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Shrestha K, Puttabyatappa M, Wynn MA, Hannon PR, Al-Alem LF, Rosewell KL, Akin J, Curry TE. Protease expression in the human and rat cumulus-oocyte complex during the periovulatory period: a role in cumulus-oocyte complex migration†. Biol Reprod 2024; 111:845-855. [PMID: 39018235 PMCID: PMC11473928 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioae108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The migratory and matrix-invading capacities of the cumulus-oocyte complex have been shown to be important for the ovulatory process. In metastatic cancers, these capacities are due to increased expression of proteases, however, there is limited information on protease expression in the cumulus-oocyte complexes. The present study examined cumulus-oocyte complex expression of plasmins, matrix metalloproteases, and A Disintegrin and Metalloproteinase with Thrombospondin Motifs family members in the rat and human. In the rat, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) administration increased cumulus-oocyte complex expression of Mmp2, Mmp9, Mmp13, Mmp14, Mmp16, Adamts1, and the protease inhibitors Timp1, Timp3, and Serpine1 by 8-12 h. This ovulatory induction of proteases in vivo could be mimicked by forskolin and ampiregulin treatment of cultured rat cumulus-oocyte complexes with increases observed in Mmp2, Mmp13, Mmp14, Mmp16, Mmp19, Plat, and the protease inhibitors Timp1, Timp3, and Serpine1. Comparison of expression between rat cumulus-oocyte complexes and granulosa cells at the time of ovulation showed decreased Mmp9 and increased Mmp13, Mmp14, Mmp16, Adamts1, Timp1, and Timp3 expression in the cumulus-oocyte complexes. In human, comparison of expression between cumulus and granulosa cells at the time of in vitro fertilization retrieval showed decreased MMP1, MMP2, MMP9, and ADAMTS1, while expression of MMP16, TIMP1, and TIMP3 were increased. Treatment of expanding rat cumulus-oocyte complexes with a broad spectrum matrix metalloproteases inhibitor, GM6001, significantly reduced the migration of cumulus cells in vitro. These data provide evidence that multiple proteases and their inhibitors are expressed in the cumulus-oocyte complex and play an important role in imparting the migratory phenotype of the cumulus-oocyte complex at the time of ovulation. Summary Sentence Multiple proteases and their inhibitors are induced in the cumulus-oocyte complex (COC) during the periovulatory period and potentially play an important role in imparting the migratory phenotype of the COC at the time of ovulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ketan Shrestha
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Muraly Puttabyatappa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Michelle A Wynn
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Patrick R Hannon
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Linah F Al-Alem
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Katherine L Rosewell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - James Akin
- Bluegrass Fertility Center, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Thomas E Curry
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
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Jo M, Brännström M, Akins JW, Curry TE. New insights into the ovulatory process in the human ovary. Hum Reprod Update 2024:dmae027. [PMID: 39331957 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmae027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/29/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Successful ovulation is essential for natural conception and fertility. Defects in the ovulatory process are associated with various conditions of infertility or subfertility in women. However, our understanding of the intra-ovarian biochemical mechanisms underlying this process in women has lagged compared to our understanding of animal models. This has been largely due to the limited availability of human ovarian samples that can be used to examine changes across the ovulatory period and delineate the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms in women. Despite this challenge, steady progress has been made to improve our knowledge of the ovulatory process in women by: (i) collecting granulosa cells across the IVF interval, (ii) creating a novel approach to collecting follicular cells and tissues across the periovulatory period from normally cycling women, and (iii) developing unique in vitro models to examine the LH surge or hCG administration-induced ovulatory changes in gene expression, the regulatory mechanisms underlying the ovulatory changes, and the specific functions of the ovulatory factors. OBJECTIVE AND RATIONALE The objective of this review is to summarize findings generated using in vivo and in vitro models of human ovulation, with the goal of providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying the ovulatory process in women. SEARCH METHODS This review is based on the authors' own studies and a search of the relevant literature on human ovulation to date using PubMed search terms such as 'human ovulation EGF-signaling', 'human ovulation steroidogenesis', 'human ovulation transcription factor', 'human ovulation prostaglandin', 'human ovulation proteinase', 'human ovulation angiogenesis' 'human ovulation chemokine', 'human ovulatory disorder', 'human granulosa cell culture'. Our approach includes comparing the data from the authors' studies with the existing microarray or RNA-seq datasets generated using ovarian cells obtained throughout the ovulatory period from humans, monkeys, and mice. OUTCOMES Current findings from studies using in vivo and in vitro models demonstrate that the LH surge or hCG administration increases the expression of ovulatory mediators, including EGF-like factors, steroids, transcription factors, prostaglandins, proteolytic systems, and other autocrine and paracrine factors, similar to those observed in other animal models such as rodents, ruminants, and monkeys. However, the specific ovulatory factors induced, their expression pattern, and their regulatory mechanisms vary among different species. These species-specific differences stress