Site-specific methylation of the promoter alters deoxyribonucleic acid-protein interactions and prevents follicle-stimulating hormone receptor gene transcription

The FSHR G-29A variant is not associated with the ovarian response to exogenous FSH stimulation

A common genetic variant in the follicle stimulating hormone receptor gene (FSHR) 5'-untranslated region has been previously reported to influence FSHR gene expression. However, studies on the ovarian response to exogenous gonadotropin stimulation are limited. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association of variants at positions -29 of the FSHR gene with the ovarian response to exogenous FSH stimulation in Chinese women. The genotypes of the FSHR gene were assayed using the Sequenom MassARRAY system. Total RNA and protein was extracted from granulosa cells, and FSHR expression at the mRNA and protein levels was assessed using quantitative PCR and western blotting. Our data revealed that there was no association between the FSHR genotype at the -29 position and the outcome of controlled ovarian stimulation. The expression of FSHR, at both the mRNA and protein levels, was similar amongst the different FSHR genotypes assessed, but was significantly reduced in the low responders. These results indicate that the variants caused by mutations at position -29 are not associated with ovarian response, and the low ovarian response to gonadotropin stimulation may be caused by decreased FSHR expression.

Developmental Programming: Contribution of Epigenetic Enzymes to Antral Follicular Defects in the Sheep Model of PCOS

Prenatal testosterone (T)-treated sheep, similar to women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), manifest oligo-/anovulation, hyperandrogenism, and polyfollicular ovary. The polyfollicular ovarian morphology, a result of persistence of antral follicles, arises, in part, by transcriptional changes in key mediators of follicular development that, in turn, are driven by epigenetic mechanisms. We hypothesized that prenatal T excess induces, in a cell-specific manner, transcriptional changes in key mediators of follicular development associated with relevant changes in epigenetic machinery. Expression levels of key mediators of follicular development, DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), and histone de-/methylases and de-/acetylases were determined in laser-capture microdissection-isolated antral follicular granulosa and theca and ovarian stromal cells from 21 months of age control and prenatal T-treated sheep (100 mg IM twice weekly from gestational day 30 to 90; term: 147 days). Changes in histone methylation were determined by immunofluorescence. Prenatal T treatment induced the following: (i) cell-specific changes in gene expression of key mediators of follicular development and steroidogenesis; (ii) granulosa, theca, and stromal cell-specific changes in DNMTs and histone de-/methylases and deacetylases, and (iii) increases in histone 3 trimethylation at lysine 9 in granulosa and histone 3 dimethylation at lysine 4 in theca cells. The pattern of histone methylation was consistent with the expression profile of histone de-/methylases in the respective cells. These findings suggest that changes in expression of key genes involved in the development of the polyfollicular phenotype in prenatal T-treated sheep are mediated, at least in part, by cell-specific changes in epigenetic-modifying enzymes.

Effect of CREB1 promoter non-CpG island methylation on its differential expression profile on sheep ovaries associated with prolificacy

This study aimed to investigate the effect of different methylated regions of cyclic-AMP response element binding protein 1 (CREB1) by comparing the high prolificacy (HP) group and low prolificacy (LP) group, which was detected in our previous study. The expression level of CREB1 mRNA in the ovaries of the HP group was higher than in the LP group (P <  0.05). The differential methylated region (DMR) had 4 methylated CG dinucleotides(CGs): -1546, -1544, -1494 and -1464. The DNA methylation levels of -1546 CGs and -1464 CGs were significantly higher in the HP group than in the LP group (P <  0.05). The activity from -1296 to +26 (without DMR) was significantly higher than the activity from -1598 to +26 (with DMR) (P <  0.05). The result of 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine treatment indicated that the inhibition DNA methylation of DMR reduced the transcription of CREB1. The bioinformatics predictive analysis were found that the -1546 CG site was located in the CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha (CEBPA) binding site and the -1464 CG site was located in the Sp1 binding site. Finally, this study revealed the relationship between the methylation of non-CpG sites of the promoter and transcription of CREB1. This study will provide a theoretical basis of the Hu sheep ovaries associated with DNA methylation.

