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Mazibuko M, Ghazi T, Chuturgoon A. Patulin alters alpha-adrenergic receptor signalling and induces epigenetic modifications in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice. Arch Toxicol 2024; 98:2143-2152. [PMID: 38806716 PMCID: PMC11168996 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-024-03728-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a food-borne mycotoxin produced by Penicillium and Byssochlamys species. It is widely known for its mutagenic, carcinogenic, and genotoxic effects and has been associated with kidney injury; however, the mechanism of toxicity remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a study to explore the changes in α-adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and epigenetic modifications induced by PAT in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice during acute (1 day) and prolonged (10 days) exposure. The mice (20-22 g) were orally administered PAT (2.5 mg/kg; at 1 and 10 days), and post-treatment, the kidneys were harvested, homogenised and extracted for RNA, DNA, and protein. The relative gene expression of the α-adrenergic receptors (ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B) and associated signalling pathways (MAPK, MAPK14, ERK, PI3K, and AKT) was assessed by qPCR. The protein expression of ERK1/2 and MAPK was determined by western blot. The impact of PAT on DNA methylation was evaluated by quantifying global DNA methylation; qPCR was used to determine gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) and demethylase (MBD2). PAT downregulated the expression of ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B, PI3K, and AKT and upregulated ERK1/2 and MAPK protein expression. Furthermore, PAT induced alterations in DNA methylation patterns by upregulating DNMT1 and MBD2 expressions and downregulating DNMT3A and DNMT3B expressions, resulting in global DNA hypomethylation. In conclusion, PAT disrupts α-1 and α-2 adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and induces epigenetic modifications, that can lead to kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makabongwe Mazibuko
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa
| | - Terisha Ghazi
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa.
| | - Anil Chuturgoon
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 4041, South Africa.
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2
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Giangregorio N, Tonazzi A, Calvano CD, Pierri CL, Incampo G, Cataldi TRI, Indiveri C. The Mycotoxin Patulin Inhibits the Mitochondrial Carnitine/Acylcarnitine Carrier (SLC25A20) by Interaction with Cys136 Implications for Human Health. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032228. [PMID: 36768549 PMCID: PMC9917099 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The effect of mycotoxin patulin (4-hydroxy-4H-furo [3,2c] pyran-2 [6H] -one) on the mitochondrial carnitine/acylcarnitine carrier (CAC, SLC25A20) was investigated. Transport function was measured as [3H]-carnitineex/carnitinein antiport in proteoliposomes reconstituted with the native protein extracted from rat liver mitochondria or with the recombinant CAC over-expressed in E. coli. Patulin (PAT) inhibited both the mitochondrial native and recombinant transporters. The inhibition was not reversed by physiological and sulfhydryl-reducing reagents, such as glutathione (GSH) or dithioerythritol (DTE). The IC50 derived from the dose-response analysis indicated that PAT inhibition was in the range of 50 µM both on the native and on rat and human recombinant protein. The kinetics process revealed a competitive type of inhibition. A substrate protection experiment confirmed that the interaction of PAT with the protein occurred within a protein region, including the substrate-binding area. The mechanism of inhibition was identified using the site-directed mutagenesis of CAC. No inhibition was observed on Cys mutants in which only the C136 residue was mutated. Mass spectrometry studies and in silico molecular modeling analysis corroborated the outcomes derived from the biochemical assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Giangregorio
- CNR Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
- Correspondence:
| | - Annamaria Tonazzi
- CNR Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | | | - Ciro Leonardo Pierri
- Department of Pharmacy-Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Giovanna Incampo
- Department of Bioscience, Biotechnology and Environment, University of Bari, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Tommaso R. I. Cataldi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Orabona 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Cesare Indiveri
- CNR Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), Via Amendola 122/O, 70126 Bari, Italy
- Department DiBEST (Biologia, Ecologia, Scienze della Terra) Unit of Biochemistry and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Calabria, Via Bucci 4C, Arcavacata di Rende, 87036 Cosenza, Italy
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3
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Tsai JF, Wu TS, Yu FY, Liu BH. Neurotoxicity of mycotoxin citrinin: Novel evidence in developing zebrafish and underlying mechanisms in human neuron cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 171:113543. [PMID: 36460223 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Citrinin (CTN) is a mycotoxin that is found as a contaminant in various types of food/feed grains and fermented food supplements. Previous studies have already established the nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity of CTN, but the neurotoxicity of CTN has not been clearly examined. In this study, CTN at 2-20 μM was first found to interfere with the neural ganglia formation and locomotive behavior of embryonic zebrafish, a vertebrate animal model, at 24 hpf and 6 dpf, respectively. Further exposure of human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells to 10 and 20 μM CTN for 72 h indicated that pathways responsible for neuron differentiation and projection guidance were down-regulated while oxidative stress and electron transport chain pathways were up-regulated based on the enrichment results of GSEA in the transcriptomic profiling. PCR analysis verified that CTN significantly down-regulated the expression of marker genes involved in neuron differentiation and synaptic signaling. CTN at the doses impairing cellular neurite outgrowth did not trigger mitochondrial oxidative stress and dysfunction. The neurotoxic mechanisms of CTN provide new information that is valuable in the assessment of CTN-related health risk for the general public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jui-Feng Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Shuan Wu
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Feng-Yih Yu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Medical Research, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
