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Bhandari DD, Brandizzi F. Logistics of defense: The contribution of endomembranes to plant innate immunity. J Cell Biol 2024; 223:e202307066. [PMID: 38551496 PMCID: PMC10982075 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.202307066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogens cause plant diseases that threaten food security. Unlike mammals, plants lack an adaptive immune system and rely on their innate immune system to recognize and respond to pathogens. Plant response to a pathogen attack requires precise coordination of intracellular traffic and signaling. Spatial and/or temporal defects in coordinating signals and cargo can lead to detrimental effects on cell development. The role of intracellular traffic comes into a critical focus when the cell sustains biotic stress. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the post-immune activation logistics of plant defense. Specifically, we focus on packaging and shipping of defense-related cargo, rerouting of intracellular traffic, the players enabling defense-related traffic, and pathogen-mediated subversion of these pathways. We highlight the roles of the cytoskeleton, cytoskeleton-organelle bridging proteins, and secretory vesicles in maintaining pathways of exocytic defense, acting as sentinels during pathogen attack, and the necessary elements for building the cell wall as a barrier to pathogens. We also identify points of convergence between mammalian and plant trafficking pathways during defense and highlight plant unique responses to illustrate evolutionary adaptations that plants have undergone to resist biotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepak D. Bhandari
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Federica Brandizzi
- MSU-DOE Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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2
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Regmi KC, Ghosh S, Koch B, Neumann U, Stein B, O'Connell RJ, Innes RW. Three-Dimensional Ultrastructure of Arabidopsis Cotyledons Infected with Colletotrichum higginsianum. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2024; 37:396-406. [PMID: 38148303 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-05-23-0068-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
We used serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBF-SEM) to study the host-pathogen interface between Arabidopsis cotyledons and the hemibiotrophic fungus Colletotrichum higginsianum. By combining high-pressure freezing and freeze-substitution with SBF-SEM, followed by segmentation and reconstruction of the imaging volume using the freely accessible software IMOD, we created 3D models of the series of cytological events that occur during the Colletotrichum-Arabidopsis susceptible interaction. We found that the host cell membranes underwent massive expansion to accommodate the rapidly growing intracellular hypha. As the fungal infection proceeded from the biotrophic to the necrotrophic stage, the host cell membranes went through increasing levels of disintegration culminating in host cell death. Intriguingly, we documented autophagosomes in proximity to biotrophic hyphae using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and a concurrent increase in autophagic flux between early to mid/late biotrophic phase of the infection process. Occasionally, we observed osmiophilic bodies in the vicinity of biotrophic hyphae using TEM only and near necrotrophic hyphae under both TEM and SBF-SEM. Overall, we established a method for obtaining serial SBF-SEM images, each with a lateral (x-y) pixel resolution of 10 nm and an axial (z) resolution of 40 nm, that can be reconstructed into interactive 3D models using the IMOD. Application of this method to the Colletotrichum-Arabidopsis pathosystem allowed us to more fully understand the spatial arrangement and morphological architecture of the fungal hyphae after they penetrate epidermal cells of Arabidopsis cotyledons and the cytological changes the host cell undergoes as the infection progresses toward necrotrophy. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamesh C Regmi
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington, IN 47405, U.S.A
| | - Suchismita Ghosh
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington, IN 47405, U.S.A
| | - Benjamin Koch
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington, IN 47405, U.S.A
| | - Ulla Neumann
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Barry Stein
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington, IN 47405, U.S.A
| | | | - Roger W Innes
- Indiana University, Department of Biology, Bloomington, IN 47405, U.S.A
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3