Pharmacogenetics of FSH Action in the Male

Male infertility is a major contributor to couple infertility, however in most cases it remains "idiopathic" and putative treatment regimens are lacking. This leads to a scenario in which intra-cytoplasmic spermatozoa injection (ICSI) is widely used in idiopathic male infertility, though the treatment burden is high for the couple and it entails considerable costs and risks. Given the crucial role of the Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) for spermatogenesis, FSH has been used empirically to improve semen parameters, but the response to FSH varied strongly among treated infertile men. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within FSH ligand/receptor genes (FSHB/FSHR), significantly influencing reproductive parameters in men, represent promising candidates to serve as pharmacogenetic markers to improve prediction of response to FSH. Consequently, several FSH-based pharmacogenetic studies have been conducted within the last years with unfortunately wide divergence concerning selection criteria, treatment and primary endpoints. In this review we therefore outline the current knowledge on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the FSH and FSH receptor genes and their putative functional effects. We compile and critically assess the previously performed pharmacogenetic studies in the male and propose a putative strategy that might allow identifying patients who could benefit from FSH treatment.

An overview of a Sertoli cell transplantation model to study testis morphogenesis and the role of the Sertoli cells in immune privilege

Advanced testicular germ cells, expressing novel cell surface and intracellular proteins, appear after the establishment of central tolerance and thus are auto-immunogenic. However, due to testis immune privilege these germ cells normally do not evoke a detrimental immune response. The Sertoli cell (SC) barrier (also known as the blood-testis barrier) creates a unique microenvironment required for the completion of spermatogenesis and sequesters the majority of the advanced germ cells from the immune system. Given that an intact SC barrier is necessary for spermatogenesis and that disruption of the SC barrier results in loss of advanced germ cells independent of an immune response, this dual role of the SC barrier makes it difficult to directly test the importance of the SC barrier in immune privilege. The ability of SCs to survive and protect co-grafted cells when transplanted ectopically (outside the testis) across immunological barriers is well-documented. Here, we will discuss the use of a SC transplantation model to investigate the role of SC and the SC barrier in immune privilege. Additionally, the formation of cord/tubule like structures in this model, containing both SCs and myoid cells, further extends its application to study testis morphogenesis. We will also discuss the potential use of this model to study the effects of drugs/environmental toxins on testis morphogenesis, tight junction formation and SC-myoid cell interactions.

Sex of co-twin affects the in vitro developmental competence of oocytes derived from 6- to 8-week-old lambs

Several intrinsic factors (age, genotype, liveweight) influence the reliability of juvenile in vitro fertilisation embryo transfer (JIVET) programs. Limited evidence indicates that variability between lambs is reduced in twin-born lambs. We examined the impact of birth type (single, twin, triplet) and sex of the co-twin (with age, birthweight and liveweight as covariates) on JIVET outcomes. Birth type did not influence any parameter studied. However, blastocysts produced, as a percentage of embryos cleaved or total cumulus–oocyte complexes collected, was higher (P < 0.05) for females born with a female co-twin (67.0 ± 6.1, 57.5 ± 6.0 respectively) compared with those born with a male co-twin (26.9 ± 6.5, 22.3 ± 6.2 respectively; least-square mean ± s.e.m.). Blastocyst rates for lambs born with a male co-twin did not differ significantly from lambs born either as singles (39.5 ± 6.7%, 34.6 ± 6.5% respectively) or triplets (43.1 ± 10.6%, 36.5 ± 10.3% respectively). Other parameters were not influenced by sex of the co-twin. These results are indicative of an enhancement effect of the female co-twin on oocyte development. From a practical perspective, selecting lambs for a JIVET program based on litter size and sex of the co-twin is warranted.