the necessity of utilizing human samples to delineate the mechanisms underlying the ovulatory process in women. WIDER IMPLICATIONS The data from human ovulation in vivo and in vitro models have begun to fill the gaps in our understanding of the ovulatory process in women. Further efforts are needed to discover novel ovulatory factors. One approach to address these gaps is to improve existing in vitro models to more closely mimic in vivo ovulatory conditions in humans. This is critically important as the knowledge obtained from these human studies can be translated directly to aid in the diagnosis of ovulation-associated pathological conditions, for the development of more effective treatment to help women with anovulatory infertility or, conversely, to better manage ovulation for contraceptive purposes. REGISTRATION NUMBER N/A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misung Jo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Mats Brännström
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Stockholm IVF-EUGIN, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Thomas E Curry
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA
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Zhu Y. Metalloproteases in gonad formation and ovulation. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2021; 314:113924. [PMID: 34606745 PMCID: PMC8576836 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2021.113924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Changes in expression or activation of various metalloproteases including matrix metalloproteases (Mmp), a disintegrin and metalloprotease (Adam) and a disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motif (Adamts), and their endogenous inhibitors (tissue inhibitors of metalloproteases, Timp), have been shown to be critical for ovulation in various species from studies in past decades. Some of these metalloproteases such as Adamts1, Adamts9, Mmp2, and Mmp9 have also been shown to be regulated by luteinizing hormone (LH) and/or progestin, which are essential triggers for ovulation in all vertebrate species. Most of these metalloproteases also express broadly in various tissues and cells including germ cells and somatic gonad cells. Thus, metalloproteases likely play roles in gonad formation processes comprising primordial germ cell (PGC) migration, development of germ and somatic cells, and sex determination. However, our knowledge on the functions and mechanisms of metalloproteases in these processes in vertebrates is still lacking. This review will summarize our current knowledge on the metalloproteases in ovulation and gonad formation with emphasis on PGC migration and germ cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhu
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA.
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Levin G, Coelho TM, Nóbrega NG, Trombetta-Lima M, Sogayar MC, Carreira ACO. Spatio-temporal expression profile of matrix metalloproteinase (Mmp) modulators Reck and Sparc during the rat ovarian dynamics. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2018; 16:116. [PMID: 30424792 PMCID: PMC6234678 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-018-0422-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Matrix metalloproteinases (Mmps) and their tissue inhibitors (Timps) are widely recognized as crucial factors for extracellular matrix remodeling in the ovary and are involved in follicular growth, ovulation, luteinization, and luteolysis during the estrous cycle. Recently, several genes have been associated to the modulation of Mmps activity, including Basigin (Bsg), which induces the expression of Mmps in rat ovaries; Sparc, a TGF-β modulator that is related to increased expression of Mmps in cancer; and Reck, which is associated with Mmps inhibition. However, the expression pattern of Mmp modulators in ovary dynamics is still largely uncharacterized. METHODS To characterize the expression pattern of Mmps network members in ovary dynamics, we analyzed the spatio-temporal expression pattern of Reck and Sparc, as well as of Mmp2, Mmp9 and Mmp14 proteins, by immunohistochemistry (IHC), in pre-pubertal rat ovaries obtained from an artificial cycle induced by eCG/hCG, in the different phases of the hormone-induced estrous cycle. We also determined the gene expression profiles of Mmps (2, 9, 13 14), Timps (1, 2, 3), Sparc, Bsg, and Reck to complement this panel. RESULTS IHC analysis revealed that Mmp protein expression peaks at the early stages of folliculogenesis and ovulation, decreases during ovulation-luteogenesis transition and luteogenesis, increasing again during corpus luteum maintenance and luteolysis. The protein expression patterns of these metalloproteinases and Sparc were inverse relative to the pattern displayed by Reck. We observed that the gene expression peaks of Mmps inhibitors Reck and Timp2 were closely paraleled by Mmp2 and Mmp9 suppression. The opposite was also true: increased Mmp2 and Mmp9 expression was concomitant to reduced Reck and Timp2 levels. CONCLUSION Therefore, our results generate a spatio-temporal expression profile panel of Mmps and their regulators, suggesting that Reck and Sparc seem to play a role during ovarian dynamics: Reck as a possible inhibitor and Sparc as an inducer of Mmps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Levin
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
| | - Tatiane Maldonado Coelho
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38Chemistry Institute, Biochemistry Department, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000 Brazil
| | - Nathali Guimarães Nóbrega
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
| | - Marina Trombetta-Lima
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38Chemistry Institute, Biochemistry Department, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000 Brazil
| | - Mari Cleide Sogayar
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38Chemistry Institute, Biochemistry Department, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000 Brazil
| | - Ana Claudia Oliveira Carreira