| | - Biing-Hui Liu
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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4
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Pal S, Rendedula D, Kumar Nagendla N, Kaliyaperumal M, Krishna Reddy Mudiam M, Mahmood Ansari K. Serum and urine metabolomics analysis reveals the role of altered metabolites in patulin-induced nephrotoxicity. Food Res Int 2022; 156:111177. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.111177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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5
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Han JJW, Nguyen CD, Thrasher JP, DeGuzman A, Chan JY. The Nrf1 transcription factor is induced by patulin and protects against patulin cytotoxicity. Toxicology 2022; 471:153173. [PMID: 35367319 PMCID: PMC9522914 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds that is found in various food products. The adverse health effects associated with exposure to patulin has led to many investigations into the biological basis driving the toxicity of patulin. Nevertheless, the mechanisms through which mammalian cells resists patulin-mediated toxicity is poorly understood. Here, we show that loss of the Nrf1 transcription factor renders cells sensitive to the acute cytotoxic effects of patulin. Nrf1 deficiency leads to accumulation of ubiquitinated proteins and protein aggregates in response to patulin exposure. Nrf1 expression is induced by patulin, and activation of proteasome genes by patulin is Nrf1-dependent. These findings suggest the Nrf1 transcription factor plays a crucial role in modulating cellular stress response against patulin cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J W Han
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of California, Irvine, D440 Medical Sciences, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Carolyn D Nguyen
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of California, Irvine, D440 Medical Sciences, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Julianna P Thrasher
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of California, Irvine, D440 Medical Sciences, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Anna DeGuzman
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of California, Irvine, D440 Medical Sciences, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jefferson Y Chan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of California, Irvine, D440 Medical Sciences, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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Zhang B, Liang H, Huang K, Li J, Xu D, Huang C, Li Y. Cardiotoxicity of patulin was found in H9c2 cells. Toxicon 2021; 207:21-30. [PMID: 34929212 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a kind of mycotoxins that is universally found at rotten fruits, especially apples and apple products. Previous studies have shown that PAT has hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. However, cardiotoxicity of PAT is rarely reported. Present study aimed at investigate the cardiotoxicity and relevant mechanisms of PAT on H9c2 cells. Cytotoxicity of PAT were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH. Hoechst 33258 staining was used to examine the nuclear morphology and AV/PI double staining was employed for apoptosis on H9c2 cells. Expression level of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2 were quantified to verify the potential mechanism of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were quantified to determine the inflammatory response by using ELISA assay. ROS, SOD, MDA, GSH levels were measured to determine the oxidative stress status. Results demonstrated that PAT significantly induced cell injury, as evidenced by the down-regulated of cell viability, and the increase of LDH release. Hoesst33258 staining and flow cytometry showed that apoptosis rate was elevated by PAT. PAT treatment up-regulated the expression of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax level and down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 level. TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 levels showed that PAT increased the pro-inflammatory response. As PAT concentration increased, intracellular MDA, ROS content were elevated, while GSH content and the activity of SOD were significantly decreased. Thus, it is concluded that PAT may induce apoptosis of H9c2 cells through oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baigang Zhang
- Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Hairong Liang
- Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Ke Huang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China; School/Hospital of Stomatology, Lanzhou University, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Jinliang Li
- Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Dongmei Xu
- Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Chenghui Huang
- Life Science and Engineering, Lanzhou University of Technology, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China
| | - Yi Li
- School/Hospital of Stomatology, Lanzhou University, Gansu, Lanzhou, 730050, China.
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N-Acetylcysteine Inhibits Patulin-Induced Apoptosis by Affecting ROS-Mediated Oxidative Damage Pathway. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090595. [PMID: 34564600 PMCID: PMC8473236 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) belongs to the family of food-borne mycotoxins. Our previous studies revealed that PAT caused cytotoxicity in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293). In the present research, we systematically explored the detailed mechanism of ROS production and ROS clearance in PAT-induced HEK293 cell apoptosis. Results showed that PAT treatment (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 μM) for 10 h could regulate the expression of genes and proteins involved in the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex, resulting in dysfunction of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and induction of ROS overproduction. We further investigated the role of N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an ROS scavenger, in promoting the survival of PAT-treated HEK293 cells. NAC improves PAT-induced apoptosis of HEK293 cells by clearing excess ROS, modulating the expression of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex genes and proteins, and maintaining normal mitochondrial function. In addition, NAC protects the activity of antioxidant enzymes, maintains normal GSH content, and relieves oxidative damage. Additionally, 4 mM NAC alleviated 7.5 μM PAT-mediated apoptosis through the caspase pathway in HEK293 cells. In summary, our study demonstrated that ROS is significant in PAT-mediated cytotoxicity, which provides valuable insight into the management of PAT-associated health issues.