Epigenetic pattern changes in prenatal female Sprague-Dawley rats following exposure to androgen

Androgen excess is generally considered to be one of the major characteristics of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Evidence from both clinical research and animal studies has revealed that this syndrome may have fetal origins, with epigenetics being proposed as the underlying mechanism. Our PCOS rat model induced by prenatal administration of 3mg testosterone from Embryonic Day (E) 16 to E19 showed polycystic ovaries, irregular oestrous cycles and endocrine disorders in adulthood. The methylation status of 16, 8 and 4 cytosine-phosphate-guanine (CpG) sites in the promoter regions of the androgen receptor (Ar), cytochrome P450 family 11, subfamily A, polypeptide 1 (Cyp11a1) and cytochrome P450, family 17, subfamily A, polypeptide 1 (Cyp17a1) genes, respectively, were measured by pyrosequencing. We identified three hypomethylated sites (CpG +58, +65 and +150) in Ar and one hypomethylated site (CpG +1016) in Cyp11a1 in peripheral blood cells of prenatally androgenised (PNA) rats. In ovarian tissue, five CpG sites of Ar (CpG +87, +91, +93, +98, +150) and one single CpG site in Cyp11a1 (CpG +953) were significantly hypomethylated in PNA rats, but the modified methylation of these two genes may not be sufficient to significantly alter levels of gene expression. Furthermore, tissue-specific methylation analysis revealed that both Ar and Cyp11a1 exhibited significant hypomethylation in testis in contrast with ovary and blood. PNA may lead to methylation pattern changes and the development of PCOS, but further studies are required to reveal causal relationships.

Abnormal ovarian DNA methylation programming during gonad maturation in wild contaminated fish

There is increasing evidence that pollutants may cause diseases via epigenetic modifications. Epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation participate in the regulation of gene transcription. Surprisingly, epigenetics research is still limited in ecotoxicology. In this study, we investigated whether chronic exposure to contaminants experienced by wild female fish (Anguilla anguilla) throughout their juvenile phase can affect the DNA methylation status of their oocytes during gonad maturation. Thus, fish were sampled in two locations presenting a low or a high contamination level. Then, fish were transferred to the laboratory and artificially matured. Before hormonal treatment, the DNA methylation levels of the genes encoding for the aromatase and the receptor of the follicle stimulating hormone were higher in contaminated fish than in fish from the clean site. For the hormone receptor, this hypermethylation was positively correlated with the contamination level of fish and was associated with a decrease in its transcription level. In addition, whereas gonad growth was associated with an increase in DNA methylation in fish from the clean site, no changes were observed in contaminated fish in response to hormonal treatment. Finally, a higher gonad growth was observed in fish from the reference site in comparison to contaminated fish.

On the origin of information in epigenetic structures in metazoans

Epigenetic inheritance implies the existence of epigenetic information. Great progress has been made in recent years in understanding the role of the changes in epigenetic structures (methylated DNA, histone acetylation/deacetylation and chromatin remodelling) as well as the role of miRNA (MIR) expression patterns in epigenetic processes. However, as of yet, we do not have a satisfactory understanding of the origin of epigenetic information stored in, and conveyed by, these structures. We do not know whether these structures are the ultimate source of the information or whether they are simply media for storing and transmitting epigenetic information for gene expression from upstream sources to the phenotype. Herein an attempt is made to ascertain the ultimate sources of the epigenetic information they contain and transmit by tracing back the causal chain leading to the changes in epigenetic structures.

Epigenetic regulation and functional characterization of microRNA-142 in mesenchymal cells

The transcripts encoded by the microRNA mir-142 gene are highly active in hematopoietic cells, but expressed at low levels in many other cell types. Treatment with the demethylating agent 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine increased both the 1,636 nucleotide primary transcript and mature miR-142-5p/3p in mesenchymal cells, indicating that mir-142 is epigenetically repressed by DNA methylation. The transcription start site was determined to be located 1,205 base pairs upstream of the precursor sequence within a highly conserved CpG island. In addition, a second CpG island overlapped with the precursor. A TATA-box, several promoter-proximal elements and enrichment of conserved transcription factor binding sites within the first 100 base pairs upstream of the transcription start site, suggests that this region represents the core/proximal mir-142 promoter. Moreover, both CpG islands were heavily methylated in mesenchymal cells, having low levels of miR-142-5p/3p, and unmethylated in hematopoietic cells where both miRNAs were abundantly expressed. We show that treatment with 5-Aza-2′-deoxycytidine significantly reduced the DNA methylation of the upstream CpG island, which led to increased expression, and that in vitro DNA methylation of the upstream region of the mir-142 precursor repressed its transcriptional activity. When overexpressed, miR-142-5p/3p reduced proliferation of cells with epigenetic silencing of endogenous mir-142. This finding is interesting as miR-142-5p/3p have been reported to be deregulated in tumors of mesenchymal origin. We provide the first experimental evidence that transcription of mir-142 is directly repressed by DNA methylation. In addition, we discovered that the antisense strand of mir-142 might act as a precursor for functional mature antisense miRNAs. Thus, our study expands the current knowledge about the regulation of mir-142 and function of miR-142-5p/3p, and adds novel insight into the rapidly increasing field of microRNA regulation.

