Insights into Metabolic Changes Caused by the Trichoderma virens-Maize Root Interaction

Trichoderma and Mycosynthesis of Metal Nanoparticles: Role of Their Secondary Metabolites

Nanocompounds are widely used in many fields such as environmental, medicine, or agriculture. Nowadays, these nanocompounds are mainly synthesized by chemical methods, causing environmental pollution and potential health problems. Thus, microorganisms have been investigated as potential nanoparticle green biosynthesizers. The main research is focused on the synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) using algae, yeast, bacteria, and fungi. Among them, fungi have been the most used, due to their simple and effective mycosynthesis. Fungi as well as other organisms involved in green synthesis of NPs use their secondary metabolites (SMs) to mediate and catalyze the reactions to produce metal nanoparticles (MNPs) as well as being able to act as capping agents producing different physicochemical characteristics and biological activities in the MNPs. Among the various fungi used for mycosynthesis are Trichoderma species, which mediate the production of Ag, Cu, CuO, Zn, ZnO, and other MNPs. Here, we review the main SMs from Trichoderma that have been reported or suggested to contribute to synthesize or act as capping agents and their applications, as well as present the main challenges faced by this type of synthesis.

Trichoderma virens exerts herbicidal effect on Arabidopsis thaliana via modulation of amino acid metabolism

Trichoderma virens is a plant beneficial fungus well-known for its biocontrol, herbicidal and growth promotion activity. Earlier, we identified HAS (HA-synthase, a terpene cyclase) and GAPDH (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) to be involved in the production of multiple non-volatiles and non-volatile+volatile metabolites, respectively. The present study delineates the function of HAS and GAPDH in regulating herbicidal activity, using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Under axenic conditions, rosette-biomass of seedlings co-cultivated with ΔHAS (HAS^R) and ΔGAPDH (GAPDH^R) was higher than WT-Trichoderma (WT^R) as well as non-colonized control (NoT^R), even though the root colonization ability was reduced. However, HAS^R biomass was still higher than those of GAPDH^R, indicating that blocking volatiles will not provide any additional contribution over non-volatile metabolites for Trichoderma-induced herbicidal activity. LC-MS analysis revealed that loss of herbicidal activity of ΔHAS/ΔGAPDH was associated with an increase in the levels of amino acids, which coincided with reduced expression levels of amino-acid catabolism and anabolism related genes in HAS^R/GAPDH^R. RNAi-mediated suppression of an oxidoreductase gene, VDN5, specifically prevented viridin-to-viridiol conversion. Additionally, vdn5 mimics ΔHAS, in terms of amino-acid metabolism gene expression and partially abolishes the herbicidal property of WT-Trichoderma. Thus, the study provides mechanistic frame-work for better utilization of Trichoderma virens for biocontrol purposes, balancing between plant growth promotion and herbicidal activity.

Comparative Phenotypic, Genomic, and Transcriptomic Analyses of Two Contrasting Strains of the Plant Beneficial Fungus Trichoderma virens

Trichoderma virens is a beneficial fungus that helps plants fight pathogens and abiotic stresses and thereby enhances crop yields. Unlike other Trichoderma spp., there are two well-defined strains (P and Q) of T. virens, classified by secondary metabolites profiling, primarily the biosynthesis of the nonribosomal, strong antimicrobial agents gliotoxin (Q) and gliovirin (P). We have studied the phenotypic and biocontrol properties of two well-studied representative isolates (T. virens Gv29-8 and T. virens GvW/IMI304061) that represent a Q strain and a P strain of T. virens, respectively. We refined the genome assembly of the P strain using nanopore technology, and we compared it with the Q strain. The differences between the genomes include gene expansion in the Q strain. T. virens Gv29-8 is weaker than GvW as a mycoparasite on the broad host-range plant pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii, and it is ineffective as a biocontrol agent when applied to pathogen-infested soil. T. virens Gv29-8 proved to be phytotoxic to Arabidopsis seedlings, whereas the effect of T. virens GvW was not major. Both strains colonized the surface and outer cortex layer of tomato roots, with about 40% higher colonization by T. virens Gv29-8. T. virens Gv29-8 induced the expression of a larger set of tomato genes than did T. virens GvW, although some tomato genes were uniquely induced in response to T. virens GvW. We studied the comparative transcriptome response of T. virens Gv29-8 and T. virens GvW to S. rolfsii. A larger set of genes was regulated in T. virens GvW than in T. virens Gv29-8 in the presence of the plant pathogen. IMPORTANCE Trichoderma virens populations that were earlier classified into two strains (P and Q) based on secondary metabolites profiling are also phenotypically and genetically distinct, with the latter being ineffective in controlling the devastating, broad host range plant pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. The two strains also provoke distinct as well as overlapping transcriptional responses to the presence of the plant and the pathogen. This study enriches our knowledge of Trichoderma-plant-pathogen interactions and identifies novel candidate genes for further research and deployment in agriculture.