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8
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Awuchi CG, Ondari EN, Ogbonna CU, Upadhyay AK, Baran K, Okpala COR, Korzeniowska M, Guiné RPF. Mycotoxins Affecting Animals, Foods, Humans, and Plants: Types, Occurrence, Toxicities, Action Mechanisms, Prevention, and Detoxification Strategies-A Revisit. Foods 2021; 10:1279. [PMID: 34205122 PMCID: PMC8228748 DOI: 10.3390/foods10061279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are produced by fungi and are known to be toxic to humans and animals. Common mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxins, zearalenone, patulin, sterigmatocystin, citrinin, ergot alkaloids, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, trichothecenes, Alternaria toxins, tremorgenic mycotoxins, fusarins, 3-nitropropionic acid, cyclochlorotine, sporidesmin, etc. These mycotoxins can pose several health risks to both animals and humans, including death. As several mycotoxins simultaneously occur in nature, especially in foods and feeds, the detoxification and/or total removal of mycotoxins remains challenging. Moreover, given that the volume of scientific literature regarding mycotoxins is steadily on the rise, there is need for continuous synthesis of the body of knowledge. To supplement existing information, knowledge of mycotoxins affecting animals, foods, humans, and plants, with more focus on types, toxicity, and prevention measures, including strategies employed in detoxification and removal, were revisited in this work. Our synthesis revealed that mycotoxin decontamination, control, and detoxification strategies cut across pre-and post-harvest preventive measures. In particular, pre-harvest measures can include good agricultural practices, fertilization/irrigation, crop rotation, using resistant varieties of crops, avoiding insect damage, early harvesting, maintaining adequate humidity, and removing debris from the preceding harvests. On the other hand, post-harvest measures can include processing, chemical, biological, and physical measures. Additionally, chemical-based methods and other emerging strategies for mycotoxin detoxification can involve the usage of chitosan, ozone, nanoparticles, and plant extracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinaza Godswill Awuchi
- Department of Biochemistry, Kampala International University, Bushenyi P.O. Box 20000, Uganda;
- School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Kampala International University, Kampala P.O. Box 20000, Uganda
| | - Erick Nyakundi Ondari
- Department of Biochemistry, Kampala International University, Bushenyi P.O. Box 20000, Uganda;
| | - Chukwuka U. Ogbonna
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta P.M.B. 2240, Ogun State, Nigeria;
| | - Anjani K. Upadhyay
- School of Biotechnology, KIIT University, Bhubaneswar 751019, Odisha, India;
| | - Katarzyna Baran
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 51-630 Wrocław, Poland; (K.B.); (M.K.)
| | - Charles Odilichukwu R. Okpala
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 51-630 Wrocław, Poland; (K.B.); (M.K.)
| | - Małgorzata Korzeniowska
- Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 51-630 Wrocław, Poland; (K.B.); (M.K.)
| | - Raquel P. F. Guiné
- CERNAS Research Centre, Polytechnic Institute of Viseu, 3504-510 Viseu, Portugal
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Combining Patulin with Cadmium Induces Enhanced Hepatotoxicity and Nephrotoxicity In Vitro and In Vivo. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13030221. [PMID: 33803748 PMCID: PMC8003173 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Food can be contaminated by various types of contaminants such as mycotoxins and toxic heavy metals. Therefore, it is very likely that simultaneous intake of more than one type of food contaminant by consumers may take place, which provides a strong rationale for investigating the combined toxicities of these food contaminants. Patulin is one of the most common food-borne mycotoxins, whereas cadmium is a representative of toxic heavy metals found in food. The liver and kidneys are the main target organ sites for both patulin and cadmium. We hypothesized that simultaneous exposure to patulin and cadmium could produce synergistic hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Alpha mouse liver 12 (AML12) and Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 (HEK293) cell lines together with a mouse model were used to explore the combination effect and mechanism. The results demonstrated, for the first time, that the co-exposure of liver or renal cells to patulin and cadmium caused synergistic cytotoxicity in vitro and enhanced liver toxicity in vivo. The synergistic toxicity caused by the co-administration of patulin and cadmium was attributed to the boosted reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1 (JNK1) and p53 as downstream mediators of oxidative stress contributed to the synergistic toxicity by co-exposure of patulin and cadmium, while p53/JNK1 activation promoted the second-round ROS production through a positive feedback loop. The findings of the present study extend the toxicological knowledge about patulin and cadmium, which could be beneficial to more precisely perform risk assessments on these food contaminants.
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Han J, Jin C, Zhong Y, Zhu J, Liu Q, Sun D, Feng J, Xia X, Peng X. Involvement of NADPH oxidase in patulin-induced oxidative damage and cytotoxicity in HEK293 cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 150:112055. [PMID: 33577942 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a kind of mycotoxins that commonly found in decayed fruits and their products. Our previous studies have shown that PAT induced cell apoptosis and the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. The present study aimed to further investigate the functional role of NADPH oxidase, one of the main cellular sources of ROS, in PAT-induced apoptosis and oxidative damage in HEK293 cells. We demonstrated that the protein and mRNA expression levels of NADPH oxidase catalytic subunit NOX2 and regulatory subunit p47phox were up-regulated under PAT stress. Inhibiting of NADPH oxidase with the specific antagonist diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) suppressed cytotoxicity and apoptosis induced by PAT as evidenced by the increase of cell viability, the decrease of LDH release and the inhibition of caspase activities. Furthermore, DPI re-established mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) and enhanced cellular ATP content. Importantly, DPI supplementation elevated endogenous GSH contents as well as the ratio of GSH/GSSG. Meanwhile, the antioxidant-enzyme activities of GPx, GR, CAT and SOD were significantly promoted. Collectively, our results suggested that NADPH oxidase played a critical role in PAT-induced nephrotoxicity, and inhibition of NADPH oxidase by DPI attenuated cell injury and apoptosis via regulation of oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Chengni Jin
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Yujie Zhong
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Jiachang Zhu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Qi Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Dianjun Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Jiayu Feng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Xiaodong Xia
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
| | - Xiaoli Peng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China.