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38NUCEL (Cell and Molecular Therapy Center), Internal Medicine Department, Medical School, University of São Paulo, Rua Pangaré, 100, Cidade Universitária, São Paulo, SP 05360-130 Brazil
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38Chemistry Institute, Biochemistry Department, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000 Brazil
- 0000 0004 1937 0722grid.11899.38Department of Surgery, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-270 Brazil
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Han JS, Rahaman KA, Seo JE, Hasan M, Lee KT, Min H, Lee KM, Park JH, Kim HJ, Kim KH, Son J, Lee J, Kwon OS. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) sub-chronic administration mediated MMP-9 activities and cytokine association deteriorate experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) condition in mice model. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-016-0278-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Hall AP, Westwood FR, Wadsworth PF. Review of the Effects of Anti-Angiogenic Compounds on the Epiphyseal Growth Plate. Toxicol Pathol 2016; 34:131-47. [PMID: 16537292 DOI: 10.1080/01926230600611836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The formation of new blood vessels from a pre-existing vascular bed, termed “angiogenesis,” is of critical importance for the growth and development of the animal since it is required for the growth of the skeleton during endochondral ossification, development and cycling of the corpus luteum and uterus, and for the repair of tissues during wound healing. “Vasculogenesis,” the de novo formation of blood vessels is also important for the proper function and development of the vascular system in the embryo. New blood vessel formation is a prominent feature and permissive factor in the relentless progression of many human diseases, one of the most important examples of which is neoplasia. It is for this reason that angiogenesis is considered to be one of the hallmarks of cancer. The development of new classes of drugs that inhibit the growth and proper functioning of new blood vessels in vivo is likely to provide significant therapeutic benefit in the treatment of cancer, as well as other conditions where angiogenesis is a strong driver to the disease process. During the preclinical safety testing of these drugs, it is becoming increasingly clear that their in vivo efficacy is reflected in the profile of “expected toxicity” (resulting from pharmacology) observed in laboratory animals, so much so, that this profile of “desired” toxicity may act as a signature for their anti-angiogenic effect. In this article we review the major mechanisms controlling angiogenesis and its role during endochondral ossification. We also review the effects of perturbation of endochondral ossification through four mechanisms—inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), pp60 c-Src kinase and matrix metalloproteinases as well as disruption of the blood supply with vascular targeting agents. Inhibition through each of these mechanisms appears to have broadly similar effects on the epiphyseal growth plate characterised by thickening due to the retention of hypertrophic chondrocytes resulting from the inhibition of angiogenesis. In contrast, in the metaphysis there are differing effects reflecting the specific role of these targets at this site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony P Hall
- AstraZeneca, Mereside, Alderley Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 4TG, England.
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Puttabyatappa M, Jacot TA, Al-Alem LF, Rosewell KL, Duffy DM, Brännström M, Curry TE. Ovarian membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases: induction of MMP14 and MMP16 during the periovulatory period in the rat, macaque, and human. Biol Reprod 2014; 91:34. [PMID: 24920038 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.113.115717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
An intrafollicular increase in proteolytic activity drives ovulatory events. Surprisingly, the periovulatory expression profile of the membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs), unique proteases anchored to the cell surface, has not been extensively examined. Expression profiles of the MT-MMPs were investigated in ovarian tissue from well-characterized rat and macaque periovulatory models and naturally cycling women across the periovulatory period. Among the six known MT-MMPs, mRNA expression of Mmp14, Mmp16, and Mmp25 was increased after human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) administration in rats. In human granulosa cells, mRNA expression of MMP14 and MMP16 increased following hCG treatment. In contrast, mRNA levels of MMP16 and MMP25 in human theca cells were unchanged before ovulation but declined by the postovulatory stage. In macaque granulosa cells, hCG increased mRNA for MMP16 but not MMP14. Immunoblotting showed that protein levels of MMP14 and MMP16 in rats increased, similar to their mRNA expression. In macaque granulosa cells, only the active form of the MMP14 protein increased after hCG, unlike its mRNA or the proprotein. By immunohistochemistry, both MMP14 and MMP16 localized to the different ovarian cell types in rats and humans. Treatment with hCG resulted in intense immunoreactivity of MMP14 and MMP16 proteins in the granulosa and theca cells. The present study shows that MMP14 and MMP16 are increased by hCG administration in the ovulating follicle, demonstrating that these MMPs are conserved among rats, macaques, and humans. These findings suggest that MT-MMPs could have an important role in promoting ovulation and remodeling of the ovulated follicle into the corpus luteum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muraly Puttabyatappa
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Terry A Jacot
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia
| | - Linah F Al-Alem
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Katherine L Rosewell
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Diane M Duffy
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia
| | - Mats Brännström
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Thomas E Curry
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky
