Prostasome-like particles in stallion semen

Differential abundance of microRNAs in seminal plasma extracellular vesicles (EVs) in Sahiwal cattle bull related to male fertility

Sahiwal cattle, known for their high milk yield, are propagated through artificial insemination (AI) using male germplasm, largely contingent on semen quality. Spermatozoa, produced in the testes, carry genetic information and molecular signals essential for successful fertilization. Seminal plasma, in addition to sperm, contains nano-sized lipid-bound extracellular vesicles (SP-EVs) that carry key biomolecules, including fertility-related miRNAs, which are essential for bull fertility. The current study focused on miRNA profiling of SP-EVs from high-fertile (HF) and low-fertile (LF) Sahiwal bulls. SP-EVs were isolated using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA). Western blotting detected the EV-specific protein markers TSG101 and CD63. The DLS analysis showed SP-EV sizes of 170-180 nm in HF and 130-140 nm in LF samples. The NTA revealed particle concentrations of 5.76 × 1010 to 5.86 × 1011 particles/mL in HF and 5.31 × 1010 to 2.70 × 1011 particles/mL in LF groups, with no significant differences in size and concentration between HF and LF. High-throughput miRNA sequencing identified 310 miRNAs in SP-EVs from both groups, with 61 upregulated and 119 downregulated in HF bull. Further analysis identified 41 miRNAs with significant fold changes and p-values, including bta-miR-1246, bta-miR-195, bta-miR-339b, and bta-miR-199b, which were analyzed for target gene prediction. Gene Ontology (GO) and KEGG pathway analyses indicated that these miRNAs target genes involved in transcription regulation, ubiquitin-dependent endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathways, and signalling pathways. Functional exploration revealed that these genes play roles in spermatogenesis, motility, acrosome reactions, and inflammatory responses. qPCR analysis showed that bta-miR-195 had 80% higher expression in HF spermatozoa compared to LF, suggesting its association with fertility status (p < 0.05). In conclusion, this study elucidates the miRNA cargoes in SP-EVs as indicators of Sahiwal bull fertility, highlighting bta-miR-195 as a potential fertility factor among the various miRNAs identified.

A stallion spermatozoon's journey through the mare's genital tract: In vivo and in vitro aspects of sperm capacitation

Conventional in vitro fertilization is not efficacious when working with equine gametes. Although stallion spermatozoa bind to the zona pellucida in vitro, these gametes fail to initiate the acrosome reaction in the vicinity of the oocyte and cannot, therefore, penetrate into the perivitelline space. Failure of sperm penetration most likely relates to the absence of optimized in vitro fertilization media containing molecules essential to support stallion sperm capacitation. In vivo, the female reproductive tract, especially the oviductal lumen, provides an environmental milieu that appropriately regulates interactions between the gametes and promotes fertilization. Identifying these 'fertilization supporting factors' would be a great contribution for development of equine in vitro fertilization media. In this review, a description of the current understanding of the interactions stallion spermatozoa undergo during passage through the female genital tract, and related specific molecular changes that occur at the sperm plasma membrane is provided. Understanding these molecular changes may hold essential clues to achieving successful in vitro fertilization with equine gametes.

Extracellular vesicles in seminal fluid and effects on male reproduction. An overview in farm animals and pets

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer nanovesicles released by most functional cells to body fluids, containing bioactive molecules, mainly proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids having actions at target cells. The EVs have essential functions in cell-to-cell communication by regulating different biological processes in target cells. Fluids from the male reproductive tract, including seminal plasma, contain many extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which have been evaluated to a lesser extent than those of other body fluids, particularly in farm animals and pets. Results from the few studies that have been conducted indicated epithelial cells of the testis, epididymis, ampulla of ductus deferens and many accessory sex glands release sEVs mainly via apocrine mechanisms. The sEVs are morphologically heterogeneous and bind to functional cells of the male reproductive tract, spermatozoa, and cells of the functional tissues of the female reproductive tract after mating or insemination. The sEVs encapsulate proteins and miRNAs that modulate sperm functions and male fertility. The sEVs, therefore, could be important as reproductive biomarkers in breeding sires. Many of the current findings regarding sEV functions, however, need experimental confirmation. Further studies are particularly needed to characterize both membranes and contents of sEVs, as well as the interaction between sEVs and target cells (spermatozoa and functional cells of the internal female reproductive tract). A priority for conducting these studies is development of methods that can be standardized and that are scalable, cost-effective and time-saving for isolation of different subtypes of EVs present in the entire population of sEVs.

MicroRNA-222 Transferred From Semen Extracellular Vesicles Inhibits Sperm Apoptosis by Targeting BCL2L11

Seminal plasma contains a large number of extracellular vesicles (EVs). However, the roles of these EVs and their interactions with sperm are not clear. To identify the important molecules affecting sperm motility in EVs, we analyzed RNA from seminal plasma EVs of boars with different sperm motility using whole-transcriptome sequencing and proteomic analysis. In total, 7 miRNAs, 67 lncRNAs, 126 mRNAs and 76 proteins were differentially expressed between the two groups. We observed that EV-miR-222 can obviously improve sperm motility. In addition, the results suggested that miR-222 was transferred into sperm by the EVs and that miR-222 affected sperm apoptosis by inhibiting the expression of EGFR, BCL2L11, BAX, CYCs, CASP9 and CASP3. The results of electron microscopy also showed that overexpression of miR-222 in EVs could reduce sperm apoptosis. The study of the whole transcriptomes and proteomes of EVs in boar semen revealed some miRNAs may play an important role in these EVs interactions with Duroc sperm, and the findings suggest that the release of miR-222 by semen EVs is an important mechanism by which sperm viability is maintained and sperm apoptosis is reduced. Our studies provide a new insight of miR-222 in EVs regulation for sperm motility and sperm apoptosis.

Communication between cells: exosomes as a delivery system in prostate cancer

Despite the considerable efforts in screening and diagnostic protocols, prostate cancer still represents the second leading cause of cancer-related death in men. Many patients with localized disease and low risk of recurrence have a favourable outcome. In a substantial proportion of patients, however, the disease progresses and becomes aggressive. The mechanisms that promote prostate cancer progression remain still debated. Many findings point to the role of cross-communication between prostate tumor cells and their surrounding microenvironment during the disease progression. Such a connection fosters survival, proliferation, angiogenesis, metastatic spreading and drug-resistance of prostate cancer. Recent years have seen a profound interest in understanding the way by which prostate cancer cells communicate with the surrounding cells in the microenvironment. In this regard, direct cell-to-cell contacts and soluble factors have been identified. Increasing evidence indicates that PC cells communicate with the surrounding cells through the release of extracellular vesicles, mainly the exosomes. By directly acting in stromal or prostate cancer epithelial cells, exosomes represent a critical intercellular communication system. By querying the public database ( https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov ) for the past 10 years, we have found more than four hundred papers. Among them, we have extrapolated the most relevant about the role of exosomes in prostate cancer malignancy and progression. Emerging data concerning the use of these vesicles in diagnostic management and therapeutic guidance of PC patients are also presented. Video Abstract.