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Han J, Zhong Y, Jin C, Luo R, Xia M, He Y, Liu J, Peng X. Apocynin attenuates patulin-induced cytotoxicity through reduction of oxidation stress and apoptosis in HEK293cells. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2021. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2020.2605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a natural mycotoxin that commonly contaminates fruits and their derivative products and has been proven to induce cytotoxicity and oxidative damage in renal cells. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of apocynin, a potent phenolic antioxidant isolated from plants, on PAT-induced cell injury in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. Compared with 7.5 μM PAT treatment alone, 10 μM apocynin co-treatment elevated cell viability, alleviated lactate dehydrogenase release and reduced caspase activities. Furthermore, apocynin inhibited reactive oxygen species overproduction, re-established mitochondria membrane potential and elevated intracellular ATP content. In addition, the results showed that apocynin aggrandized reduced glutathione (GSH) content, reduced oxidized glutathione (GSSG) content, raised the GSH/GSSG ratio and elevated superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione reductase, and glutathione peroxidase activities. Collectively, results of the study clearly show that apocynin supplement may serve as an alternative intervention to protect HEK293 cells against cytotoxicity induced by PAT through reduction of oxidation stress and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.H. Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - Y.J. Zhong
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - C.N. Jin
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - R.L. Luo
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - M.Y. Xia
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - Y.S. He
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - J.Y. Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
| | - X.L. Peng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712100, China P.R
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12
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Bioprospecting and Applications of Fungi: A Game Changer in Present Scenario. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-68260-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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13
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Kumari A, Joshua R, Kumar R, Ahlawat P, Sindhu SC. Fungal Mycotoxins: Occurrence and Detection. Fungal Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-68260-6_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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14
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Tokarova K, Vasicek J, Jurcik R, Balazi A, Kovacikova E, Kovacik A, Chrenek P, Capcarova M. Low dose exposure of patulin and protective effect of epicatechin on blood cells in vitro. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2019; 54:459-466. [PMID: 30795727 DOI: 10.1080/03601234.2019.1575673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, we aimed to assess antioxidant status in erythrocytes in vitro after patulin (PAT) and epicatechin exposure by measuring antioxidant enzymes (superoxide-dismutase - SOD, glutathione peroxidase - GPx and catalase - CAT) and parameters associated with oxidative stress (malondialdehyde - MDA and ROS). We also investigated the effect of PAT on viability and count of lymphocytes and lymphocyte subpopulations in rabbit blood in vitro. Whole blood of rabbits was used for analysis of antioxidant changes in rabbit erythrocytes after epicatechin and PAT treatment (separately or in combination, at concentrations of 0.2; 2; 20; 200 µg mL-1 of epicatechin and 0.5; 5; 10 µg mL-1 of PAT). Whole blood of rabbits was also used for analysis of count and viability of lymphocytes after PAT treatment at concentrations of 10; 25 and 50 µg mL-1. Results from our experiment confirmed the ability of epicatechin to protect cells against oxidative stress and lipoperoxidation. Our findings indicate that mycotoxin PAT in low concentrations did not affect the activity of antioxidant enzymes in erythrocytes of rabbits significantly. Only slight non-significant changes in lymphocytes count after treatment with low doses of PAT in rabbit blood were observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Tokarova
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , 949 76 , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Jaromir Vasicek
- b Research Institute for Animal Production Nitra, National Agricultural and Food Centre , 951 41 Luzianky , Slovak Republic
- c Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , 949 76 , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Rastislav Jurcik
- b Research Institute for Animal Production Nitra, National Agricultural and Food Centre , 951 41 Luzianky , Slovak Republic
| | - Andrej Balazi
- b Research Institute for Animal Production Nitra, National Agricultural and Food Centre , 951 41 Luzianky , Slovak Republic
| | - Eva Kovacikova
- d Research Centre AgroBioTech Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , Nitra 949 76 , Slovak Republic
| | - Anton Kovacik
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , 949 76 , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Peter Chrenek
- b Research Institute for Animal Production Nitra, National Agricultural and Food Centre , 951 41 Luzianky , Slovak Republic
- c Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , 949 76 , Nitra , Slovak Republic
| | - Marcela Capcarova
- a Department of Animal Physiology , Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Sciences, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra , 949 76 , Nitra , Slovak Republic
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Huang YT, Wu TS, Lu CC, Yu FY, Liu BH. Aristolochic acid I interferes with the expression of BLCAP tumor suppressor gene in human cells. Toxicol Lett 2018; 291:129-137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 03/10/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Cui J, Wang J, Huang S, Jiang X, Li Y, Wu W, Zhang X. The G2 phase arrest induced by sterigmatocystin is dependent on hMLH1- ERK/p38-p53 pathway in human esophageal epithelium cells in vitro. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 115:205-211. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Wu TS, Lin YT, Huang YT, Cheng YC, Yu FY, Liu BH. Disruption of liver development and coagulation pathway by ochratoxin A in embryonic zebrafish. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2018; 340:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2017.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Lu X, Zhang E, Yin S, Fan L, Hu H. Methylseleninic Acid Prevents Patulin-Induced Hepatotoxicity and Nephrotoxicity via the Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and Inactivation of p53 and MAPKs. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:5299-5305. [PMID: 28594550 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b01338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is one of the common food-borne mycotoxins. Previous studies have demonstrated that patulin can cause diverse toxic effects in animals including hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. In the present study, we have addressed the protective effect of two forms of selenium compounds methylseleninic acid (MSeA) and sodium selenite on patulin-induced nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity using both in vitro and in vivo models. Results showed that MSeA at concentrations of 3-5 μM, not sodium selenite at the same concentrations, is capable of protecting against patulin-induced cytotoxicity in the cell culture model. Moreover, the hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects of MSeA (2 mg/kg body weight, oral administration) on patulin-induced toxicity (10 mg/kg body weight, intraperitoneal injection) were also achieved in the animal model. A further mechanistic study revealed that the protective effect of MSeA on patulin-mediated toxicity is attributed to its ability to inhibit patulin-mediated ROS generation and inactivate p53 and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. Our findings support a possible usefulness of MSeA as a novel detoxicant to mitigate the toxicities of patulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaotong Lu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory for Food Non-thermal Processing, China Agricultural University , No. 17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Enxiang Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory for Food Non-thermal Processing, China Agricultural University , No. 17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shutao Yin