Gliotoxin, an Immunosuppressive Fungal Metabolite, Primes Plant Immunity: Evidence from Trichoderma virens-Tomato Interaction

Beneficial interaction of members of the fungal genus Trichoderma with plant roots primes the plant immune system, promoting systemic resistance to pathogen infection. Some strains of Trichoderma virens produce gliotoxin, a fungal epidithiodioxopiperazine (ETP)-type secondary metabolite that is toxic to animal cells. It induces apoptosis, prevents NF-κB activation via the inhibition of the proteasome, and has immunosuppressive properties. Gliotoxin is known to be involved in the antagonism of rhizosphere microorganisms. To investigate whether this metabolite has a role in the interaction of Trichoderma with plant roots, we compared gliotoxin-producing and nonproducing T. virens strains. Both colonize the root surface and outer layers, but they have differential effects on root growth and architecture. The responses of tomato plants to a pathogen challenge were followed at several levels: lesion development, levels of ethylene, and reactive oxygen species. The transcriptomic signature of the shoot tissue in response to root interaction with producing and nonproducing T. virens strains was monitored. Gliotoxin producers provided stronger protection against foliar pathogens, compared to nonproducing strains. This was reflected in the transcriptomic signature, which showed the induction of defense-related genes. Two markers of plant defense response, PR1 and Pti-5, were differentially induced in response to pure gliotoxin. Gliotoxin thus acts as a microbial signal, which the plant immune system recognizes, directly or indirectly, to promote a defense response. IMPORTANCE A single fungal metabolite induces far-reaching transcriptomic reprogramming in the plant, priming immune responses and defense, in contrast to its immunosuppressive effect on animal cells. While the negative effects of gliotoxin-producing Trichoderma strains on growth may be observed only under a particular set of laboratory conditions, gliotoxin-linked molecular patterns, including the potential for limited cell death, could strongly prime plant defense, even in mature soil-grown plants in which the same Trichoderma strain promotes growth.

Why Is the Correct Selection of Trichoderma Strains Important? The Case of Wheat Endophytic Strains of T. harzianum and T. simmonsii

The search for endophytic fungi in the roots of healthy wheat plants from a non-irrigation field trial allowed us to select 4 out of a total of 54 cultivable isolates belonging to the genus Trichoderma, identified as T. harzianum T136 and T139, T. simmonsii T137, and T. afroharzianum T138. In vitro assays against the phytopathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum showed that the T. harzianum strains had the highest biocontrol potential and that T136 exhibited the highest cellulase and chitinase activities. Production patterns of eight phytohormones varied among the Trichoderma strains. All four, when applied alone or in combination, colonized roots of other wheat cultivars and promoted seed germination, tillering, and plant growth under optimal irrigation conditions in the greenhouse. Apart from T136, the endophytic Trichoderma strains showed plant protection capacity against drought as they activated the antioxidant enzyme machinery of the wheat plants. However, T. simmonsii T137 gave the best plant size and spike weight performance in water-stressed plants at the end of the crop. This trait correlated with significantly increased production of indole acetic acid and abscisic acid and increased 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid deaminase activity by T137. This study shows the potential of Trichoderma endophytes and that their success in agricultural systems requires careful selection of suitable strains.