TM6, a novel nuclear matrix attachment region, enhances its flanking gene expression through influencing their chromatin structure

Nuclear matrix attachment regions (MARs) regulate the higher-order organization of chromatin and affect the expression of their flanking genes. In this study, a tobacco MAR, TM6, was isolated and demonstrated to remarkably increase the expression of four different promoters that drive gusA gene and adjacent nptII gene. In turn, this expression enhanced the transformation frequency of transgenic tobacco. Deletion analysis of topoisomerase II-binding site, AT-rich element, and MAR recognition signature (MRS) showed that MRS has the highest contribution (61.7%) to the TM6 sequence-mediated transcription activation. Micrococcal nuclease (MNase) accessibility assay showed that 35S and NOS promoter regions with TM6 are more sensitive than those without TM6. The analysis also revealed that TM6 reduces promoter DNA methylation which can affect the gusA expression. In addition, two tobacco chromatin-associated proteins, NtMBP1 and NtHMGB, isolated using a yeast one-hybrid system, specifically bound to the TM6II-1 region (761 bp to 870 bp) and to the MRS element in the TM6II-2 (934 bp to 1,021 bp) region, respectively. We thus suggested that TM6 mediated its chromatin opening and chromatin accessibility of its flanking promoters with consequent enhancement of transcription.

DNA methylation and mRNA expression profiles in bovine oocytes derived from prepubertal and adult donors

The developmental capacity of oocytes from prepubertal cattle is reduced compared with their adult counterparts, and epigenetic mechanisms are thought to be involved herein. Here, we analyzed DNA methylation in three developmentally important, nonimprinted genes (SLC2A1, PRDX1, ZAR1) and two satellite sequences, i.e. ‘bovine testis satellite I’ (BTS) and ‘Bos taurus alpha satellite I’ (BTαS). In parallel, mRNA expression of the genes was determined by quantitative real-time PCR. Oocytes were retrieved from prepubertal calves and adult cows twice per week over a 3-week period by ultrasound-guided follicular aspiration after treatment with FSH and/or IGF1. Both immature and in vitro matured prepubertal and adult oocytes showed a distinct hypomethylation profile of the three genes without differences between the two types of donors. The methylation status of the BTS sequence changed according to the age and treatment while the methylation status of BTαS sequence remained largely unchanged across the different age and treatment groups. Relative transcript abundance of the selected genes was significantly different in immature and in vitro matured oocytes; only minor changes related to origin and treatment were observed. In conclusion, methylation levels of the investigated satellite sequences were high (>50%) in all groups and showed significant variation depending on the age, treatment, or in vitro maturation. To what extent this is involved in the acquisition of developmental competence of bovine oocytes needs further study.

The neurosteroid dehydroepiandrosterone could improve somatic cell reprogramming

Expression of four major reprogramming transgenes, including Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-myc, in somatic cells enables them to have pluripotency. These cells are iPSC (induced pluripotent stem cell) that currently show the greatest potential for differentiation into cells of the three germ lineages. One of the issues facing the successful reprogramming and clinical translation of iPSC technology is the high rate of apoptosis after the reprogramming process. Reprogramming is a stressful process, and the p53 apoptotic pathway plays a negative role in cell growth and self-renewal. Apoptosis via the p53 pathway serves as a major barrier in nuclear somatic cell reprogramming during iPSC generation. DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is an abundant steroid that is produced at high levels in the adrenal cells, and withdrawal of DHEA increases the levels of p53 in the epithelial and stromal cells, resulting in increased levels of apoptotic cells; meanwhile, DHEA decreases cellular apoptosis. DHEA could improve the efficacy of reprogramming yield due to a decrease in apoptosis via the p53 pathway and an increase in cell viability.