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory for Food Non-thermal Processing, China Agricultural University , No. 17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Lihong Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University , No. 2 Yuanmingyuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory for Food Non-thermal Processing, China Agricultural University , No. 17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
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Yin S, Liu X, Fan L, Hu H. Mechanisms of cell death induction by food-borne mycotoxins. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 58:1406-1417. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2016.1260526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shutao Yin
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, National Engineering Research Center for Fruit and Vegetable Processing, Beijing, China, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoyi Liu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, National Engineering Research Center for Fruit and Vegetable Processing, Beijing, China, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Lihong Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, National Engineering Research Center for Fruit and Vegetable Processing, Beijing, China, Haidian District, Beijing, China
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Abastabar M, Akbari A, Akhtari J, Hedayati MT, Shokohi T, Mehrad-Majd H, Ghalehnoei H, Ghasemi S. In vitro antitumor activity of patulin on cervical and colorectal cancer cell lines. Curr Med Mycol 2017. [PMID: 29302627 PMCID: PMC5747586 DOI: 10.29252/cmm.3.1.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose: Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by some molds, especially Aspergillus and Penicilium, and is responsible for mycotoxicosis in animals and humans. There is still not very detailed data about the anti-cancer potency of patulin, but some reports demonstrated that it induces cellular apoptosis and toxicity. Materials and Methods: To determine the efficacy of patulin as a therapeutic strategy for cervical and colorectal cancers, we investigated its effects on HeLa,SW-48, and MRC-5 cell lines. Cell lines were exposed to various concentrations of patulin (i.e., 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 µM), then using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) and bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) assays, the rates of apoptosis and cell viability were determined. Results: The obtained results showed a significant reduction in cell viability and apoptosis induction in a dose-dependent manner. Among all the cell lines, the highest growth inhibition rate was obtained at the 4 μM concentration of patulin. Conclusion: Our results suggested that patulin could significantly decrease tumor growth in human cervical and colorectal cancer models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Abastabar
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - A Akbari
- Colorectal Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - J Akhtari
- Immunogenetics Research Center, Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - M T Hedayati
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - T Shokohi
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - H Mehrad-Majd
- Clinical Research Unit, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - H Ghalehnoei
- Immunogenetics Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - S Ghasemi
- Students Research Committee, Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Abastabar M, Akbari A, Akhtari J, Hedayati MT, Shokohi T, Mehrad-Majd H, Ghalehnoei H, Ghasemi S. In vitro antitumor activity of patulin on cervical and colorectal cancer cell lines. Curr Med Mycol 2017; 3:25-29. [PMID: 29302627 PMCID: PMC5747586 DOI: 10.18869/acadpub.cmm.3.1.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by some molds, especially Aspergillus and Penicilium, and is responsible for mycotoxicosis in animals and humans.There is still not very detailed data about the anti-cancer potency of patulin, but some reports demonstrated that it induces cellular apoptosis and toxicity. MATERIALS AND METHODS To determine the efficacy of patulin as a therapeutic strategy for cervical and colorectal cancers, we investigated its effects on HeLa,SW-48, and MRC-5 cell lines. Cell lines were exposed to various concentrations of patulin (i.e., 0.5, 1, 2, and 4 µM), then using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) and bromo-2'-deoxyuridine (BrdU) assays, the rates of apoptosis and cell viability were determined. RESULTS The obtained results showed a significant reduction in cell viability and apoptosis induction in a dose-dependent manner. Among all the cell lines, the highest growth inhibition rate was obtained at the 4 μM concentration of patulin. CONCLUSION Our results suggested that patulin could significantly decrease tumor growth in human cervical and colorectal cancer models.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Abastabar
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - A Akbari
- Colorectal Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - J Akhtari
- Immunogenetics Research Center, Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - MT Hedayati
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - T Shokohi
- Department of Medical Mycology and Parasitology, Invasive Fungi Research Center (IFRC), Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - H Mehrad-Majd
- Clinical Research Unit, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - H Ghalehnoei
- Immunogenetics Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - S Ghasemi
- Students Research Committee, Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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Jin H, Yin S, Song X, Zhang E, Fan L, Hu H. p53 activation contributes to patulin-induced nephrotoxicity via modulation of reactive oxygen species generation. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24455. [PMID: 27071452 PMCID: PMC4829895 DOI: 10.1038/srep24455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2015] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Patulin is a major mycotoxin found in fungal contaminated fruits and their derivative products. Previous studies showed that patulin was able to induce increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and oxidative stress was suggested to play a pivotal role in patulin-induced multiple toxic signaling. The objective of the present study was to investigate the functional role of p53 in patulin-induced oxidative stress. Our study demonstrated that higher levels of ROS generation and DNA damage were induced in wild-type p53 cell lines than that found in either knockdown or knockout p53 cell lines in response to patulin exposure, suggesting p53 activation contributed to patulin-induced ROS generation. Mechanistically, we revealed that the pro-oxidant role of p53 in response to patulin was attributed to its ability to suppress catalase activity through up-regulation of PIG3. Moreover, these in vitro findings were further validated in the p53 wild-type/knockout mouse model. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report addressing the functional role of p53 in patulin-induced oxidative stress. The findings of the present study provided novel insights into understanding mechanisms behind oxidative stress in response to patulin exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Jin
