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Santarém VA, Pinto GLB, Ferreira IB, Ribeiro J, Filho RTDS, Meisel DMC, Gryschek RCB, Lescano SAZ, Giuffrida R, Kmetiuk LB, de Paula FM, Biondo AW. A silent threat behind bars: Serosurvey and associated risk factors for strongyloidiasis in female inmates and correctional officers. Acta Trop 2024; 257:107301. [PMID: 38955318 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2024.107301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Strongyloidiasis has been a neglected parasitic infection caused by Strongyloides genus parasites. Despite assessment of S. stercoralis exposure in different vulnerable populations, seroprevalence in inmates worldwide remains to be fully established. Due to poor sanitation and lack of personal hygienic practices, incarcerated individuals have been considered prone to spread infectious illnesses. Accordingly, the present study has assessed exposure and associated risk factors for strongyloidiasis in women inmates and correctional officers at the Women's State Penitentiary of Parana, part of the third largest incarceration complex in Brazil at the time. Blood samplings were performed in 2020 and 2021from a total of 503 women inmates and 92 correctional officers. Participants voluntarily responded to an epidemiological questionnaire to assess associated risk factors to strongyloidiasis. Serological analysis was performed by ELISA for anti-S. stercoralis IgG detection. Statistical analysis was performed using R software, adopting a 5% level of significance. The data were submitted to univariate analysis by chi-square or Fisher´s Exact test for assessing the association among seropositivity and the variables. The variables with p-value < 0.2 in the univariate analysis were considered fit to be included in the logistic regression. In overall, 356/503 (70.8%; 95% CI: 66.7-74.6) inmates were seropositive for anti-S. stercoralis antibodies, with no statistically associated risk factor to seropositivity. A total of 57/92 (62.0%; 95% CI: 51.8-71.2) correctional officers were seropositive, and logistic regression revealed that individuals older than 50 years were more likely seropositive. In conclusion, the high endemicity observed herein has indicated a history of previous exposure to S. stercoralis and warned for a systematic strongyloidiasis screening for inmates, to prevent long term morbidity and disseminated infection during incarceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vamilton Alvares Santarém
- Graduate College in Animal Sciences, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, SP 19050-920, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Luís Brucinski Pinto
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Rua dos Funcionários, 1540, Juvevê, Curitiba, PR 80035-050, Brazil
| | - Isabella Braghin Ferreira
- Graduate College in Animal Sciences, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, SP 19050-920, Brazil
| | - Juliano Ribeiro
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Rua dos Funcionários, 1540, Juvevê, Curitiba, PR 80035-050, Brazil
| | | | - Dirce Mary Correa Meisel
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation (LIM/06), Clinical Hospital of the University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Rogério Giuffrida
- Graduate College in Animal Sciences, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, SP 19050-920, Brazil
| | - Louise Bach Kmetiuk
- Zoonoses Surveillance Unit, Municipal Secretary of Health, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Martins de Paula
- Laboratory of Medical Investigation (LIM/06), Clinical Hospital of the University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexander Welker Biondo
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Rua dos Funcionários, 1540, Juvevê, Curitiba, PR 80035-050, Brazil.
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Shayanfar S, Bahadory S, Taghipour A, Foroutan M, Abdoli A. Seroprevalence of Toxocara spp. in Pregnant Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Infect Dis Obstet Gynecol 2024; 2024:1943353. [PMID: 38682081 PMCID: PMC11055642 DOI: 10.1155/2024/1943353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Toxocariasis is an important health problem caused by the parasitic species Toxocara canis (T. canis) and Toxocara cati (T. cati). Prevalence of toxocariasis in pregnant women as a vulnerable population is doubly important, and the aim of this study is to estimate the overall prevalence of toxocariasis infection in pregnant women according to the available reports. Methods The present study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklists. A systematic search was carried out in international scientific databases (Google Scholar, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and PubMed) between 1990 and 2023. The overall prevalence of parasitic infection was estimated with a random-effects model. All analyses (overall prevalence, heterogeneity, publication bias, and sensitivity analysis) were performed with comprehensive meta-analysis (V2.2, Bio stat) software. Results Amid the final eleven included studies, based on the random-effects model, the estimation of the pooled prevalence of Toxocara spp. was 20.8% (95% CI, 9.8-38.7%). The association between the risk factors of toxocariasis and the prevalence of the disease was not statistically significant. Conclusions In the present study, significant prevalence was reported; however, considering the limited number of studies, it seems that the actual prevalence of the disease is higher. Therefore, it seems necessary to monitor this health problem in pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Shayanfar
- Zoonoses Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
- Student Research Committee, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
| | - Saeed Bahadory
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Taghipour
- Zoonoses Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
| | - Masoud Foroutan
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Abadan University of Medical Sciences, Abadan, Iran
| | - Amir Abdoli
- Zoonoses Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