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Basak AK, Piasecka A, Hucklenbroich J, Türksoy GM, Guan R, Zhang P, Getzke F, Garrido-Oter R, Hacquard S, Strzałka K, Bednarek P, Yamada K, Nakano RT. ER body-resident myrosinases and tryptophan specialized metabolism modulate root microbiota assembly. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 241:329-342. [PMID: 37771245 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) bodies are ER-derived structures that contain a large amount of PYK10 myrosinase, which hydrolyzes tryptophan (Trp)-derived indole glucosinolates (IGs). Given the well-described role of IGs in root-microbe interactions, we hypothesized that ER bodies in roots are important for interaction with soil-borne microbes at the root-soil interface. We used mutants impaired in ER bodies (nai1), ER body-resident myrosinases (pyk10bglu21), IG biosynthesis (myb34/51/122), and Trp specialized metabolism (cyp79b2b3) to profile their root microbiota community in natural soil, evaluate the impact of axenically collected root exudates on soil or synthetic microbial communities, and test their response to fungal endophytes in a mono-association setup. Tested mutants exhibited altered bacterial and fungal communities in rhizoplane and endosphere, respectively. Natural soils and bacterial synthetic communities treated with mutant root exudates exhibited distinctive microbial profiles from those treated with wild-type (WT) exudates. Most tested endophytes severely restricted the growth of cyp79b2b3, a part of which also impaired the growth of pyk10bglu21. Our results suggest that root ER bodies and their resident myrosinases modulate the profile of root-secreted metabolites and thereby influence root-microbiota interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpan Kumar Basak
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, 30-387, Poland
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, 30-387, Poland
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Anna Piasecka
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan, 61-704, Poland
| | - Jana Hucklenbroich
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Gözde Merve Türksoy
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Rui Guan
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Pengfan Zhang
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Felix Getzke
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Ruben Garrido-Oter
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Stephane Hacquard
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
| | - Kazimierz Strzałka
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, 30-387, Poland
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, 30-387, Poland
| | - Paweł Bednarek
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poznan, 61-704, Poland
| | - Kenji Yamada
- Malopolska Centre of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, 30-387, Poland
| | - Ryohei Thomas Nakano
- Department of Plant Microbe Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Cologne, 50829, Germany
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Choi YJ, Geem KR, Kim J, Lee DW. Differential contributions of two domains of NAI2 to the formation of the endoplasmic reticulum body. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1184678. [PMID: 37346116 PMCID: PMC10279885 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1184678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves essential functions in eukaryotic cells, including protein folding, transport of secretory proteins, and lipid synthesis. The ER is a highly dynamic organelle that generates various types of compartments. Among them, the ER body is specifically present in plants in the Brassicaceae family and plays a crucial role in chemical defense against pathogens. The NAI2 protein is essential for ER body formation, and its ectopic overexpression is sufficient to induce ER body formation even in the leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana, where the ER body does not naturally exist. Despite the significance of NAI2 in ER body formation, the mechanism whereby NAI2 mediates ER body formation is not fully clear. This study aimed to investigate how two domains of Arabidopsis NAI2, the Glu-Phe-Glu (EFE) domain (ED) and the NAI2 domain (ND), contribute to ER body formation in N. benthamiana leaves. Using co-immunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation assays, we found that the ND is critical for homomeric interaction of NAI2 and ER body formation. Moreover, deletion of ED induced the formation of enlarged ER bodies, suggesting that ED plays a regulatory role during ER body formation. Our results indicate that the two domains of NAI2 cooperate to induce ER body formation in a balanced manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Ju Choi
- Department of Integrative Food, Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Rok Geem
- Department of Bioenergy Science and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Jitae Kim
- Bio-Energy Research Center, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Wook Lee
- Department of Integrative Food, Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
- Department of Bioenergy Science and Technology, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
- Kumho Life Science Laboratory, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, Republic of Korea
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Jeon H, Segonzac C. Manipulation of the Host Endomembrane System by Bacterial Effectors. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2023; 36:208-217. [PMID: 36645655 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-09-22-0190-fi] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The endomembrane system, extending from the nuclear envelope to the plasma membrane, is critical to the plant response to pathogen infection. Synthesis and transport of immunity-related proteins and antimicrobial compounds to and from the plasma membrane are supported by conventional and unconventional processes of secretion and internalization of vesicles, guided by the cytoskeleton networks. Although plant bacterial pathogens reside mostly in the apoplast, major structural and functional modifications of the endomembrane system in the host cell occur during bacterial infection. Here, we review the dynamics of these cellular compartments, briefly, for their essential contributions to the plant defense responses and, in parallel, for their emerging roles in bacterial pathogenicity. We further focus on Pseudomonas syringae, Xanthomonas spp., and Ralstonia solanacearum type III secreted effectors that one or both localize to and associate with components of the host endomembrane system or the cytoskeleton network to highlight the diversity of virulence strategies deployed by bacterial pathogens beyond the inhibition of the secretory pathway. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyelim Jeon
- Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Bioresources, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Plant Immunity Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Cécile Segonzac
- Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Bioresources, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Plant Immunity Research Center, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Plant Genomics and Breeding Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
- Agricultural and Life Science Research Institute, Seoul National University, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
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Guo Q, Major IT, Kapali G, Howe GA. MYC transcription factors coordinate tryptophan-dependent defence responses and compromise seed yield in Arabidopsis. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:132-145. [PMID: 35642375 PMCID: PMC9541860 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Robust plant immunity negatively affects other fitness traits, including growth and seed production. Jasmonate (JA) confers broad-spectrum protection against plant consumers by stimulating the degradation of JASMONATE ZIM-DOMAIN (JAZ) proteins, which in turn relieves repression on transcription factors (TFs) coincident with reduced growth and fecundity. The molecular mechanisms underlying JA-mediated decreases in fitness remain largely unknown. To assess the contribution of MYC TFs to growth and reproductive fitness at high levels of defence, we mutated three MYC genes in a JAZ-deficient mutant (jazD) of Arabidopsis thaliana that exhibits strong defence and low seed yield. Genetic epistasis analysis showed that de-repression of MYC TFs in jazD not only conferred strong resistance to insect herbivory but also reduced shoot and root growth, fruit size and seed yield. We also provided evidence that the JAZ-MYC module coordinates the supply of tryptophan with the production of indole glucosinolates and the proliferation of endoplasmic reticulum bodies that metabolise glucosinolates through the action of β-glucosidases. Our results establish MYCs as major regulators of growth- and reproductive-defence trade-offs and further indicate that these factors coordinate tryptophan availability with the production of amino acid-derived defence compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Guo
- DOE Plant Research LaboratoryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Ian T. Major
- DOE Plant Research LaboratoryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - George Kapali
- DOE Plant Research LaboratoryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
- Plant Resilience InstituteMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Gregg A. Howe
- DOE Plant Research LaboratoryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
- Plant Resilience InstituteMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular BiologyMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
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Rufián JS, Ruiz-Albert J, Beuzón CR. Fluorescently labeled Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 and 1449b wild-type strains constitutively expressing either eGFP, eCFP, or dsRED. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2022; 2022:10.17912/micropub.biology.000595. [PMID: 35874602 PMCID: PMC9297101 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.000595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Here we describe the generation of fluorescently labeled derivatives of the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae DC3000 and 1449b strains, with each derivative constitutively expressing either the enhanced green (eGFP), enhanced cyan (eCFP), or Discosoma sp. red (dsRED) fluorescent proteins. The fluorophore-expressing cassetes are stably located in a neutral locus in the chromosome, and its expression does not affect bacterial fitness, while allowing efficient detection by microscopy or flow cytometry. We have generated these strains as a complementary set of labeled strains to those previously generated in our laboratory, thus extending the range of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose S Rufián
- Departamento Biología Celular, Genética y Fisiología, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea, Universidad de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC)
| | - Javier Ruiz-Albert
- Departamento Biología Celular, Genética y Fisiología, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea, Universidad de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC)
| | - Carmen R Beuzón
- Departamento Biología Celular, Genética y Fisiología, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea, Universidad de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC)
,
Correspondence to: Carmen R Beuzón (