Extracellular Vesicles, the Road toward the Improvement of ART Outcomes

Nowadays, farm animal industries use assisted reproductive technologies (ART) as a tool to manage herds' reproductive outcomes, for a fast dissemination of genetic improvement as well as to bypass subfertility issues. ART comprise at least one of the following procedures: collection and handling of oocytes, sperm, and embryos in in vitro conditions. Therefore, in these conditions, the interaction with the oviductal environment of gametes and early embryos during fertilization and the first stages of embryo development is lost. As a result, embryos obtained in in vitro fertilization (IVF) have less quality in comparison with those obtained in vivo, and have lower chances to implant and develop into viable offspring. In addition, media currently used for IVF are very similar to those empirically developed more than five decades ago. Recently, the importance of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the fertility process has flourished. EVs are recognized as effective intercellular vehicles for communication as they deliver their cargo of proteins, lipids, and genetic material. Thus, during their transit through the female reproductive tract both gametes, oocyte and spermatozoa (that previously encountered EVs produced by male reproductive tract) interact with EVs produced by the female reproductive tract, passing them important information that contributes to a successful fertilization and embryo development. This fact highlights that the reproductive tract EVs cargo has an important role in reproductive events, which is missing in current ART media. This review aims to recapitulate recent advances in EVs functions on the fertilization process, highlighting the latest proposals with an applied approach to enhance ART outcome through EV utilization as an additive to the media of current ART procedures.

Role of aposomes and epididymosomes in sperm quality control: A light and transmission electron microscopic study in an experimental rat model

The epididymis responds to adverse conditions of misshapen spermatozoa resulting from pathological changes or toxic insults by secretion of a dense matrix that segregates the latter for complete disintegration and dissolution. The objective of this study was to find the source of this matrix and the role-player of disintegration and dissolution of misshapen spermatozoa. We chose Wistar strain male rat model to tackle this issue, and the rats were administered with aflatoxin B1 for 55 days so as to increase the incidence of misshapen spermatozoa. At the end of the treatment, different segments of epididymis were processed for microscopic observations. We found that parallel with abundant misshapen spermatozoa in the epididymis the principal cells of the initial segment secrete enormous membrane-bound apical blebs called aposomes, which contain epididymosomes. The aposomes were found to coalesce so as for the content to merge and form a dense matrix that entangles the misshapen spermatozoa and segregates them from viable spermatozoa. The epididymosomes associate with the misshapen spermatozoa, and the latter is processed to disintegration and total dissolution. Therefore, we assign the role of segregation of misshapen spermatozoa from viable ones to the dense matrix of aposomes and their disintegration and dissolution to the epididymosomes.

Human prostasomes an extracellular vesicle - Biomarkers for male infertility and prostrate cancer: The journey from identification to current knowledge

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are gaining attention among the cell biologists and researchers over the last two decades. Prostasomes are considered to be (Evs) secreted by prostate epithelial cells into the semen during emission or ejaculation. Prostasomes contain various proteins required for immune regulation namely, amino and dipeptidyl peptidase; endopeptidase (neutral); decay accelerating factor; angiotensin-converting enzyme. Sperm cells need a few prerequisites in order to fertilize the egg. The role of prostasomes in enhancing the male fertility was reviewed extensively throughout the manuscript. Also, prostasomes have an immunosuppressive, immunomodulatory, antibacterial role in the female reproductive tract, and in some cases they can be used as immunocontraceptive agent to regulate the fertility status. This review will give insights to many active researchers in the field of prostasomal research and male infertility/fertility research. This review will open many unanswered mechanisms of prostasomes with respect to structure-function analysis, fatty acids patterns in diagnosis as well as prognosis of male infertility/fertility. More scientific reports are in need to support the mechanism of prostasomes and its role in immunomodulation. The development of prostasomes as a biomarker for the prostate cancer is still miserable with a lot of controversial results by various researchers.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from porcine seminal plasma exhibit different tetraspanin expression profiles

Seminal extracellular vesicles (EVs) include exosomes (ø 40–120 nm) and microvesicles (MVs, ø 120–1000 nm), which would be involved in multiple functional reproductive roles. The study aimed to establish which EV subtypes are present in pig semen, using a high-resolution flow cytometer to explore differences in their tetraspanin expression profile. The EVs were isolated from 12 pig ejaculates using serial ultracentrifugation and characterized by dynamic light scattering and electron microscopy for size and morphology as well as for tetraspanin expression using flow cytometry with Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) and antibodies against CD9, CD63 and CD81. Pig semen contained a heterogeneous EV-population regarding size and morphology. Flow cytometric analysis demonstrated that the proportion of EVs expressing CD63 and CD9 was higher in MVs (P < 0.001 and P < 0.05, respectively) than in exosomes, while the opposite was true for CD81; higher (P < 0.001) in exosomes than in MVs. In conclusion, (1) the new generation of flow cytometers are able to accurately identify EVs and to gate them in two size-different populations named exosomes and MVs. (2) Tetraspanins CD9, CD63 and CD81 are present in both seminal EVs, albeit with exosomes and MVs differing in expression profiles, suggesting dissimilar cargo and binding affinity.

