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Robinson
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Miami Valley Laboratories, Cincinnati, Ohio 45253-8707, USA.
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47
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Eun HC, Suh DH. Comprehensive outlook of in vitro tests for assessing skin irritancy as alternatives to Draize tests. J Dermatol Sci 2000; 24:77-91. [PMID: 11064242 DOI: 10.1016/s0923-1811(00)00093-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In vitro alternative methods have been verified for the possibility to assess cutaneous irritancy because humans cannot be direct initial experimental subjects and animal experimentation could be forbidden in the near future. Many kinds of cell cytotoxicity assays have been tried, revealing their own advantages and limitations. Cell function-based tests have been used less frequently than cytotoxicity assays. Three-dimensional culture systems are promising because they are closer to the actual in vivo skin, and some of them are commercialized nowadays. The ultimate objective of in vitro irritancy tests, which is the high degree of correlation with human in vivo test results, has been accomplished in many experimental settings. Before applying these in vitro methods we must consider several points, including cell sources, irritant characteristics, exposure time, endpoint of experiment, extrinsic factors affecting irritation, etc. In vitro skin irritancy tests have been developed continuously, and in the future they could assume a heavy responsibility of estimating the irritancy in human skin in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Eun
- Department of Dermatology, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, 28 Yongon-dong, Chongno-gu, 110-744, Seoul, South Korea.
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48
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Lee JK, Kim DB, Kim JI, Kim PY. In vitro cytotoxicity tests on cultured human skin fibroblasts to predict skin irritation potential of surfactants. Toxicol In Vitro 2000; 14:345-9. [PMID: 10906441 DOI: 10.1016/s0887-2333(00)00028-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Cultured human skin cells are a potentially useful model for skin irritancy testing. We have investigated the use of human skin fibroblasts for in vitro screening for skin toxicity. To assess the cytotoxic effects of surfactants, cell viability was measured by the NRU (neutral red uptake) assay and AB (Alamar blue) assay as in vitro methods. The skin irritation potential of surfactants by human skin patch test was assessed as in vivo methods. The close relationship was found between AB assay with human skin fibroblasts and human patch test (r=0.867). There was a relatively good agreement between the NRU and in vivo patch test (r=0.648). These results suggest that AB and NRU assay using cultured human fibroblast could be predictable methods for the irritancy of various surfactants in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Lee
- Department of Toxicology, National Institute of Toxicology Research, Korea Food and Drug Administration, 122-704, Seoul, South Korea.
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Robinson MK, Osborne R, Perkins MA. Strategies for the assessment of acute skin irritation potential. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 1999; 42:1-9. [PMID: 10715598 DOI: 10.1016/s1056-8719(99)00037-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- M K Robinson
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Miami Valley Laboratories, P.O. Box 538707, Cincinnati, OH 45253-8707, USA
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