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Vos MC, van der Wurff AAM, Last JTJ, de Boed EAM, Smeenk JMJ, van Kuppevelt TH, Massuger LFAG. Immunohistochemical expression of MMP-14 and MMP-2, and MMP-2 activity during human ovarian follicular development. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2014; 12:12. [PMID: 24485069 PMCID: PMC3937151 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-12-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to investigate the presence of MMP-14 and MMP-2 during human ovarian follicular development using immunohistochemistry, and the activity of MMP-2 in follicular fluid using zymography. METHODS Ovarian tissue collected from the archives of the Department of Pathology was examined and medical records and histopathology were reviewed. Follicular fluids were collected at the IVF-department and analyzed using zymography. RESULTS MMP-14 and MMP-2 were increasingly found in the growing follicles and MMP-2 was highly expressed in the corpus luteum. Pro-MMP-2 was present in follicular fluid of IVF-patients. CONCLUSIONS The presence of MMP-14 and MMP-2 during human ovarian follicular development from the primordial follicle to the tertiary follicle and corpus luteum is confirmed, as was indicated by earlier animal studies following stimulation with gonadotrophins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Caroline Vos
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, PO Box 90151, 5000 LC Tilburg, the Netherlands
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud university medical center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Anneke AM van der Wurff
- Department of Pathology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, PO Box 90151, 5000 LC Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Jessie TJ Last
- Department of Pathology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, PO Box 90151, 5000 LC Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Ella AM de Boed
- Department of Pathology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, PO Box 90151, 5000 LC Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Jesper MJ Smeenk
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, St. Elisabeth Hospital, PO Box 90151, 5000 LC Tilburg, the Netherlands
| | - Toin H van Kuppevelt
- Department of Biochemistry, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Leon FAG Massuger
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Radboud university medical center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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Lee YJ, Yoon JJ, Lee SM, Kim JS, Kang DG, Lee HS. Inhibitory effect ofZanthoxylum schinifoliumon vascular smooth muscle proliferation. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2012; 34:354-61. [DOI: 10.3109/08923973.2011.608070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Yoon JJ, Lee YJ, Kim JS, Kang DG, Lee HS. Betulinic acid inhibits high glucose-induced vascular smooth muscle cells proliferation and migration. J Cell Biochem 2011; 111:1501-11. [PMID: 20872792 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells may perform a crucial role in the pathogenesis of diabetic vascular disease. The principal objective of this study was to determine the effects of betulinic acid (BA) on human aortic smooth muscle cell (HASMC) proliferation induced by high glucose (HG). In this study, [(3) H]-thymidine incorporation under 25 mM HG was accelerated significantly as compared with 5.5 mM glucose, and this increase was inhibited significantly by BA treatment. We utilized Western blotting analysis to evaluate the effects of BA on cell-cycle regulatory proteins. HG induced the expression of cyclins/CDKs and reduced the expression of p21(waf1/cip1) /p27(kip1). However, BA also attenuated the expression of HG-induced cell-cycle regulatory proteins. The results of gelatin zymography demonstrated that the HG-treated HASMC secreted gelatinases, probably including MMP-2/-9, which may be involved in the invasion and migration of HASMC. Additionally, BA suppressed the protein and mRNA expression levels of MMP-2/-9 in a dose-dependent manner. BA inhibited the production of HG-induced hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) and the formation of DCF-sensitive intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Further, BA suppressed the nuclear translocation and phosphorylation of IκB-α of NF-κB under HG conditions. Our results showed that BA exerts multiple effects on HG-induced HASMC proliferation and migration, including the inhibition of both MMP-2 and MMP-9 transcription, protein activity, and the downregulation of ROS/NF-κB signaling, thereby suggesting that BA may be a possible therapeutic approach to the inhibition of diabetic vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Joo Yoon
- College of Oriental Medicine and Professional Graduate School of Oriental Medicine, Wonkwang University, Iksan, Chonbuk 570-749, Republic of Korea
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Abstract
Follicular growth is allowed by extracellular matrix remodeling and vascular network development. Since matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play a crucial role in both of these processes, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the expression of gelatinases MMP2 and MMP9 in swine ovarian follicle (theca and granulosa compartments) during its development. Moreover, we measured gelatinase activities into follicular fluids (FF). Our data demonstrate for the first time that MMP2 and MMP9 are expressed in swine ovarian follicle both in theca and granulosa layers; moreover we show that the expression of both gelatinases increases in theca while decreases in granulosa during follicle growth. Additionally, MMP2 activity has been detected in FF. The spatial pattern of expression of gelatinases in swine follicle suggests a differential role during physiological ovarian events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina Basini
- Dipartimento di Produzioni Animali, Biotecnologie Veterinarie, Qualità e Sicurezza degli Alimenti - Sezione di Fisiologia Veterinaria, Università degli Studi di Parma, Italy.