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Awais MM, Zahoor S, Akhtar M, Anwar MI, Shirwany ASAK, Ali MA, Bhatti MS, Razzaq A. Prevalence of antibodies to Toxocara canis and its associated risk factors in socio-economically deprived nomadic communities of Pakistan. Zoonoses Public Health 2023; 70:616-626. [PMID: 37381108 DOI: 10.1111/zph.13070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Toxocariasis is an important zoonotic disease caused by Toxocara (T.) canis with considerably higher prevalence in developing countries. The data on its epidemiology, especially in socioeconomically deprived nomadic communities, are scarce in Pakistan. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the prevalence of anti-T. canis antibodies and its associated risk factors in nomadic communities located in and around Multan, Pakistan. A total of 184 sera samples were collected from nomadic communities by simple random sampling technique. The descriptive epidemiological data of participants were collected on well-designed questionnaires. Prior consent was also obtained from the participants to use the data generated from their samples without showing their identity. All the samples were analysed for the detection of anti-T. canis antibodies using commercially available Enzyme-Linked-Immunosorbent-Assay (ELISA) kits having 91% sensitivity and 96% specificity (Bordier Affinity Products, Switzerland). The overall seroprevalence of toxocariasis among nomadic communities was 27.7% (51/184). Various factors, including age, known disease history, nutritional status, contact with dogs, practice of hand washing after contact with dogs, use of unwashed vegetables, body mass index, and drug abuse, showed significant correlation (p < 0.05) with toxocariasis in nomadic communities. Conversely, other factors, including gender, marital status, educational status, awareness about zoonotic diseases, source of drinking water, occupation, location, hand washing before taking food, exposure to soil, and hygienic eating behaviour, showed non-significant correlation (p > 0.05) with seroprevalence of toxocariasis. Results also showed that >50% of seropositive cases were asymptomatic, whereas cough and abdominal pain were recorded in 19.6% and 11.76% of seropositive cases, respectively. Keeping in view, it is suggested to conduct surveys at mass level to rule out the exact disease status at national level and to include nomadic communities in local, national, and regional disease control programs through provision of better healthcare facilities and awareness about the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mian Muhammad Awais
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, One Health Research Laboratory, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Seemab Zahoor
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, One Health Research Laboratory, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Masood Akhtar
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, One Health Research Laboratory, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Irfan Anwar
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, One Health Research Laboratory, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Abdul Sammad Ali Khan Shirwany
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, One Health Research Laboratory, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Amjad Ali
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | | | - Abdul Razzaq
- Animal Sciences Division, Pakistan Agricultural Research Council, Islamabad, Pakistan
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Santarém VA, Doline FR, Ferreira IB, Farinhas JH, Biondo LM, de Souza Filho RT, Pettan-Brewer C, Giuffrida R, Lescano SAZ, dos Santos AP, Kmetiuk LB, Biondo AW. One health approach to toxocariasis in Brazilian indigenous populations, their dogs, and soil contamination. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1220001. [PMID: 37744519 PMCID: PMC10517057 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1220001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Although socioeconomic vulnerability and lifestyle factors may contribute to the transmission of Toxocara spp., no study has investigated indigenous populations in Brazil using the One Health approach. Methods Accordingly, this study assessed anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies in Brazilian indigenous people and healthcare professionals by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Presence of Toxocara spp. eggs (feces and hair) in dogs as definitive hosts and in soil samples of the indigenous communities were also recovered and molecularly investigated. Results Overall, 342/463 (73.9%) indigenous individuals and 46/147 (31.3%) non-indigenous healthcare professionals were seropositive for Toxocara spp. In addition, T. canis eggs were retrieved from 9/194 (4.6%) dog fecal samples and 4/204 (2.0%) dog hair samples, mainly from the Paraná State communities (3/42; 7.1%). Soil contamination was observed only in the Paraná State communities (36/90; 40.0%), with the molecular detection of T. canis. River water consumption was also associated with indigenous seropositivity (Odds ratio, 11.4). Discussion Indigenous individuals in Paraná State communities were 2.72-fold more likely to be seropositive than those in São Paulo State, likely due to a lack of sanitary infrastructure. In this scenario, a primarily soil-transmitted disease may also have become waterborne, with embryonated eggs probably spread to water supplies by rain. Full-time healthcare professionals in daily contact with indigenous communities were 9.2-fold more likely to be seropositive than professionals who visited sporadically, suggesting exposure to Toxocara spp. during their work and raising health concerns. In addition, the findings herein showed a significantly higher seroprevalence in indigenous people than in healthcare workers (χ2 = 85.5; p < 0.0001), likely due to overtime exposure to Toxocara spp. In conclusion, Brazilian indigenous communities are highly exposed to toxocariasis, with poor infrastructure and contact with contaminated river water as associated risk factors and a higher risk of infection in healthcare professionals working full-time in these communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vamilton Alvares Santarém
- Graduate College in Animal Sciences, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernando Rodrigo Doline
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Isabella Braghin Ferreira
- Graduate College in Animal Sciences, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Henrique Farinhas
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Leandro Meneguelli Biondo
- National Institute of the Atlantic Forest (INMA), Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation, Santa Teresa, Espirito Santo, Brazil
| | | | - Christina Pettan-Brewer