)
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8
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Li X, Li X, Fan B, Zhu C, Chen Z. Specialized endoplasmic reticulum-derived vesicles in plants: Functional diversity, evolution, and biotechnological exploitation. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 64:821-835. [PMID: 35142108 PMCID: PMC9314129 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A central role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the synthesis, folding and quality control of secretory proteins. Secretory proteins usually exit the ER to enter the Golgi apparatus in coat protein complex II (COPII)-coated vesicles before transport to different subcellular destinations. However, in plants there are specialized ER-derived vesicles (ERDVs) that carry specific proteins but, unlike COPII vesicles, can exist as independent organelles or travel to the vacuole in a Golgi-independent manner. These specialized ERDVs include protein bodies and precursor-accumulating vesicles that accumulate storage proteins in the endosperm during seed development. Specialized ERDVs also include precursor protease vesicles that accumulate amino acid sequence KDEL-tailed cysteine proteases and ER bodies in Brassicales plants that accumulate myrosinases that hydrolyzes glucosinolates. These functionally specialized ERDVs act not only as storage organelles but also as platforms for signal-triggered processing, activation and deployment of specific proteins with important roles in plant growth, development and adaptive responses. Some specialized ERDVs have also been exploited to increase production of recombinant proteins and metabolites. Here we discuss our current understanding of the functional diversity, evolutionary mechanisms and biotechnological application of specialized ERDVs, which are associated with some of the highly remarkable characteristics important to plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xie Li
- College of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Marine Food Quality and Hazard Controlling Technology of Zhejiang ProvinceChina Jiliang UniversityHangzhou310018China
| | - Xifeng Li
- College of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Marine Food Quality and Hazard Controlling Technology of Zhejiang ProvinceChina Jiliang UniversityHangzhou310018China
| | - Baofang Fan
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant BiologyPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette47907‐2054INUSA
| | - Cheng Zhu
- College of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Marine Food Quality and Hazard Controlling Technology of Zhejiang ProvinceChina Jiliang UniversityHangzhou310018China
| | - Zhixiang Chen
- College of Life Science, Key Laboratory of Marine Food Quality and Hazard Controlling Technology of Zhejiang ProvinceChina Jiliang UniversityHangzhou310018China
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant BiologyPurdue UniversityWest Lafayette47907‐2054INUSA
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Lv Q, Li X, Fan B, Zhu C, Chen Z. The Cellular and Subcellular Organization of the Glucosinolate–Myrosinase System against Herbivores and Pathogens. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031577. [PMID: 35163500 PMCID: PMC8836197 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucosinolates are an important class of secondary metabolites in Brassicales plants with a critical role in chemical defense. Glucosinolates are chemically inactive but can be hydrolyzed by myrosinases to produce a range of chemically active compounds toxic to herbivores and pathogens, thereby constituting the glucosinolate–myrosinase defense system or the mustard oil bomb. During the evolution, Brassicales plants have developed not only complex biosynthetic pathways for production of a large number of glucosinolate structures but also different classes of myrosinases that differ in catalytic mechanisms and substrate specificity. Studies over the past several decades have made important progress in the understanding of the cellular and subcellular organization of the glucosinolate–myrosinase system for rapid and timely detonation of the mustard oil bomb upon tissue damage after herbivore feeding and pathogen infection. Progress has also been made in understanding the mechanisms that herbivores and pathogens have evolved to counter the mustard oil bomb. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the function and organization of the glucosinolate–myrosinase system in Brassicales plants and discuss both the progresses and future challenges in addressing this complex defense system as an excellent model for analyzing plant chemical defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoqiao Lv
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; (Q.L.); (X.L.)
| | - Xifeng Li
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; (Q.L.); (X.L.)
| | - Baofang Fan
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA;
| | - Cheng Zhu
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; (Q.L.); (X.L.)
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Z.C.); Tel.: +86-571-8683-6090 (C.Z.); +1-765-494-4657 (Z.C.)
| | - Zhixiang Chen
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; (Q.L.); (X.L.)
- Purdue Center for Plant Biology, Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907-2054, USA;
- Correspondence: (C.Z.); (Z.C.); Tel.: +86-571-8683-6090 (C.Z.); +1-765-494-4657 (Z.C.)
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