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Whited J, Shahed A, McMichael CF, Young KA. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases in Siberian hamsters impedes photostimulated recrudescence of ovaries. Reproduction 2010; 140:875-83. [PMID: 20881024 DOI: 10.1530/rep-10-0304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Exposure of Siberian hamsters to short photoperiod for 14 weeks induces ovarian regression. Subsequent transfer to long photoperiod restores ovarian function, and 2 weeks of photostimulation increases plasma estradiol (E(2)), antral follicles, and corpora lutea (CL). Because tissue remodeling involved with photostimulated ovarian recrudescence is associated with differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), we hypothesized that inhibiting MMP activity using a broad-spectrum in vivo MMP inhibitor, GM6001, would curtail recrudescence. One group of hamsters was placed in long days (LD; 16 h light:8 h darkness) for 16 weeks. Another group was placed in inhibitory short days (SD; 8 h light:16 h darkness) for 14 weeks. A third group was placed in SD for 14 weeks and transferred to LD for 2 weeks to stimulate recrudescence. During weeks 14-16, animals were either not treated or treated daily with i.p. injections of GM6001 (20 mg/kg) or vehicle (DMSO). GM6001 reduced gelatinase activity and decreased immunohistochemical staining for MMP1, MMP2, and MMP3 compared with vehicle. No differences between controls, vehicle, or GM6001 treatment were observed among LD animals, despite a trend toward reduction in CL and E(2) with GM6001. Although SD reduced ovarian function, photostimulation of transferred controls increased uterine mass, plasma E(2), appearance of antral follicles, and CL. With GM6001 treatment, photostimulation failed to increase uterine mass, plasma E(2), antral follicles, or CL. These data show, for the first time, that in vivo GM6001 administration inhibits MMP activity in hamster ovaries during photostimulation, and indicate that this inhibition may impede photostimulated recrudescence of ovaries. This study suggests an intriguing link between MMP activity and return to ovarian function during photostimulated recrudescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Whited
- Reproductive Biology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach, California 90840-3702, USA
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Allam E, Allen M, Chu TM, Ghoneima A, Jack Windsor L. In vivo effects of zoledronic acid on oral mucosal epithelial cells. Oral Dis 2010; 17:291-7. [PMID: 20860766 DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-0825.2010.01739.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Osteonecrosis of the jaw is a serious complication of bisphosphonate treatment for which the pathophysiology is unknown. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether in vivo zoledronic acid (ZA) induces alterations in cell proliferation, apoptosis, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) expression in oral mucosal epithelial cells. METHODS One-year-old dogs were either untreated (control group) or given high doses of intravenous ZA (ZA group) for 3 months. The doses of ZA were equivalent to those given to cancer patients, yet were administered two times more frequently (every 2 weeks). Mucosal tissues were assessed immunohistochemically for cell proliferation (proliferating cell nuclear antigen, PCNA), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression, and apoptosis (caspase 3 and TUNEL). RESULTS There were no significant differences between the groups with respect to PCNA, MMP-2, MMP-14, and TUNEL positive cells. However, the expression of MMP-9 was significantly higher in the control group than in the ZA group (P < 0.05), whereas the expression of caspase 3 was significantly lower in the control group than in the ZA group (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION These results suggest that high doses of ZA resulted in higher levels of apoptosis and lower levels of MMP-9 in the oral epithelial cells supporting the idea of bisphosphonate treatment affects the oral mucosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Allam
- Department of Oral Biology, Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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Vrooman LA, Young KA. Ovarian matrix metalloproteinases are differentially regulated during the estrous cycle but not during short photoperiod induced regression in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2010; 8:79. [PMID: 20579366 PMCID: PMC2913988 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7827-8-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are implicated as mediators for ovarian remodeling events, and are involved with ovarian recrudescence during seasonal breeding cycles in Siberian hamsters. However, involvement of these proteases as the photoinhibited ovary undergoes atrophy and regression had not been assessed. We hypothesized that 1) MMPs and their tissue inhibitors, the TIMPs would be present and differentially regulated during the normal estrous cycle in Siberian hamsters, and that 2) MMP/TIMP mRNA and protein levels would increase as inhibitory photoperiod induced ovarian degeneration. METHODS MMP-2, -9, -14 and TIMP-1 and -2 mRNA and protein were examined in