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Rogério Giuffrida
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | - Andrea Pires dos Santos
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Louise Bach Kmetiuk
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - Alexander Welker Biondo
- Graduate College of Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
- Department of Comparative Pathobiology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
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Seroprevalence of toxocariasis among allergic patients in Kuwait and its association with eosinophilia. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2022; 18:e00260. [PMID: 35818473 PMCID: PMC9270249 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2022.e00260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxocariasis is a worldwide helminthic infection which is transmitted from infected dogs and cats and has been associated with peripheral blood eosinophilia. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) placed toxocariasis among the top 6 parasitic diseases in the USA which are prioritized for public health action. To our knowledge, there are no reports on human toxocariasis in Kuwait or in the other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. This study aims at investigating the seroprevalence of toxocariasis among allergic patients in Kuwait and its association with eosinophilia, age, gender, nationality, and history of direct contact with dogs or cats. From September to December 2021, the laboratory records of allergic patients referred to Al-Rashed Allergy Hospital, Kuwait were reviewed and a total of 400 serum samples were selected: 200 samples from patients with normal eosinophil count (< 500 cells/μl) and 200 samples from patients with eosinophilia (> 500 cells/μl). The sera were screened for anti-Toxocara canis IgG antibodies via antibody enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ab-ELISA). The seropositive patients were asked about their history of direct contact with dogs or cats. Statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel® Analysis ToolPak software. Toxocariasis seropositivity was detected in 10 out of 400 (2.5%) allergic patients. Five patients had eosinophilia while 5 had normal eosinophil count. There was no difference in mean age or gender between Toxocara-seropositive and seronegative patients (p > 0.05). The seroprevalence rate was lower-than-expected among Kuwaiti patients (2/307, 0.7%) in comparison with non-Kuwaiti patients (8/57, 14.0%) (χ2 = 33.603, df = 1, p < 0.001) who originated from endemic South/Southeast Asian countries. Seven out of 8 (87.5%) seropositive patients had a history of direct contact with cats, dogs, or both. The seroprevalence rate of toxocariasis among allergic patients in Kuwait was 2.5%. Raising awareness and early deworming treatment/prophylaxis for juvenile dogs and cats remain crucial for toxocariasis prevention.
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Delai RR, Freitas AR, Kmetiuk LB, Merigueti YFFB, Ferreira IB, Lescano SAZ, Gonzáles WHR, Brandão APD, de Barros-Filho IR, Pettan-Brewer C, Figueiredo FB, dos Santos AP, Pimpão CT, Santarém VA, Biondo AW. One Health approach on human seroprevalence of anti- Toxocara antibodies, Toxocara spp. eggs in dogs and sand samples between seashore mainland and island areas of southern Brazil. One Health 2021; 13:100353. [PMID: 34888410 PMCID: PMC8634035 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Toxocariasis, caused by Toxocara spp. nematodes, is among the top 5 neglected parasitic diseases worldwide; however, no comprehensive study to date has serologically compared infections in people and their dogs and environmentally contaminated soil or sand of mainland and island locations. Accordingly, this study aimed to assess the seroprevalence of anti-Toxocara antibodies in traditional human seashore populations, the presence of eggs in dogs' feces and hair, and the presence of eggs in environmental samples from islands compared to the adjacent mainland of southern Brazil. Overall, 212/328 (64.6%) people were positive for Toxocara spp. antibodies, including 125/190 (65.8%) island and 87/138 (63.0%) mainland residents. For dog samples, 12/115 (10.43%) were positive for the presence of Toxocara spp. eggs, all from dogs living in islands, and 22/104 (21.15%) dog hair samples contained eggs of Toxocara spp. Environmental contamination with Toxocara spp. eggs was observed in 50/130 (38.46%) samples from all sampled sites. No significant association was found between risk factors (age, sex, educational level, monthly income, owning dogs or cats, ingestion of treated water, and consumption of raw or uncooked meat) and Toxocara spp. seropositivity. The present study is the first concurrent report on people, their dogs, and environmental contamination of Toxocara spp. The high prevalence we observed in the seashore populations of both in island and mainland areas may be caused by exposure to contaminated sand and climatic factors favoring frequent exposure to Toxocara spp. In conclusion, seashore lifestyle and living conditions of both island and mainland areas may have predisposed higher contact with infected pets and contaminated soil, favoring the high prevalence of toxocariasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruana Renostro Delai
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná (PR) 80035-050, Brazil
| | - Aaronson Ramathan Freitas
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná (PR) 80035-050, Brazil
| | - Louise Bach Kmetiuk
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Yslla Fernanda Fitz Balo Merigueti
- Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Isabella Braghin Ferreira
- Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Ivan Roque de Barros-Filho
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná (PR) 80035-050, Brazil
| | - Christina Pettan-Brewer
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
- One Health Brasil, Brazil
| | - Fabiano Borges Figueiredo
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | - Cláudia Turra Pimpão
- Department of Animal Science, School of Life Sciences, Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Vamilton Alvares Santarém
- Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexander Welker Biondo
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Paraná (PR) 80035-050, Brazil
- Corresponding author: Department of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Paraná State, Funcionários Street, 1540, Curitiba, Paraná 80035-050, Brazil.