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shutao Yin
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Xinhua Song
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Enxiang Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Lihong Fan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, No2 Yunamingyuan West Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, Department of Nutrition and Health, College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, No17 Qinghua East Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China
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Raiola A, Tenore GC, Manyes L, Meca G, Ritieni A. Risk analysis of main mycotoxins occurring in food for children: An overview. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 84:169-80. [PMID: 26327433 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2015] [Revised: 08/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi contaminating the food chain that are toxic to animals and humans. Children up to 12 years old are recognized as a potentially vulnerable subgroup with respect to consumption of these contaminants. Apart from having a higher exposure per kg body weight, they have a different physiology from that of adults. Therefore they may be more sensitive to neurotoxic, endocrine and immunological effects. For these reasons, a specific and up-to-date risk analysis for this category is of great interest. In this review, an accurate analysis of the main mycotoxins occurring in food intended for children (deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, ochratoxins, patulin and fumonisins) is presented. In particular, known mechanisms of toxicity and levels of exposure and bioaccessibility in children are shown. In addition, recent discoveries about the strategies of mycotoxins managing are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assunta Raiola
- Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Universitá 100, 80055, Portici, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Gian Carlo Tenore
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Lara Manyes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Giuseppe Meca
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Alberto Ritieni
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131, Napoli, Italy
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Zhang B, Peng X, Li G, Xu Y, Xia X, Wang Q. Oxidative stress is involved in Patulin induced apoptosis in HEK293 cells. Toxicon 2015; 94:1-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2014] [Revised: 11/27/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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26
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Doi K, Uetsuka K. Mechanisms of Mycotoxin-induced Dermal Toxicity and Tumorigenesis Through Oxidative Stress-related Pathways. J Toxicol Pathol 2014; 27:1-10. [PMID: 24791061 PMCID: PMC4000067 DOI: 10.1293/tox.2013-0062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the many mycotoxins, T-2 toxin, citrinin (CTN), patulin (PAT), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA) are known to have the potential to induce dermal toxicity and/or tumorigenesis in rodent models. T-2 toxin, CTN, PAT and OTA induce apoptosis in mouse or rat skin. PAT, AFB1 and OTA have tumor initiating properties, and OTA is also a tumor promoter in mouse skin. This paper reviews the molecular mechanisms of dermal toxicity and tumorigenesis induced in rodent models by these mycotoxins especially from the viewpoint of oxidative stress-mediated pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Bozo Research Center Inc., 8 Ohkubo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 300-2611, Japan ; Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
| | - Koji Uetsuka
- Animal Health Laboratory, College of Agriculture, Ibaraki University, 3-21-1, Ami-machi, Inashiki-gun, Ibaraki 300-0393, Japan
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Alam S, Pal A, Kumar R, Dwivedi PD, Das M, Ansari KM. EGFR-mediated Akt and MAPKs signal pathways play a crucial role in patulin-induced cell proliferation in primary murine keratinocytes via modulation of Cyclin D1 and COX-2 expression. Mol Carcinog 2013; 53:988-98. [PMID: 23813870 DOI: 10.1002/mc.22060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2013] [Revised: 05/21/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT), a present day major contaminant of commercial apple and apple products is reported to be carcinogenic, embryotoxic, and immunotoxic. While oral and inhalation are considered to be the most prevalent routes of exposure to this toxin, exposure through skin is now being extensively investigated. Our previous study showed that short-term dermal exposure to PAT resulted in toxicological injury to the skin, while long-term exposure induced skin tumorigenesis. In this study, we explore the mechanism involve in proliferation of mouse keratinocytes by PAT. Our study revealed that PAT rapidly induces phosphorylation of EGFR, activation of the Ras/MAPKs, and Akt pathways. This in-turn leads to the activation of NF-κB/AP-1 transcription factors which then binds to the promoter region of the cell growth regulatory genes Cyclin D1 and COX-2 inducing their expression leading ultimately to PMKs proliferation. Inhibition of EGFR or the Ras/MAPKs, PI3/Akt pathways with different pharmacological inhibitors or knockdown of NF-κB, c-jun, c-fos, Cyclin D1, and COX-2 with siRNA inhibited PAT-induced PMKs proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamshad Alam
- Food, Drug and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Ianiri G, Idnurm A, Wright SAI, Durán-Patrón R, Mannina L, Ferracane R, Ritieni A, Castoria R. Searching for genes responsible for patulin degradation in a biocontrol yeast provides insight into the basis for resistance to this mycotoxin. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:3101-15. [PMID: 23455346 PMCID: PMC3623128 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03851-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin that contaminates pome fruits and derived products worldwide. Basidiomycete yeasts belonging to the subphylum Pucciniomycotina have been identified to have the ability to degrade this molecule efficiently and have been explored through different approaches to understand this degradation process. In this study, Sporobolomyces sp. strain IAM 13481 was found to be able to degrade patulin to form two different breakdown products, desoxypatulinic acid and (Z)-ascladiol. To gain insight into the genetic basis of tolerance and degradation of patulin, more than 3,000 transfer DNA (T-DNA) insertional mutants were generated in strain IAM 13481 and screened for the inability to degrade patulin using a bioassay based on the sensitivity of Escherichia coli to patulin. Thirteen mutants showing reduced growth in the presence of patulin were isolated and further characterized. Genes disrupted in patulin-sensitive mutants included homologs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae YCK2, PAC2, DAL5, and VPS8. The patulin-sensitive mutants also exhibited hypersensitivity to reactive oxygen species as well as genotoxic and cell wall-destabilizing agents, suggesting that the inactivated genes are essential for tolerating and overcoming the initial toxicity of patulin. These results support a model whereby patulin degradation occurs through a multistep process that includes an initial tolerance to patulin that utilizes processes common to other external stresses, followed by two separate pathways for degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. Ianiri
- Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Ambiente e Alimenti, Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri—Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
| | - A. Idnurm
- Division of Cell Biology and Biophysics, School of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri—Kansas City, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
| | - S. A. I. Wright
- Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Ambiente e Alimenti, Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - R. Durán-Patrón
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - L. Mannina
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Tecnologie del Farmaco, Sapienza Universita' di Roma, Rome, Italy
- Istituto di Metodologie Chimiche, Laboratorio di Risonanza Magnetica Annalaura Segre, CNR, Monterotondo, Rome, Italy
| | - R. Ferracane
- Dipartimento di Scienza degli Alimenti, Università di Napoli Federico II, Parco Gussone, Portici, Italy
| | - A. Ritieni
- Dipartimento di Chimica Farmaceutica e Tossicologica, Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - R. Castoria
- Dipartimento di Agricoltura, Ambiente e Alimenti, Facoltà di Agraria, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
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de Melo FT, de Oliveira IM, Greggio S, Dacosta JC, Guecheva TN, Saffi J, Henriques JAP, Rosa RM. DNA damage in organs of mice treated acutely with patulin, a known mycotoxin. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 50:3548-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2011.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2010] [Revised: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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30
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Papp G, Horváth E, Mike N, Gazdag Z, Belágyi J, Gyöngyi Z, Bánfalvi G, Hornok L, Pesti M. Regulation of patulin-induced oxidative stress processes in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Food Chem Toxicol 2012; 50:3792-8. [PMID: 22796319 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Revised: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT), is one of the most widely disseminated mycotoxins found in agricultural products. In this study the PAT-induced accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the regulation of the specific activities of antioxidant enzymes were investigated in the single cell eukaryotic organism Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In comparison with the untreated cells, 500 μM PAT treatment caused a 43% decrease in the concentration of the main intracellular antioxidant, glutathione (GSH); this depletion of GSH initiated a 2.44- and a 2.6-fold accumulation of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide, respectively, but did not increase the concentration of hydroxyl radicals; the reduction of ROS-induced adaptation processes via the activation of Pap1 transcription factor resulted in significantly increased specific activities of Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione S-transferase to protect the cells against the ROS-induced unbalanced redox state. However, no change was measured in the activities of glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. It seems reasonable to assume that the temporary PAT-induced ROS accumulation plays a crucial role in adaptation processes. The adverse effects of PAT may be exerted mainly through the destruction of cellular membranes and protein/enzyme functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gábor Papp
- Department of General and Environmental Microbiology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs, H-7602 Pécs, POB 266, Hungary
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Effect of the fungal mycotoxin patulin on the chromatin structure of fission yeastSchizosaccharomyces pombe. J Basic Microbiol 2012; 52:642-52. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201100515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Accepted: 11/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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32
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Shao S, Zhou T, McGarvey BD. Comparative metabolomic analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during the degradation of patulin using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 94:789-97. [PMID: 22159606 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3739-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Revised: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A comparative metabolomic analysis was conducted on Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells with and without patulin treatment using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based approach. A total of 72 metabolites were detected and compared, including 16 amino acids, 29 organic acids and alcohols, 19 sugars and sugar alcohols, 2 nucleotides, and 6 miscellaneous compounds. Principle component analysis showed a clear separation of metabolome between the cells with and without patulin treatment, and most of the identified metabolites contributed to the separation. A close examination of the identified metabolites showed an increased level of most of the free amino acids, an increased level of the intermediates in the tricarboxylic acid cycle, a higher amount of glycerol, a changed fatty acid composition, and a decreased level of cysteine and glutathione in the cells with patulin treatment. This finding indicated a slower protein synthesis rate and induced oxidative stress in the cells with patulin treatment, and provided new insights into the effect of toxic chemicals on the metabolism of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suqin Shao
- Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 5C9
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Saxena N, Ansari KM, Kumar R, Chaudhari BP, Dwivedi PD, Das M. Role of mitogen activated protein kinases in skin tumorigenicity of Patulin. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 257:264-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Kawauchiya T, Takumi R, Kudo Y, Takamori A, Sasagawa T, Takahashi K, Kikuchi H. Correlation between the destruction of tight junction by patulin treatment and increase of phosphorylation of ZO-1 in Caco-2 human colon cancer cells. Toxicol Lett 2011; 205:196-202. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Liu MC, Lin TH, Wu TS, Yu FY, Lu CC, Liu BH. Aristolochic acid I suppressed iNOS gene expression and NF-κB activation in stimulated macrophage cells. Toxicol Lett 2011; 202:93-9. [PMID: 21291967 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2010] [Revised: 12/15/2010] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Aristolochic acid I (AAI) is a phytotoxin that has been found in various herbal remedies and linked to the development of human carcinogenesis. To investigate the playing role of AAI in the function of macrophages, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophage cells RAW264.7 were employed as a model to examine the effect of AAI on the expression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) gene. AAI reduced the expression of iNOS mRNA and protein, as well as the production of NO in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Treatment of transfected macrophages with AAI effectively suppressed the luciferase activities of the iNOS promoter which is activated by LPS. The results of promoter deletion and electrophoretic gel mobility shift assay (EMSA) indicated that the NF-κB binding site at nucleotides -86 to -76 was the major site that was most responsible for the inhibitory effect of AAI. Moreover, the presence of AAI substantially reduced the phosphorylation of the inhibitory κBα (IκBα) protein in LPS-stimulated cultures. AAI also down-regulated the LPS-induction of TNF-α, a NF-κB regulated gene. On the other hand, AAI did not modulate the luciferase activities of reporter construct that contained iNOS mRNA 3'-UTR. Taken together, the data herein suggest that in activated macrophages, AAI effectively down-regulated the expression of iNOS gene by interfering with the activation of NF-κB at the transcription level. The stability of iNOS mRNA was not the target of AAI inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chao Liu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chung Shan Medical University, No. 110, Chien-Kuo N. Road, Section 1, Taichung 40203, Taiwan