Trichoderma hamatum Increases Productivity, Glucosinolate Content and Antioxidant Potential of Different Leafy Brassica Vegetables

Brassica crops include important vegetables known as "superfoods" due to the content of phytochemicals of great interest to human health, such as glucosinolates (GSLs) and antioxidant compounds. On the other hand, Trichoderma is a genus of filamentous fungi that includes several species described as biostimulants and/or biological control agents in agriculture. In a previous work, an endophytic strain of Trichoderma hamatum was isolated from kale roots (Brassica oleracea var. acephala), describing its ability to induce systemic resistance in its host plant. In the present work, some of the main leafy Brassica crops (kale, cabbage, leaf rape and turnip greens) have been root-inoculated with T. hamatum, having the aim to verify the possible capacity of the fungus as a biostimulant in productivity as well as the foliar content of GSLs and its antioxidant potential, in order to improve these "superfoods". The results reported, for the first time, an increase in the productivity of kale (55%), cabbage (36%) and turnip greens (46%) by T. hamatum root inoculation. Furthermore, fungal inoculation reported a significant increase in the content of total GSLs in cabbage and turnip greens, mainly of the GSLs sinigrin and gluconapin, respectively, along with an increase in their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, T. hamatum could be a good agricultural biostimulant in leafy Brassica crops, increasing the content of GSLs and antioxidant potential of great food and health interest.

Phytohormone Production Profiles in Trichoderma Species and Their Relationship to Wheat Plant Responses to Water Stress

The production of eight phytohormones by Trichoderma species is described, as well as the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase (ACCD) activity, which diverts the ethylene biosynthetic pathway in plants. The use of the Trichoderma strains T. virens T49, T. longibrachiatum T68, T. spirale T75 and T. harzianum T115 served to demonstrate the diverse production of the phytohormones gibberellins (GA) GA₁ and GA₄, abscisic acid (ABA), salicylic acid (SA), auxin (indole-3-acetic acid: IAA) and the cytokinins (CK) dihydrozeatin (DHZ), isopenteniladenine (iP) and trans-zeatin (tZ) in this genus. Such production is dependent on strain and/or culture medium. These four strains showed different degrees of wheat root colonization. Fresh and dry weights, conductance, H₂O₂ content and antioxidant activities such as superoxide dismutase, peroxidase and catalase were analyzed, under optimal irrigation and water stress conditions, on 30-days-old wheat plants treated with four-day-old Trichoderma cultures, obtained from potato dextrose broth (PDB) and PDB-tryptophan (Trp). The application of Trichoderma PDB cultures to wheat plants could be linked to the plants' ability to adapt the antioxidant machinery and to tolerate water stress. Plants treated with PDB cultures of T49 and T115 had the significantly highest weights under water stress. Compared to controls, treatments with strains T68 and T75, with constrained GA₁ and GA₄ production, resulted in smaller plants regardless of fungal growth medium and irrigation regime.

Highly Species-Specific Foliar Metabolomes of Diverse Woody Species and Relationships with the Leaf Economics Spectrum

Plants show an extraordinary diversity in chemical composition and are characterized by different functional traits. However, relationships between the foliar primary and specialized metabolism in terms of metabolite numbers and composition as well as links with the leaf economics spectrum have rarely been explored. We investigated these relationships in leaves of 20 woody species from the Mediterranean region grown as saplings in a common garden, using a comparative ecometabolomics approach that included (semi-)polar primary and specialized metabolites. Our analyses revealed significant positive correlations between both the numbers and relative composition of primary and specialized metabolites. The leaf metabolomes were highly species-specific but in addition showed some phylogenetic imprints. Moreover, metabolomes of deciduous species were distinct from those of evergreens. Significant relationships were found between the primary metabolome and nitrogen content and carbon/nitrogen ratio, important traits of the leaf economics spectrum, ranging from acquisitive (mostly deciduous) to conservative (evergreen) leaves. A comprehensive understanding of various leaf traits and their coordination in different plant species may facilitate our understanding of plant functioning in ecosystems. Chemodiversity is thereby an important component of biodiversity.