Epigenetics meets endocrinology

Although genetics determines endocrine phenotypes, it cannot fully explain the great variability and reversibility of the system in response to environmental changes. Evidence now suggests that epigenetics, i.e. heritable but reversible changes in gene function without changes in nucleotide sequence, links genetics and environment in shaping endocrine function. Epigenetic mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and microRNA, partition the genome into active and inactive domains based on endogenous and exogenous environmental changes and developmental stages, creating phenotype plasticity that can explain interindividual and population endocrine variability. We will review the current understanding of epigenetics in endocrinology, specifically, the regulation by epigenetics of the three levels of hormone action (synthesis and release, circulating and target tissue levels, and target-organ responsiveness) and the epigenetic action of endocrine disruptors. We will also discuss the impacts of hormones on epigenetics. We propose a three-dimensional model (genetics, environment, and developmental stage) to explain the phenomena related to progressive changes in endocrine functions with age, the early origin of endocrine disorders, phenotype discordance between monozygotic twins, rapid shifts in disease patterns among populations experiencing major lifestyle changes such as immigration, and the many endocrine disruptions in contemporary life. We emphasize that the key for understanding epigenetics in endocrinology is the identification, through advanced high-throughput screening technologies, of plasticity genes or loci that respond directly to a specific environmental stimulus. Investigations to determine whether epigenetic changes induced by today's lifestyles or environmental 'exposures' can be inherited and are reversible should open doors for applying epigenetics to the prevention and treatment of endocrine disorders.

In silico analysis and DHPLC screening strategy identifies novel apoptotic gene targets of aberrant promoter hypermethylation in prostate cancer

BACKGROUND

Aberrant DNA methylation has been implicated as a key survival mechanism in cancer, whereby promoter hypermethylation silences genes essential for many cellular processes including apoptosis. Limited data is available on the methylation profile of apoptotic genes in prostate cancer (CaP). The aim of this study was to profile methylation of apoptotic-related genes in CaP using denaturing high performance liquid chromatography (DHPLC).

METHODS

Based on an in silico selection process, 13 genes were screened for methylation in CaP cell lines using DHPLC. Quantitative methylation specific PCR was employed to determine methylation levels in prostate tissue specimens (n = 135), representing tumor, histologically benign prostate, high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Gene expression was measured by QRT-PCR in cell lines and tissue specimens.

RESULTS

The promoters of BIK, BNIP3, cFLIP, TMS1, DCR1, DCR2, and CDKN2A appeared fully or partially methylated in a number of malignant cell lines. This is the first report of aberrant methylation of BIK, BNIP3, and cFLIP in CaP. Quantitative methylation analysis in prostate tissues identified 5 genes (BNIP3, CDKN2A, DCR1, DCR2 and TMS1) which were frequently methylated in tumors but were unmethylated in 100% of benign tissues. Furthermore, 69% of tumors were methylated in at least one of the five-gene panel. In the case of all genes, except BNIP3, promoter hypermethylation was associated with concurrent downregulation of gene expression.

CONCLUSION

Future examination of this "CaP apoptotic methylation signature" in a larger cohort of patients is justified to further evaluate its value as a diagnostic and prognostic marker.

Current concepts of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor gene regulation

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), a pituitary glycoprotein hormone, is an integral component of the endocrine axis that regulates gonadal function and fertility. To transmit its signal, FSH must bind to its receptor (FSHR) located on Sertoli cells of the testis and granulosa cells of the ovary. Thus, both the magnitude and the target of hormone response are controlled by mechanisms that determine FSHR levels and cell-specific expression, which are supported by transcription of its gene. The present review examines the status of FSHR/Fshr gene regulation, emphasizing the importance of distal sequences in FSHR/Fshr transcription, new insights gained from the influx of genomics data and bioinformatics, and emerging trends that offer direction in deciphering the FSHR/Fshr regulatory landscape.