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Xing X, Wang J, Xing LX, Li YH, Yan X, Zhang XH. Involvement of MAPK and PI3K signaling pathway in sterigmatocystin-induced G2
phase arrest in human gastric epithelium cells. Mol Nutr Food Res 2011; 55:749-60. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201000344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Chang CH, Yu FY, Wu TS, Wang LT, Liu BH. Mycotoxin citrinin induced cell cycle G2/M arrest and numerical chromosomal aberration associated with disruption of microtubule formation in human cells. Toxicol Sci 2010; 119:84-92. [PMID: 20929984 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
As a nephrotoxic mycotoxin, citrinin (CTN) contaminates various foodstuffs and animal feed commodities. In the present study, the effects of CTN on cell cycle arrest and microtubule formation were investigated by applying human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells as a model. Exposure of HEK293 cells to CTN resulted in an arrest of cell cycle G2/M in a concentration-dependent increase. Administrating CTN elevated the expression levels of p53 and p21 proteins, yet attenuated the signals of phosphorylated cell division cycle 2 (cdc2). Furthermore, treating HEK293 with CTN increased both the value of mitotic index and the population of cells recognized by antibody mitotic protein monoclonal 2, suggesting that arrest of CTN-induced cell cycle occurred mainly during the mitotic phase. With the assistance of immunocytostaining of α-tubulin, CTN was found to disrupt the stable microtubule skeleton during the interphase of cell cycle and also interfere with the mitotic spindle integrity during mitosis. Additionally, for either in vivo or in vitro assays, CTN effectively inhibited tubulin polymerization in a concentration-dependent manner. When human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to CTN, the percentage of cells with numerical chromosome changes was increased by 4.3-fold over that of vehicle-treated group. Results of this study suggest that CTN-activated G2/M arrest primarily arises from the inhibition of tubulin polymerization and associated mitotic spindle formation. Additionally, disruption of microtubule organization by CTN also contributes to the induction of numerical chromosome aberration in human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Hao Chang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Chung Shan Medical University Hospital, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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Minigenome-based reporter system suitable for high-throughput screening of compounds able to inhibit Ebolavirus replication and/or transcription. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:3007-10. [PMID: 20421407 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00138-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe an Ebolavirus minigenome-based system that is suitable for high-throughput screening of compounds able to impair Ebolavirus virus replication and/or transcription. The assay is robust (Z' factor, >0.6) and can be carried out in low-biosafety containment. Results from a pilot screen of 960 compounds are presented.
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Yang H, Park SH, Choi HJ, Moon Y. The integrated stress response-associated signals modulates intestinal tumor cell growth by NSAID-activated gene 1 (NAG-1/MIC-1/PTGF- ). Carcinogenesis 2010; 31:703-11. [PMID: 20130018 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgq008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology and Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University School of Medicine, Yangsan 626-813, Korea
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Activation of ERK and JNK signaling pathways by mycotoxin citrinin in human cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009; 237:281-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2009.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2008] [Revised: 03/18/2009] [Accepted: 03/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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SUZUKI T, SIRISATTHA S, MORI K, IWAHASHI Y. Mycotoxin Toxicity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Differs Depending on Gene Mutations. FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY RESEARCH 2009. [DOI: 10.3136/fstr.15.453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Saxena N, Ansari KM, Kumar R, Dhawan A, Dwivedi PD, Das M. Patulin causes DNA damage leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through modulation of Bax, p53 and p21/WAF1 proteins in skin of mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2009; 234:192-201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2008.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2008] [Revised: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 09/29/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Luft P, Oostingh GJ, Gruijthuijsen Y, Horejs-Hoeck J, Lehmann I, Duschl A. Patulin influences the expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines by activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cells through depletion of intracellular glutathione. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:84-95. [PMID: 18214930 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a mold toxin secreted mainly by fungi of the Penicillium species. Exposure generally results from consumption of moldy fruits and fruit products. Since recent studies identified mold exposure as a risk factor for allergic diseases, we examined the effects of patulin on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) prepared from buffy coats of healthy donors. Cells were stimulated with CD3- and CD28-specific antibodies in the presence or absence of patulin. Effects of patulin on PBMCs were evaluated by proliferation, viability assays, and cytokine ELISAs. The presence of 50 ng/mL patulin strongly decreased the amounts of several cytokines in the supernatant of stimulated PBMCs. This decrease in cytokine secretion was not due to cytotoxic effects of patulin. Moreover, the extent of the reduction of cytokine amounts was cytokine specific, affecting some (IL-4, IL-13, IFNgamma, and IL-10), but not others (IL-8, IL-5). We show that all effects could be abolished by adding thiol containing compounds. A depletion of intracellular GSH could be measured after incubation of cells with patulin. Taken together, our data indicate that patulin modulates the functional activation of PBMCs with respect to proliferation and cytokine secretion patterns by depletion of intracellular GSH. The depletion of intracellular glutathione may influence the balance between Th1 and Th2 cells and have implications for allergic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Luft
- Department of Molecular Biology, University of Salzburg, Austria
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Rumora L, Domijan AM, Grubišić TŽ, Peraica M. Mycotoxin fumonisin B1 alters cellular redox balance and signalling pathways in rat liver and kidney. Toxicology 2007; 242:31-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2007.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2007] [Revised: 09/03/2007] [Accepted: 09/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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