Detection of extracellular vesicles in the mouse vaginal fluid: Their delivery of sperm proteins that stimulate capacitation and modulate fertility

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) were isolated by ultracentrifugation of vaginal luminal fluid (VLF) from superovulated mice and identified for the first time using transmission electron microscopy. Characterized by size and biochemical markers (CD9 and HSC70), EVs were shown to be both microvesicular and exosomal and were dubbed as "Vaginosomes" (VGS). Vaginal cross-sections were analyzed to visualize EVs in situ: EVs were present in the lumen and also embedded between squamous epithelial and keratinized cells, consistent with their endogenous origin. Western blots detected Plasma membrane Ca²⁺ -ATPase 1 (PMCA1) and tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins in the VGS cargo and also in uterosomes. Flow cytometry revealed that following coincubation of caudal sperm and VLF for 30 min, the frequencies of cells with the highest Sperm adhesion molecule 1 (SPAM1), PMCA1/4, and PMCA1 levels increased 16.4-, 8.2-, and 27-fold, respectively; compared with control coincubated in phosphate buffered saline (PBS). Under identical conditions, sperm tyrosine-phosphorylated proteins were elevated ~3.3-fold, after VLF coincubation. Progesterone-induced acrosome reaction (AR) rates were significantly (p < 0.001) elevated in sperm coincubated with VGS for 10-30 min, compared with PBS. Sperm artificially deposited in the vaginas of superovulated females for these periods also showed significant (p < 0.01) increases in AR rates, compared with PBS. Thus in vitro and in vivo, sperm acquire from the vaginal environment factors that induce capacitation, explaining recent findings for their acrosomal status in the isthmus. Overall, VGS appear to deliver higher levels of proteins involved in preventing premature capacitation and AR than those promoting them. Our findings which have implications for humans open the possibility of new approaches to infertility treatment with exosome therapeutics.

Downregulation of MicroRNA eca-mir-128 in Seminal Exosomes and Enhanced Expression of CXCL16 in the Stallion Reproductive Tract Are Associated with Long-Term Persistence of Equine Arteritis Virus

Equine arteritis virus (EAV) can establish long-term persistent infection in the reproductive tract of stallions and is shed in the semen. Previous studies showed that long-term persistence is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S) and that persistent infection is maintained despite the presence of a local inflammatory and humoral and mucosal antibody responses. In this study, we demonstrated that equine seminal exosomes (SEs) are enriched in a small subset of microRNAs (miRNAs). Most importantly, we demonstrated that long-term EAV persistence is associated with the downregulation of an SE-associated miRNA (eca-mir-128) and with an enhanced expression of CXCL16 in the reproductive tract, a putative target of eca-mir-128. The findings presented here suggest that SE eca-mir-128 is implicated in the regulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract of persistently infected stallions, a chemokine axis strongly implicated in EAV persistence. This is a novel finding and warrants further investigation to identify its specific mechanism in modulating the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract of the EAV long-term carrier stallion.IMPORTANCE Equine arteritis virus (EAV) has the ability to establish long-term persistent infection in the stallion reproductive tract and to be shed in semen, which jeopardizes its worldwide control. Currently, the molecular mechanisms of viral persistence are being unraveled, and these are essential for the development of effective therapeutics to eliminate persistent infection. Recently, it has been determined that long-term persistence is associated with a specific allele of the CXCL16 gene (CXCL16S) and is maintained despite induction of local inflammatory, humoral, and mucosal antibody responses. This study demonstrated that long-term persistence is associated with the downregulation of seminal exosome miRNA eca-mir-128 and enhanced expression of its putative target, CXCL16, in the reproductive tract. For the first time, this study suggests complex interactions between eca-mir-128 and cellular elements at the site of EAV persistence and implicates this miRNA in the regulation of the CXCL16/CXCR6 axis in the reproductive tract during long-term persistence.

Addition of different concentrations of prostasome-like vesicles at neutral or slightly alkaline pH decreases canine sperm motility

Prostasome-like vesicles (PV) are components of the canine prostatic fluid during ejaculation and despite some enzymatic activities have been identified recently, their functions in the reproductive events in this species are still poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated at neutral or slightly alkaline pH, the effects of different concentrations of purified PV on sperm cell motility characteristics and the impact on the short- and long-term preservation of preserved semen maintained at room temperature. Two different experiments were performed. In the first experiment, purified PV were added at increasing concentration (1.25, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 μL equivalent to 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 μg of protein, respectively) to aliquots of 100 μL of preserved semen maintained at 22 °C at the following time points: 0, 30, 60, 120, 240, and 480 min. Computer-assisted sperm motility characteristics and pH were assessed three times at each time points, for each sample and for every concentrations. In the second experiment, the purified PV were added with the same methods as described above but only at time 0. Sperm motility characteristics and pH were assessed over the time. This study showed how the addition of purified PV to preserved semen affects negatively (p < 0.05) at neutral and alkaline pH, both total and progressive motility in a concentration depending manner. Furthermore, prostasome addition was demonstrated to change the quality of sperm movement which may represent a mechanism facilitating sperm cells attachment to the uterine epithelium and facilitating energy preservation before fertilization.

Extracellular vesicles: roles in gamete maturation, fertilization and embryo implantation

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membrane-bound vesicles, found in biofluids, that carry and transfer regulatory molecules, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and proteins, and may mediate intercellular communication between cells and tissues. EVs have been isolated from a wide variety of biofluids, including plasma, urine, and, relevant to this review, seminal, follicular and uterine luminal fluid. We conducted a systematic search of the literature to review and present the currently available evidence on the possible roles of EVs in follicular growth, resumption of oocyte development and maturation (meiosis), sperm maturation, fertilization and embryo implantation.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase and Web of Science databases were searched using keywords pertaining to EVs, including 'extracellular vesicles', 'microvesicles', 'microparticles' and 'exosomes', combined with a range of terms associated with the period of development between fertilization and implantation, including 'oocyte', 'sperm', 'semen', 'fertilization', 'implantation', 'embryo', 'follicular fluid', 'epididymal fluid' and 'seminal fluid'. Relevant research articles published in English (both animal and human studies) were reviewed with no restrictions on publication date (i.e. from earliest database dates to July 2015). References from these articles were used to obtain additional articles.

RESULTS

A total of 1556 records were retrieved from the three databases. After removing duplicates and irrelevant titles, we reviewed the abstracts of 201 articles, which included 92 relevant articles. Both animal and human studies unequivocally identified various types of EVs in seminal, follicular and ULFs. Several studies provided evidence for the roles of EVs in these biofluids. In men, EVs in seminal fluid were linked with post-testicular sperm maturation, including sperm motility acquisition and reduction of oxidative stress. In women, EVs in follicular fluid were shown to contain miRNAs with potential roles in follicular growth, resumption of oocyte meiosis, steroidogenesis and prevention of polyspermy after fertilization. EVs were also detected in the media of cultured embryos, suggesting that EVs released from embryos and the uterus may mediate embryo-endometrium cross-talk during implantation. It is important to note that many of the biologically plausible functions of EVs in reproduction discussed in the current literature have not yet been substantiated by conclusive experimental evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

A detailed understanding of the contributions of EVs in the series of events from gametogenesis to fertilization and then on to implantation, in both normal and pathological cases, may enable the development of valuable tools to advance reproductive health. Because of the early stage of the field, it is unsurprising that the current literature includes not only growing experimental evidence, but also as-yet unproven hypotheses pertaining to the roles of EVs in key reproductive processes. In this review, we present a comprehensive survey of the rapidly expanding literature on this subject, highlighting both relevant findings and gaps in knowledge.