the stages of estrous (proestrus [P], estrus [E], diestrus I [DI], and diestrus II [DII]) in Siberian hamsters, as well as after exposure to 3, 6, 9, and 12 weeks of inhibitory short photoperiod (SD). RESULTS MMP-9 exhibited a 1.6-1.8 fold decrease in mRNA expression in DII (p<0.05), while all other MMPs and TIMPs tested showed no significant difference in mRNA expression in the estrous cycle. Extent of immunostaining for MMP-2 and -9 peaked in P and E then significantly declined in DI and DII (p<0.05). Extent of immunostaining for MMP-14, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 was significantly more abundant in P, E, and DI than in DII (p<0.05). Localization of the MMPs and TIMPs had subtle differences, but immunostaining was predominant in granulosa and theca cells, with significant differences noted in staining intensity between preantral follicles, antral follicles, corpora lutea, and stroma classifications. No significant changes were observed in MMP and TIMP mRNA or extent of protein immunostaining with exposure to 3, 6, 9, or 12 weeks of SD, however protein was present and was localized to follicular and luteal steroidogenic cells. CONCLUSIONS Although MMPs appear to be involved in the normal ovarian estrus cycle at the protein level in hamsters, those examined in the present study are unlikely to be key players in the slow atrophy of tissue as seen in Siberian hamster ovarian regression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Vrooman
- Reproductive Biology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
- Current Address: Center for Reproductive Biology, PO Box 647521, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-7521, USA
| | - Kelly A Young
- Reproductive Biology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
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15
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Kelty BP, Curry TE. Ovarian furin (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type3): expression, localization, and potential role in ovulation in the rat. Biol Reprod 2010; 83:147-54. [PMID: 20375258 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.109.079947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of ovulation involves weakening of the follicular wall by proteolytic enzymes. The function of FURIN (also known as PCSK3) is to activate various proteolytic enzymes. In the present study, the expression, localization, and function of FURIN were investigated in the periovulatory rat ovary. Immature female rats were injected with equine chorionic gonadotropin followed by human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) 48 h later to stimulate ovulation. Ovaries were collected at 0, 4, 8, 12, and 24 h after hCG injection. Administration of hCG increased Furin mRNA expression in both intact ovaries and cultured ovarian follicles to maximal levels at 8 and 12 h before decreasing at 24 h. In cultured granulosa cells, Furin mRNA levels were significantly induced at 12 h after hCG. In situ hybridization of Furin mRNA demonstrated expression in the granulosa cells, with predominant expression in the theca layer. Regulation studies demonstrated that Furin mRNA was induced in residual tissue by forskolin or amphiregulin. To examine the role of FURIN in protease activation and ovulation, rats were treated with a FURIN inhibitor and oocyte release was determined. There was a 38% decrease in the number of oocytes released in ovaries treated with the FURIN inhibitor. Likewise, the FURIN inhibitor decreased the activation of MMP2. The induction of Furin mRNA after treatment with hCG, along with the decrease in MMP2 activation and oocyte release after FURIN inhibition, supports the hypothesis that FURIN is upregulated during the preovulatory period, which results in activation of proteinases associated with the breakdown of the follicular wall during ovulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Kelty
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Chandler Medical Center, University of Kentucky, 800 Rose Street, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
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Matsumura H, Kano K, Marín de Evsikova C, Young JA, Nishina PM, Naggert JK, Naito K. Transcriptome analysis reveals an unexpected role of a collagen tyrosine kinase receptor gene, Ddr2, as a regulator of ovarian function. Physiol Genomics 2009; 39:120-9. [PMID: 19671659 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00073.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice homozygous for the smallie (slie) mutation lack a collagen receptor, discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2), and are dwarfed and infertile due to peripheral dysregulation of the endocrine system of unknown etiology. We used a systems biology approach to identify biological networks affected by Ddr2(slie/slie) mutation in ovaries using microarray analysis and validate findings using molecular, cellular, and functional biological assays. Transcriptome analysis indicated several altered gene categories in Ddr2(slie/slie) mutants, including gonadal development, ovulation, antiapoptosis, and steroid hormones. Subsequent biological experiments confirmed the transcriptome analysis predictions. For instance, a significant increase of TUNEL-positive follicles was found in