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Hernández SA, Gabrie JA, Rodríguez CA, Matamoros G, Rueda MM, Canales M, Mergl R, Sanchez A. An Integrated Study of Toxocara Infection in Honduran Children: Human Seroepidemiology and Environmental Contamination in a Coastal Community. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:tropicalmed5030135. [PMID: 32842560 PMCID: PMC7559065 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5030135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Infections caused by Toxocara canis and T. cati are considered zoonoses of global importance. Reports from North and South America indicate that human infections are widespread in both continents, but epidemiological information from Central America is still lacking. (2) Methodology: In the present cross-sectional multi-year study, we aimed to undertake the first seroepidemiological and environmental study on toxocariasis in Honduras. This included the determination of seroprevalence of anti-Toxocara spp. antibodies in children using a Toxocara spp. purified excretory-secretory antigens enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (TES-ELISA) and a confirmatory Western blot. As well, through statistical analysis including logistic regression we aimed at identifying relevant biological and epidemiological factors associated with seropositivity. The study also entailed detection of parasites' eggs in the soil samples both through Sheather's concentration method and a nested polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) method. (3) Results: The study was undertaken in a coastal community of Honduras in 2 different years, 2015 and 2017. A total of 88 healthy schoolchildren completed the study, with participation of 79% (73/92) and 65% (46/71) of the student body in 2015 and 2017, respectively. Thirty-one children participated in both years (i.e., dual participants). Through both serological tests, seropositivity was confirmed in 88.6% (78/88) of children. Due to the high number of seropositives, logistic regression analysis was not possible for most socio-economic and epidemiological variables. Eosinophilia, on the other hand, was associated with seropositivity, independently of other intestinal helminthic infections. Continued seropositivity was observed in most of the dual participants, while seroconversion was determined in 8 of these children. Microscopic examination of soil samples did not yield any positive results. Through nested PCR-RFLP, 3 of the 50 samples (6%) were positive for Toxocara spp.; two were identified as T. canis and one as T. cati. (4) Conclusions: This work documents for the first time, high levels of human exposure to Toxocara spp. in Honduras. These findings, along with the country's favorable epidemiological conditions for this zoonosis, emphasize the need for more research to determine whether this infection is underreported in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio A. Hernández
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L3S 2A1, Canada; (S.A.H.); (J.A.G.); (G.M.)
| | - José A. Gabrie
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L3S 2A1, Canada; (S.A.H.); (J.A.G.); (G.M.)
| | - Carol Anahelka Rodríguez
- Department of Parasitology, School of Microbiology and Institute of Microbiology Research, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; (C.A.R.); (M.M.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Gabriela Matamoros
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L3S 2A1, Canada; (S.A.H.); (J.A.G.); (G.M.)
- Department of Parasitology, School of Microbiology and Institute of Microbiology Research, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; (C.A.R.); (M.M.R.); (M.C.)
| | - María Mercedes Rueda
- Department of Parasitology, School of Microbiology and Institute of Microbiology Research, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; (C.A.R.); (M.M.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Maritza Canales
- Department of Parasitology, School of Microbiology and Institute of Microbiology Research, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; (C.A.R.); (M.M.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Ronald Mergl
- Niagara Falls Animal Medical Centre, Niagara Falls, ON L2E 6Z8, Canada;
| | - Ana Sanchez
- Department of Health Sciences, Brock University, St. Catharines, ON L3S 2A1, Canada; (S.A.H.); (J.A.G.); (G.M.)
- Department of Parasitology, School of Microbiology and Institute of Microbiology Research, National Autonomous University of Honduras, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; (C.A.R.); (M.M.R.); (M.C.)
- Correspondence:
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