Prostasomes of canine seminal plasma - zinc-binding ability and effects on motility characteristics and plasma membrane integrity of spermatozoa

Prostasomes are small lipid membrane-confined vesicles that are involved in various fertilization-related processes. The aim of this study was to demonstrate canine seminal plasma prostasomes' ability to bind zinc ions, as well as examining their effects on sperm motility characteristics and plasma membrane integrity during cold storage. Ejaculates, collected from five cross-bred dogs (n = 50), were subjected to ultracentrifugation followed by gel filtration (GF) on a Superose 6 column. Prostasomes appeared as a single fraction in the elution profile. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis of canine prostasomes revealed the presence of membrane vesicles with diameters ranging from 20.3 to 301 nm. The zinc-affinity chromatography on a Chelating Sepharose Fast Flow - Zn(2 +) showed that from 93 to 100% of the prostasome proteins bind zinc ions (P(+) Zn). SDS-PAGE revealed that canine P(+) Zn comprised four protein bands, with low molecular weights (10.2-12 kDa). We have also shown a positive effect of prostasomes (p < 0.05), especially variant B (2% of total seminal plasma protein) on canine sperm motility parameters after 2 h storage at 5°C (TMOT%, 44.75 ± 5.18) and PMOT%, 12.42 ± 1.59) and VAP, VSL, VCL, when compared with Control (TMOT%, 7.30 ± 1.41 and PMOT%, 1.70 ± 0.42). Higher percentage of spermatozoa with intact plasma membrane (SYBR/PI dual staining) and intact acrosome (Giemsa stained), after 2 h storage at 5°C, was showed, in variant A (1.5% of total seminal plasma protein) and B, when compared with Control and variant C (2.5% of total seminal plasma protein). The prostasomes' effect on motility and plasma membrane integrity of canine cold-stored spermatozoa may be related to their ability to bind zinc ions and regulate their availability to the sperm.

Desmosterol, the main sterol in rabbit semen: distribution among semen subfractions and its role in the in vitro spermatozoa acrosome reaction and motility

Sterols are essential components of the cell membrane lipid bilayer that include molecules such as cholesterol and desmosterol, which are significantly found in the spermatozoa of several animal species. However, the presence of desmosterol in rabbit semen has never been investigated. The aims of this study were to characterize the sterol composition of subfractions of ejaculated rabbit semen and evaluate the in vitro effects of sterol on the spermatozoa acrosome reaction and motility. Two sterols, occurring prevalently in the free form (94.3%), were identified in whole semen collected from 10 fertile New Zealand White rabbits, specifically desmosterol (58.5% of total sterols) and cholesterol (35.9% of total sterols). Desmosterol was the predominant sterol found in all subfractions of rabbit semen, varying from 56.7% (in the prostatic secretory granules, PSGs) to 63.8% (in the seminal plasma). Spermatozoa contained an intermediate proportion of desmosterol (59.8%), which was asymmetrically distributed between the heads (52.0% of the total content of sterols) and the tails (81.8%). Results showed that both desmosterol and cholesterol can be transferred from the PSGs to the spermatozoa and are equally effective in inhibiting in vitro spermatozoa capacitation at a concentration higher than 1 mg L(-1). In contrast, neither desmosterol nor cholesterol had a significant effect on spermatozoa motility. Thus, it was concluded that, the various fractions of rabbit seminal fluid differ from each other in sterol composition and quantity, probably due to their different functional properties, and these fractions may undergo significant sterol changes depending on the stage of spermatozoa capacitation.

Post testicular sperm maturational changes in the bull: important role of the epididymosomes and prostasomes

After spermatogenesis, testicular spermatozoa are not able to fertilize an oocyte, they must undergo sequential maturational processes. Part of these essential processes occurs during the transit of the spermatozoa through the male reproductive tract. Since the sperm become silent in terms of translation and transcription at the testicular level, all the maturational changes that take place on them are dependent on the interaction of spermatozoa with epididymal and accessory gland fluids. During the last decades, reproductive biotechnologies applied to bovine species have advanced significantly. The knowledge of the bull reproductive physiology is really important for the improvement of these techniques and the development of new ones. This paper focuses on the importance of the sperm interaction with the male reproductive fluids to acquire the fertilizing ability, with special attention to the role of the membranous vesicles present in those fluids and the recent mechanisms of protein acquisition during sperm maturation.

TMPRSS2, a serine protease expressed in the prostate on the apical surface of luminal epithelial cells and released into semen in prostasomes, is misregulated in prostate cancer cells

TMPRSS2, a type II transmembrane serine protease, is highly expressed by the epithelium of the human prostate gland. To explore the regulation and function of TMPRSS2 in the prostate, a panel of monoclonal antibodies with high sensitivity and specificity were generated. Immunodetection showed TMPRSS2 on the apical plasma membrane of the prostate luminal cells and demonstrated its release into semen as a component of prostasomes, organelle-like vesicles that may facilitate sperm function and enhance male reproduction. In prostate cancer cells, TMPRSS2 expression was increased and the protein mislocalized over the entire tumor cell membrane. In both LNCaP prostate cancer cells and human semen, TMPRSS2 protein was detected predominantly as inactive zymogen forms as part of an array of multiple noncovalent and disulfide-linked complexes, suggesting that TMPRSS2 activity may be regulated by unconventional mechanisms. Our data suggested that TMPRSS2, an apical surface serine protease, may have a normal role in male reproduction as a component of prostasomes. The aberrant cellular localization, and increased expression of the protease seen in cancer, may contribute to prostate tumorigenesis by providing access of the enzyme to nonphysiological substrates and binding-proteins.

In vitro antioxidant activity of the prostatic secretory granules in rabbit semen after exposure to organic peroxides

BACKGROUND

The prostate gland of rabbits produces numerous granules, which are specifically implicated in the inhibition of sperm capacitation during the first hours after mating. These granules are rich in vitamin E, but their role in the antioxidant protection of rabbit sperm has not been studied.

AIM OF STUDY

The objectives of this study were to investigate whether the prostatic secretory granules (PSGs) could prevent sperm induced-lipid peroxidation and to verify a potential involvement of tocopherols from the PSGs to the sperm.