Ddr2(slie/slie) mutants vs. wild type, which confirm the transcriptome prediction for decreased chromatin maintenance and antiapoptosis. Decreases in gene expression were confirmed by RT-PCR and/or qPCR; luteinizing hormone receptor and prostaglandin type E and F receptors in Ddr2(slie/slie) mutants, compared with wild type, confirm hormonal signaling pathways involved in ovulation. Furthermore, deficiencies in immunohistochemistry for DDR2 and luteinizing hormone receptor in the somatic cells, but not the oocytes, of Ddr2(slie/slie) mutant ovaries suggest against an intrinsic defect in germ cells. Indeed, Ddr2(slie/slie) mutants ovulated significantly fewer oocytes; their oocytes were competent to complete meiosis and fertilization in vitro. Taken together, our convergent data signify DDR2 as a novel critical player in ovarian function, which acts upon classical endocrine pathways in somatic, rather than germline, cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirokazu Matsumura
- Laboratory of Applied Genetics, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Science, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Salverson TJ, McMichael GE, Sury JJ, Shahed A, Young KA. Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases during stimulated ovarian recrudescence in Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2008; 155:749-61. [PMID: 17980368 PMCID: PMC2262402 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2007.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2007] [Revised: 08/29/2007] [Accepted: 09/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of extracellular matrix-cleaving enzymes involved in ovarian remodeling. In many non-tropical species, including Siberian hamsters, ovarian remodeling is necessary for the functional changes associated with seasonal reproduction. We evaluated MMPs and their endogenous inhibitors (TIMPs), during photoperiod-induced ovarian recrudescence in Siberian hamsters. Hamsters were transferred from long day (LD; 16:8) to short day (SD; 8:16) photoperiods for 14weeks, and then returned to LD for 0, 1, 2, 4, or 8weeks for collection of ovaries and plasma. Post-transfer (PT) LD exposure increased body and ovarian mass. Number of corpora lutea and antral, but not preantral follicles increased in PT groups. Plasma estradiol concentrations were lower in PT weeks 0-4, and returned to LD levels at PT week 8. No change was observed in relative MMP/TIMP mRNA levels at PT week 0 (SD week 14) as compared to LD. Photostimulation increased MMP-2 mRNA at PT week 8 as compared to PT weeks 0-1. MMP-14 mRNA expression peaked at PT weeks 1-2 as compared to LD levels, while MMP-13 expression was low during this time. TIMP-1 mRNA peaked at PT week 8 as compared to PT weeks 0-4. No changes were noted in MMP-9 and TIMP-2 mRNA expression. In general, MMP/TIMP protein immunodetection followed the same patterns with most staining occurring in granulosa cells of follicles and corpora lutea. Our data suggest that mRNA and protein for several members of the MMP/TIMP families are expressed in Siberian hamster ovaries during recrudescence. Because of the variation observed in expression patterns, MMPs and TIMPs may be differentially involved with photostimulated return to ovarian function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Kelly A. Young
- Corresponding Author Reproductive Biology Laboratory Department of Biological Sciences California State University, Long Beach Long Beach, CA 90840 Phone: 562.985.4859 Fax: 562.985.8878
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Russell DL, Robker RL. Molecular mechanisms of ovulation: co-ordination through the cumulus complex. Hum Reprod Update 2007; 13:289-312. [PMID: 17242016 DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dml062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful ovulation requires that developmentally competent oocytes are released with appropriate timing from the ovarian follicle. Somatic cells of the follicle sense the ovulatory stimulus and guide resumption of meiosis and release of the oocyte, as well as structural remodelling and luteinization of the follicle. Complex intercellular communication co-ordinates critical stages of oocyte maturation and links this process with release from the follicle. To achieve these outcomes, ovulation is controlled through multiple inputs, including endocrine hormones, immune and metabolic signals, as well as intrafollicular paracrine factors from the theca, mural and cumulus granulosa cells and the oocyte itself. This review focuses on the recent advances in understanding of molecular mechanisms that commence after the gonadotrophin surge and culminate with release of the oocyte. These mechanisms include intracellular signalling, gene regulation and remodelling of tissue structure in each of the distinct ovarian compartments. Most critical ovulatory mediators exert effects through the cumulus cell complex that surrounds and connects with the oocyte. The convergence of ovulatory signals through the cumulus complex co-ordinates the key mechanistic processes that mediate and control oocyte maturation and ovulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darryl L Russell
- Research Centre for Reproductive Health, School of Paediatrics and Reproductive Health, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia.