METHODS

Washed sperm samples taken from eighteen White New Zealand rabbits were either incubated with tert-butyl-hydroperoxide (t-BHP, an oxidative stressor) or with buffered Tyrode's medium for 1 hour. The same number of sperm samples that contained PSGs were subjected to the previously mentioned treatments and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), vitamin E compounds and the acrosome status were assessed.

RESULTS

The incubation of the sperm with t-BHP resulted in a noticeable production of TBARS (0.38 vs. 0.22 nmol/10(7) cells) and an associated decrease of alpha-tocopherol (alpha-T, 72.3 vs. 103.2 nmol/10(8) cells) with respect to the sperm samples containing PSGs. The sperm incubated with the PSGs had a higher amount of alpha-T compared to the control (292.2 vs. 251.0 nmol/10(8) cells). The acrosome status was not affected by the occurrence of the organic peroxide in the medium and the amount of capacitated sperm was lower when the PSGs were also present.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these results suggest that the PSGs may represent a source of protection for rabbit sperm against in vitro oxidative stress by supplying the sperm with endogenous alpha-T. This mechanism could be in part involved in the inhibition of sperm capacitation by the granules.

ADAM7 is associated with epididymosomes and integrated into sperm plasma membrane

During epididymal transit, mammalian sperm acquire selected proteins secreted by the epididymis. We previously showed that a disintegrin and metalloprotease (ADAM) 7 is expressed specifically in the epididymis and transferred to the sperm surface during epididymal transit. Here, we show that mouse ADAM7 secreted to the epididymal lumen is associated with membranous vesicles known as epididymosomes. Furthermore, we found that ADAM7 can be transferred directly from epididymal vesicles to sperm and that it is an integral plasma membrane protein in sperm. Thus, our study provides new information regarding the unique mode of secretion and interaction of ADAM7 during the epididymis-to-sperm transfer process.

Structural heterogeneity and protein composition of exosome-like vesicles (prostasomes) in human semen

BACKGROUND

Human seminal fluid contains small exosome-like vesicles called prostasomes. Prostasomes have been reported previously to play an important role in the process of fertilization by boosting survivability and motility of spermatozoa, in addition to modulating acrosomal reactivity. Prostasomes have also been reported to present with sizes varying from 50 to 500 nm and to have multilayered lipid membranes; however, the fine morphology of prostasomes has never been studied in detail.

METHODS

Sucrose gradient-purified prostasomes were visualized by cryo-electron microscopy (EM). Protein composition was studied by trypsin in-gel digestion and liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Here we report for the first time the detailed structure of seminal prostasomes by cryo-EM. There are at least three distinct dominant structural types of vesicles present. In parallel with the structural analysis, we have carried out a detailed proteomic analysis of prostasomes, which led to the identification of 440 proteins. This is nearly triple the number of proteins identified to date for these unique particles and a number of the proteins identified previously were cross-validated in our study.

CONCLUSION

From the data reported herein, we hypothesize that the structural heterogeneity of the exosome-like particles in human semen reflects their functional diversity. Our detailed proteomic analysis provided a list of candidate proteins for future structural and functional studies.

Prostasome-like vesicles stimulate acrosome reaction of pig spermatozoa

BACKGROUND

The presence of small membranous particles characterizes the male genital fluids of different mammalian species. The influence of semen vesicles, denominated prostasomes, on sperm functional properties has been well documented in humans, but their biological activity is scarcely known in other species. The present work investigated prostasome-like vesicles in pig semen for their ability to interact with spermatozoa and to affect acrosome reaction.

METHODS

Prostasome-like vesicles have been isolated from pig seminal plasma by high-speed centrifugation and Sephadex G-200 gel chromatography. Morphology of purified vesicles has been checked by scanning electron microscopy while their protein pattern has been investigated by SDS-PAGE. Then prostasome- like vesicles have been incubated with pig spermatozoa and their ability to interact with sperm has been tested by the aminopeptidase assay. In addition, the efficiency of vesicles to influence the acrosome reaction has been investigated by assessing the sperm acrosomal status by the PI/FITC-PNA (propidium iodide/fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled peanut agglutinin) stainings.

RESULTS

Purified vesicles revealed a complex protein pattern with the occurrence of bands in the high, medium and low molecular weight range. However, the two major bands were observed at approximately 90 kDa and approximately 60 kDa. A vesicle-mediated transfer of aminopeptidase to sperm cells has been also detected. Furthermore, a significant increase of acrosome reaction extent has been revealed in spermatozoa incubated with prostasome-like vesicles in comparison to control sperm.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report demonstrating that pig prostasome-like vesicles are able, in vitro, to interact with spermatozoa and to stimulate the acrosome reaction. These findings lead to hypothesize a transfer of molecules from vesicles to sperm membrane, thus sensitizing male gametes to undergo the acrosome reaction.

Comparison Between Epididymosomes Collected in the Intraluminal Compartment of the Bovine Caput and Cauda Epididymidis1

During their transit along the epididymidis, mammalian spermatozoa acquire new proteins involved in the acquisition of male gamete fertilizing ability. We previously described membranous vesicles called epididymosomes, which are secreted in an apocrine manner by the epididymal epithelium. Some selected proteins associated with epididymosomes are transferred to spermatozoa during epididymal transit. The present study compared epididymosomes collected from caput epididymal fluid with vesicles from the cauda epididymidis in the bull. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed major differences in protein composition of epididymosomes isolated from the caput and cauda epididymidis. LC-QToF analysis of major protein spots as well as Western blot analysis confirmed the differences in proteins associated with these two populations of epididymosomes. Biotinylated proteins associated with caput and cauda epididymosomes also revealed differences. When incubated with caput epididymal spermatozoa, epididymosomes prepared from these two segments transferred different protein patterns. By contrast, cauda epididymosomes transferred the same pattern of proteins to spermatozoa from the caput and cauda epididymidis. Transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa decreased in a dose-dependent manner when biotinylated epididymosomes were diluted with unbiotinylated vesicles. Caput epididymosomes added in excess were unable to inhibit transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa. Following transfer of biotinylated proteins from cauda epididymosomes to caput spermatozoa, addition of unbiotinylated cauda epididymosomes was unable to displace already transferred biotinylated proteins. These results established that epididymosomes from caput and cauda epididymidis have different protein composition and interact differently with maturing spermatozoa.