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Liu K, Wahlberg P, Leonardsson G, Hägglund AC, Ny A, Bodén I, Wibom C, Lund LR, Ny T. Successful ovulation in plasminogen-deficient mice treated with the broad-spectrum matrix metalloproteinase inhibitor galardin. Dev Biol 2006; 295:615-22. [PMID: 16712832 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.03.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2005] [Revised: 03/06/2006] [Accepted: 03/30/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have suggested the hypothesis that the plasminogen activator (PA) system and the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) system, either separately or in combination, may provide the proteolytic activity that is required for rupture of the follicular wall at the time of ovulation. Our recent studies on ovulation in plasminogen (plg)-deficient mice have, however, shown that plasmin is not required for normal ovulation, leading us to the hypothesis that MMPs may be a more important source of proteolysis for this process. To investigate the role of MMPs and also the possibility of a functional overlap or synergy between the MMP and PA systems during ovulation, we have studied ovulation efficiency in wild-type and plg-deficient mice treated with the broad-spectrum MMP inhibitor galardin. We found that in both wild-type mice and heterozygous plg-deficient (plg+/-) mice that had been treated with galardin prior to ovulation, there was a mild (18-20%) reduction in ovulation efficiency. Surprisingly, galardin treatment of plg-deficient (plg-/-) mice only caused an additional 14% reduction in ovulation efficiency as compared to vehicle-treated plg-/- mice. Our data therefore suggest that although MMPs may play a role in degradation of the follicular wall, they may not be obligatory for ovulation. In contrast to previous studies on tissue remodeling during wound healing and placental development, we have demonstrated that there is no obvious functional overlap or synergy between the PA and MMP systems, which has previously been thought to be essential for the ovulatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kui Liu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
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Ohnishi J, Ohnishi E, Shibuya H, Takahashi T. Functions for proteinases in the ovulatory process. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2005; 1751:95-109. [PMID: 15950557 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2005.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2004] [Revised: 04/19/2005] [Accepted: 05/03/2005] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The ovary is a unique and dynamic organ in respect to rapid and extensive degrees of tissue development and remodeling that are periodically repeated in the female reproductive activity. Ovulation is a directed and sequential process accompanied by broad-spectrum proteolysis and culminates in the follicular rupture to release the matured oocyte. This review will focus on the potential roles of six representative proteinases that are involved in various aspects of ovulatory processes: matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), plasminogen activator (PA)/plasmin, a disintegrin and metalloproteinase domain with thrombospondin motif (ADAMTS), cathepsin-L, pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A (PAPP-A), and bone morphogenetic protein 1/mammalian Tolloid (BMP-1/mTld). Based on the studies of expression and function, these selected proteinases provide and share diverse functions ranging from cleaving components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to modulating non-ECM molecules, such as various growth factors and their binding proteins. Consistently, the genetic deletion of each individual gene in mice shows their functional overlap in the reproductive activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junji Ohnishi
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo 101-0062, Japan; Division of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0810, Japan
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Smedts AM, Curry TE. Expression of Basigin, an Inducer of Matrix Metalloproteinases, in the Rat Ovary1. Biol Reprod 2005; 73:80-7. [PMID: 15758150 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.104.036145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The extensive tissue remodeling that occurs during follicular development, ovulatory rupture, and the formation and regression of the corpus luteum (CL) requires local degradation of the extracellular environment by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). This report characterizes the expression pattern of basigin (Bsg), a putative regulator of MMP induction, in the rat ovary. An induced superovulation model (eCG/hCG) was used in immature rats to evaluate Bsg expression profiles in ovaries collected during the follicular phase, the preovulatory period, and the luteal lifespan. Levels of Bsg mRNA were unchanged through follicular growth (0-48 h post-eCG) and increased during postovulatory luteinization (24 and 48 h post-hCG; P < 0.01). Bsg expression persisted into pseudopregnancy (4-8 days post-hCG) and after functional luteal regression (12 days post-hCG). The profile of Bsg expression during regression of the CL was examined using a model of induced luteolysis. Both functional and structural regression was associated with a decline in Bsg expression levels. Bsg mRNA and protein localized to the theca of preovulatory follicles (12 h post-hCG) and formative and functional CL (24 h-8 days post-hCG). Bsg expression profiles in the induced ovulation and CL regression models were similar to observations made in naturally cycling mature rats. In the cycling ovary, Bsg signaling localized to newly forming CL, the theca of preovulatory follicles, and appeared to be lower in CL from previous estrous cycles. A putative regulatory mechanism of Bsg expression was identified using an in vitro model; treatment of cultured granulosa cells with hCG significantly augmented Bsg mRNA expression levels. The processes of ovulation and luteogenesis may be facilitated by Bsg expression and its induction or regulation of the MMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- A McDonnel Smedts
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, 40536, USA.
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