The origin of membrane vesicles in ram seminal plasma

The hypothesis tested in this study was that the membrane vesicles present in ram seminal plasma are of testicular origin, rather than being secreted by the accessory sex glands as has been previously reported for a number of species. Membrane vesicles were present in cellular extracts from reproductive organs and accessory sex glands of six rams, and in the seminal plasma of a further eight rams. When four of the latter rams were subjected to vasectomy, to isolate ejaculate contents to only the secretions of the accessory sex glands, the vesicles were largely eliminated from their ejaculates, while vesicles were still present in the ejaculates of the four control rams. The constituents of the cytoplasmic droplets and membrane vesicles derived from the seminal plasma were compared by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Vesicles present in the cytoplasmic droplets were similar in morphology but smaller on average than those in the seminal plasma. It was concluded that the membrane vesicles in ram seminal plasma originate from either the cytoplasmic droplets, or a combination of vesicles from the droplets and the epididymis.

Lipid Remodeling of Murine Epididymosomes and Spermatozoa During Epididymal Maturation1

We have isolated vesicular structures from mouse epididymal fluid, referred to as epididymosomes. Epididymosomes have a roughly spherical aspect and a bilayer membrane, and they are heterogeneous in size and content. They originate from the epididymal epithelium, notably from the caput region, and are emitted in the epididymal lumen by way of apocrine secretion. We characterized their membranous lipid profiles in caput and cauda epididymidal fluid samples and found that epididymosomes were particularly rich in sphingomyelin (SM) and arachidonic acid. The proportion of SM increased markedly during epididymal transit and represented half the total phospholipids in cauda epididymidal epididymosomes. The cholesterol:phospholipid ratio increased from 0.26 in the caput to 0.48 in the cauda epididymidis. Measures of epididymosomal membrane anisotropy revealed that epididymosomes became more rigid during epididymal transit, in agreement with their lipid composition. In addition, we have characterized the membrane lipid pattern of murine epididymal spermatozoa during their maturation. Here, we have shown that mouse epididymal spermatozoa were distinguished by high percentages of SM and polyunsaturated membranous fatty acids (PUFAs), principally represented by arachidonic, docosapentanoic, and docosahexanoic acids. Both SM and PUFA increased throughout the epididymal tract. In particular, we observed a threefold rise in the ratio of docosapentanoic acid. Epididymal spermatozoa had a constant cholesterol:phospholipid ratio (average, 0.30) during epididymal transit. These data suggest that in contrast with epididymosomes, spermatozoal membranes seem to become more fluid during epididymal maturation.

Biochemical characterization and membrane fluidity of membranous vesicles isolated from boar seminal plasma

Mammalian seminal plasma contains membranous vesicles (MV), which differ in composition and origin. Among these particles, human prostasomes and equine prostasome-like MV have been the most studied. The aim of the present work is to characterize the biochemical composition and membrane fluidity of MV isolated from boar seminal plasma. The MV from boar seminal plasma were isolated by ultracentrifugation and further purification by gel filtration on Sephadex G-200. The MV were examined by electron microscopy (EM), amount of cholesterol, total phospholipid, protein content, and phospholipid composition were analyzed. Membrane fluidity of MV and spermatozoa were estimated from the electron spin resonance (ESR) spectra of the 5-doxilstearic acid incorporated into the vesicle membranes by the order parameter (S). The S parameter gives a measure of degree of structural order in the membrane and is defined as the ratio of the spectral anisotropy in the membranes to the maximum anisotropy obtained in a rigidly oriented system. The S parameter takes into consideration that S = 1 for a rapid spin-label motion of about only one axis and S = 0 for a rapid isotropic motion. Intermediate S values between S = 0 and S = 1 represents the consequence of decreased membrane fluidity. The EM revealed the presence of bilaminar and multilaminar electron-dense vesicles. Cholesterol to phospholipid molar ratio from the isolated MV was 1.8. Phospholipid composition showed a predominance of sphingomyelin. The S parameter for porcine MV and for boar spermatozoa was 0.73 +/- 0.02 and 0.644 +/- 0.008, respectively, with the S for MV being greater (p < 0.001) than the S for spermatozoa. The high order for S found for boar MV was in agreement with the greater cholesterol/phospholipids ratio and the lesser ratio for phosphatidylcholine/sphingomyelin. Results obtained in the present work indicate that MV isolated from boar semen share many biochemical and morphological characteristics with equine prostasome-like MV and human prostasomes. The characteristics of the porcine MV of the seminal plasma, however, differed from those of boar sperm plasma membranes.

Advanced fertility diagnosis in stallion semen using transmission electron microscopy

Routine semen analysis of stallions is based on light microscopy (LM). However, there are still a number of animals that are subfertile or even infertile not being identified with conventional semen analysis. The objective of this study was to investigate the suitability of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for advanced fertility diagnosis in stallion. We examined ejaculates of 46 stallions with known fertility. Animals were divided into three different groups: group 1, fertile stallions (pregnant mares> or =70%, n=29); group 2, subfertile stallions (pregnant mares 10-69%, n=14); group 3, infertile stallions (pregnant mares<10%, n=3). Ejaculates were collected in spring 2002. Conventional semen analysis (volume, sperm concentration, motility, live:dead ratio and percentage of morphologically normal sperm) was immediately performed after semen collection. Ultrastructural analysis included the evaluation of 200 acrosomes, heads, midpieces and cross-sections of tails as well as 100 longitudinal sections of tails from every ejaculate. Using LM, we found a significant increase of morphological deviations from 24.5% (x ) in group 1 to 34.5% in group 2 and 73.5% in group 3. Using TEM, we found a significant increase of detached acrosomes from 6.1% in group 1 to 7.6% in group 2 and 21.4% in group 3. Deviations in tubule pattern were also increased (but not significant) from 2.7% in fertile and 2.8% in subfertile to 11.4% in infertile stallions as well as multiple tails from 1.9% in fertile to 2.0% in subfertile and 8.9% in infertile. Our data indicate that TEM is suitable for advanced fertility diagnostic in stallions, giving a connection between fertility and morphology. It suggests that the most likely reason for sub- and infertility in stallion in case of increased LM pathomorphology of semen are acrosomal alterations, especially detached acrosomes.

Proopiomelanocortin gene expression and β-endorphin localization in the pituitary, testis, and epididymis of stallion

Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor protein that contains the sequences of several bioactive peptides including adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), beta-endorphin (beta-EP), and melanocyte-stimulating-hormone (MSH). POMC is synthesized in the pituitary gland, brain, and many peripheral tissues. Immunoreactive POMC-derived peptides as well as POMC-like mRNA have been evidenced in several nonpituitary tissues, thus suggesting that POMC is actively synthesized by these tissues. The present study was aimed at evaluating if also in the case of stallion POMC-derived peptide, beta-EP, is produced locally in the testis, thus playing effects in a paracrine/autocrine fashion. To investigate this hypothesis the POMC gene expression was analyzed using 3' RACE-PCR and Northern Blot approaches in the testis and epididimys of stallion; moreover, immunocytochemical localization for beta-EP was also performed through confocal laser microscopy. The immunofluorescence results showed a positive beta-EP reaction not only in cellular nest of pituitary but also in the testis and genital tract of stallion, which function could be related with sperm mobility. Such role seem not to be no dependent on the peptide synthesized locally, because the molecular biology approach demonstrated the presence of POMC transcript in the pituitary only. In fact the Northern Blot analysis showed the presence of a single POMC transcript in the pituitary while no signal was detected in the testis and epididimys. The same results were obtained by applied 3' RACE-PCR analysis. In conclusion, opioid-derived peptide beta-EP is present in the genital tract of stallion, but is not locally produced as in other mammalian, and nonmammalian models; its possible biological function at testicular level could be linked to a long-loop feed-back mechanisms.

Characterization and Localization of Membrane Vesicles in Ejaculate Fractions from the Ram, Boar and Stallion

Membrane vesicles, separated by differential centrifugation from the seminal plasma, were detected in the sperm-rich ejaculate fractions of four boars and three stallions, and in the whole ejaculates of seven rams. The volume and percentage of vesicles, determined by a stereological technique, were higher in the sperm-rich than in the post-sperm-rich fractions of the boar and stallion ejaculates, and no vesicles were detected in the pre sperm-rich fractions. Vesicles were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For boar, stallion and ram semen, the mean (+/- s.e.m.) vesicle diameters were 130.9 +/- 3.22 (range 18-577), 164.1 +/- 4.42 (range 15-671) and 159.7 +/- 2.92 nm (range 22-986), respectively, although they were not significantly different (p = 0.709). The vesicles had approximately round (TEM) or spherical shape (SEM), were surrounded by single, double or multi-laminar membranes, and were trapped within ample amorphous material, sometimes containing short, flattened membranous elements. The majority of the vesicles had a clear interior but some contained granule-dense material. Ram membrane vesicles, purified from ultracentrifuged plasma by size exclusion chromatography, kept their round shape and the amorphous material was less evident compared with the sections taken before purification. This is the first report to identify seminal plasma membrane vesicles in the different fractions of ejaculated semen in the boar and stallion, and confirms their presence in ram seminal plasma. The origin and function of these vesicles are yet to be elucidated.

Role of human prostasomes in the activation of spermatozoa

Prostasomes are small vesicles of prostatic origin contained in human semen. Their composition is peculiar under many aspects. Cholesterol is abundant and many proteins are endowed with enzymatic or other activities. The function of prostasomes has been amply debated and several hypotheses have been put forward. The liquefaction of semen, spermatozoa motility, antibacterial activity and immunological functions have been related to prostasomes. Under certain aspects, prostasomes resemble synaptosomes. The fusion of prostasomes to spermatozoa enriches spermatozoa with cholesterol and causes bursts of cytoplasmic sperm calcium. The interaction of spermatozoa and prostasomes should be limited to vagina since prostasomes are immobile and do not follow spermatozoa in the superior female genital tract. Calcium bursts would increase spermatozoa motility, where cholesterol would decapacitate spermatozoa, so preventing untimely activation. Since spermatozoa receive many different molecules from prostasomes, additional effects are also possible. Prostasomes makes spermatozoa more apt to be activated by progesterone in the proximity of the ovum. Therefore, the fusion between spermatozoa and prostasomes would influence spermatozoa behaviour under many aspects and might be relevant for fecundation. The richness of molecular species in prostasomes is amazing and these small vesicles are expected to lead to many more discoveries in the field of human reproduction.

Fusion of prostasomes to human spermatozoa stimulates the acrosome reaction

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of the fusion of prostasomes to spermatozoa on the acrosome reaction.

DESIGN

In vitro study of human spermatozoa.

SETTING

Healthy volunteers in an academic research environment.

PATIENT(S)

Healthy volunteer men, 25 to 35 years old.

INTERVENTION(S)

Human semen was fractionated into spermatozoa and prostasomes. Fusion of prostasome to spermatozoa was performed at pH 5.5. Progesterone (1 microM) was added when required.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Evaluation of the acrosome reaction by fluorescence microscopy.

RESULTS(S)

The percentage of spontaneously acrosome-reacted cells was very low unless the Ca(2+)-ionophore A 23187 was added. The treatment of spermatozoa with 1 microM of progesterone scarcely affected the acrosome reaction; a pretreatment in conditions permitting fusion increased it. The addition of progesterone to prostasome-fused spermatozoa further increased the extent of the acrosome reaction.

CONCLUSION(S)

The H(+)-dependent fusion with prostasomes makes spermatozoa more sensitive to the effect of progesterone on acrosome-reaction induction.

GPX5 is present in the mouse caput and cauda epididymidis lumen at three different locations

In mice, GPX5 is a secreted protein abundantly synthesized by the caput epididymidis. The protein is secreted as early as the initial segment of the caput and is found subsequently associated with the sperm plasma membrane in a sub-acrosomic localization. We show here that GPX5 is present in the caput and cauda epididymides lumens in three different locations: either free as a soluble protein in the caput epididymal fluid, weakly bound to caput sperm membranes, or, finally, associated to lipid-containing structures conferring to the protein a protective effect against proteolytic digestions. Within the cauda epididymidis, the amount of free GPX5 is low compared to the caput and the association with sperm membranes proved to be more solid. In both caput and cauda sperm samples, the association of GPX5 with the sperm membrane protects GPX5 from proteolytic cleavages. Protection against proteolytic digestions can be overcome by physical treatments of epididymal fluid and sperm samples such as ultrasounds or very acidic pH. These data suggest that complex phenomena and structures participate in the transfer and binding of the caput-secreted GPX5 protein to the sperm plasma membrane.

Prostasome-like particles are involved in the transfer of P25b from the bovine epididymal fluid to the sperm surface

In bulls, P25b is a sperm protein associated with the plasma membrane covering the acrosome. The amount of P25b bound to a constant number of spermatozoa varies from one individual to the other, low levels being associated with bull subfertility. In this study, we describe the epididymal origin of P25b using Western blot analysis. Whereas P25b was undetectable on caput spermatozoa, the amount of P25b associated to a constant number of spermatozoa increases from the corpus to the cauda. Prostasome-like particles were prepared by ultracentrifugation of epididymal fluid. P25b appears to be also associated with those membranous vesicles in increasing amounts along the epididymis. P25b is anchored to the plasma membrane of spermatozoa through glycosylphosphatidyl-inositol as shown by the ability of phospholipase C. but not of high salt treatment, to release P25b. Coincubation experiments revealed that prostasome-like particles are able to transfer P25b to spermatozoa, this process being more efficient at slightly acidic pH. P25b thus appears to be a marker of sperm epididymal maturation in bulls.

Lipid fatty acid and protein pattern of equine prostasome-like vesicles

The semen of several mammals contains vesicles of different composition and origin. We have recently reported on the presence of lipoprotein vesicles in stallion semen. To a certain extent, these resemble human prostasomes, but differ from them in amount and composition. These horse-semen prostasome-like vesicles may be important, not only in horse reproductive physiology, but also in view of stallion semen cryopreservation. In this paper, we have studied horse-semen prostasome-like vesicles and found that they possess less saturated fatty acid than human prostasomes. Moreover, their protein pattern (SDS-PAGE electrophoresis) shows that the 30-50-kDa fraction is less abundant in stallion vesicles. In addition, fluidity (measured as fluorescence anisotropy of diphenylhexatriene) is higher in horse prostasome-like vesicles than in human prostasomes, albeit being much lower than that of most membranes. These findings may be connected to some species-related differences in reproductive physiology: the vaginal milieu of the mare is not acidic and the deposition of semen is intrauterine in the horse but vaginal in humans.

Immunohistochemical localization of protein gene product 9.5, ubiquitin, and neuropeptide Y immunoreactivities in epithelial and neuroendocrine cells from normal and hyperplastic human prostate

This study was designed to investigate (a) the presence of protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5), ubiquitin, and neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the neuroendocrine and secretory epithelium of the human normal prostate and its secretions, and (b) the changes in immunoreactivity to these proteins in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Western blotting and light microscopic immunohistochemistry techniques were used and the numerical density of immunoreactive neuroendocrine cells, and the volume fractions of immunostained secretory epithelium were evaluated. Western blotting revealed the presence of the three antigens in both tissue homogenates and prostate secretion. Some neuroendocrine cells immunoreacted to PGP 9.5 and NPY in all the prostate regions of control specimens. Ubiquitin immunoreactivity was detected in the nuclei from both basal cells and secretory epithelial cells. The cytoplasm of the secretory cells and the glandular lumen also showed immunostaining for the three proteins. The numerical densities of both PGP 9.5 and NPY neuroendocrine cells were lower in hyperplasia than in controls. No differences in the volume fraction occupied by epithelial immunostaining to both proteins was found between hyperplastic and control prostates. We concluded that (a) PGP 9.5 and NPY, but not ubiquitin, are common antigens in both neuroendocrine and secretory prostate cells, (b) the three immunoreactive proteins contribute to the prostate secretions, and (c) the secretion of ubiquitin is markedly diminished in the hyperplastic epithelium.(J Histochem Cytochem 48:1121-1130, 2000)

Distribution of lipid and protein in human semen fractions

Human semen is formed by the secretions of different glands. We fractionated semen by centrifugation and obtained four main fractions: (a) spermatozoa, (b) material precipitating at 10¿ omitted¿000xg, (c) prostasomes (precipitate at 105¿ omitted¿000xg), and (d) a soluble fraction. When required, fractions were purified further. We find that most semen protein (about 85%) is in the soluble fraction, 7% in spermatozoa and the remainder is scattered in the other fractions. We compared the electrophoretic pattern of soluble protein with the protein of prostasomes and found marked differences. On the other hand, prostasomes, that comprises only about 3% of total semen protein, contain about 45% of cholesterol and almost 15% of lipid phosphorus with a cholesterol to phospholipid molar ratio greater than 2. On the contrary, phospholipid is largely bound to the fraction containing spermatozoa (about 46% of total lipid phosphorus). This fraction is poor in cholesterol and has a cholesterol to phospholipid molar ratio of about 0.2. The distribution of lipid phosphorus among lipid classes shows some similarity in the soluble fraction and in prostasomes; in both fractions, sphingomyelin is the most abundant phospholipid (about 50%). On the other hand, phosphatidylcholine is the main phospholipid in spermatozoa-enriched fractions (about 35% of total lipid phosphorus). We conclude that the various fractions of seminal plasma obtained by centrifugation differ markedly from each other as to lipid and protein content.

CD26 and adenosine deaminase interaction: its role in the fusion between horse membrane vesicles and spermatozoa

Membrane vesicles of horse seminal plasma present at their surface a highly specific serine-type protease, dipeptidyl peptidase IV/CD26, a surface antigen known to characterize human prostasomes. Horse sperm cells expressed at their surface A(1) adenosine receptors (A(1)AR) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (ecto-ADA), both detected by immunoblot analysis, whereas CD26 was visualized at the equatorial segment by immunofluorescence microscopy. In addition to CD26, horse membrane vesicles showed ecto-ADA. The fusion process between horse sperm cells and vesicles was evidenced by confocal microscopy, which showed the localization of CD26 at the postacrosomal region and at the midpiece of the spermatozoa after incubation with vesicles. Moreover, a similar localization of CD26 and ecto-ADA on the spermatozoa was evidenced after fusion. Our results suggest that the interaction CD26/ecto-ADA might be responsible for fusion. Since A(1)ARs are said to be second receptors for ecto-ADA to form ecto-ADA/A(1)AR complexes, and since horse spermatozoa have A(1)ARs at their surface, the interaction CD26/ecto-ADA/A(1)AR during the fusion process cannot be ruled out.

Fatty acid pattern of human prostasome lipid

Prostasomes are organelles of prostatic origin found in human semen. Their average diameter is about 150 nm and they appear as a lipoprotein membrane surrounding less organized material. Their lipid composition is peculiar, having much cholesterol and sphingomyelin. On the other hand, many of their proteins possess catalytic activity and are involved in the immune response. In previous work, we have shown that prostasomes may fuse to sperm at slightly acidic pH values, thereby modifying the composition of the sperm plasma membrane. In this paper, we examine the fatty acid pattern of prostasome lipid and find that it is completely different from that of sperm membrane lipid. Polyunsaturated phosphatidylcholines, common in sperm membrane, are rare in prostasome. Therefore, the fusion between prostasomes and sperm should stabilize sperm plasma membrane by enriching it in cholesterol, sphingomyelin, and saturated glycerophospholipid. This would prevent the untimely occurrence of the acrosome reaction.