H. pylori-induced promoter hypermethylation downregulates USF1 and USF2 transcription factor gene expression

Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with the development of gastric adenocarcinoma. Upstream stimulatory factors USF1 and USF2 regulate the transcription of genes related to immune response, cell cycle and cell proliferation. A decrease in their expression is observed in human gastric epithelial cells infected with H. pylori, associated to a lower binding to their DNA E-box recognition site as shown by electrophoretic mobility shift assay. DNA methylation leads to gene silencing. The treatment of cells with 5'-azacytidine, an inhibitor of DNA methylation, restored the USF1 and USF2 gene expression in the presence of infection. Using promoter PCR methylation assay, a DNA hypermethylation was shown in the promoter region of USF1 and USF2 genes, in infected cells. The inhibition of USF1 and USF2 expression by H. pylori and the DNA hypermethylation in their gene promoter region was confirmed in gastric tissues isolated from 12 to 18 months infected mice. Our study demonstrated the involvement of USF1 and USF2 as molecular targets of H. pylori and the key role of DNA methylation in their regulation. These mechanisms occurred in the context of metaplastic lesions, suggesting that alteration of USF1 and USF2 levels could participate in the promotion of neoplastic process during H. pylori infection.

Upstream stimulating factors 1 and 2 enhance transcription from the placenta-specific promoter 1.1 of the bovine cyp19 gene

Background

Placenta-derived oestrogens have an impact on the growth and differentiation of the trophoblast, and are involved in processes initiating and facilitating birth. The enzyme that converts androgens into oestrogens, aromatase cytochrome P450 (P450arom), is encoded by the Cyp19 gene. In the placenta of the cow, expression of Cyp19 relies on promoter 1.1 (P1.1). Our recent studies of P1.1 in vitro and in a human trophoblast cell line (Jeg3) revealed that interactions of placental nuclear protein(s) with the E-box element at position -340 are required for full promoter activity. The aim of this work was to identify and characterise the placental E-box (-340)-binding protein(s) (E-BP) as a step towards understanding how the expression of Cyp19 is regulated in the bovine placenta.

Results

The significance of the E-box was confirmed in cultured primary bovine trophoblasts. We enriched the E-BP from placental nuclear extracts using DNA-affinity Dynabeads and showed by Western blot analysis and supershift EMSA experiments that the E-BP is composed of the transcription factors upstream stimulating factor (USF) 1 and USF2. Depletion of the USFs by RNAi and expression of a dominant-negative USF mutant, were both associated with a significant decrease in P1.1-dependent reporter gene expression. Furthermore, scatter plot analysis of P1.1 activity vs. USF binding to the E-box revealed a strong positive correlation between the two parameters.

Conclusion

From these results we conclude that USF1 and USF2 are activators of the bovine placenta-specific promoter P1.1 and thus act in the opposite mode as in the case of the non-orthologous human placenta-specific promoter.

Demethylation of LHR in dehydroepiandrosterone-induced mouse model of polycystic ovary syndrome

The cause of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), a complex endocrine disorder, is unknown, but its familial aggregation implies underlying genetic influences. Hyperandrogenemia is regarded as a major endocrine character of the PCOS. In this study, we employed bisulfite sequencing and bisulfite restriction analysis to investigate the DNA methylation status of LHR, AR, FSHR and H19 in dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)-induced mouse PCOS model. The result showed that methylation of LHR was lost in ovary from induced PCOS mouse. However, AR, FSHR and H19 had similar methylation pattern in DHEA-treated group and control groups. These data provide evidence for close linkage between DNA demethylation of LHR and PCOS.

In vivo regulation of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor by the transcription factors upstream stimulatory factor 1 and upstream stimulatory factor 2 is cell specific

Pituitary FSH promotes pubertal timing and normal gametogenesis by binding its receptor (FSHR) located on Sertoli and granulosa cells of the testis and ovary, respectively. Studies on Fshr transcription provide substantial evidence that upstream stimulatory factor (USF) 1 and USF2, basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper proteins, regulate Fshr through an E-box within its promoter. However, despite the strong in vitro support for USF1 and USF2 in Fshr regulation, there is currently no in vivo corroborating evidence. In the present study, chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrated specific binding of USF1 and USF2 to the Fshr promoter in both Sertoli and granulosa cells, in vivo. Control cells lacking Fshr expression showed no USF-Fshr promoter binding, thus correlating USF-promoter binding to gene activity. Evaluation of Fshr expression in Usf1 and Usf2 null mice further explored USF's role in Fshr transcription. Loss of either gene significantly reduced ovarian Fshr levels, whereas testis levels were unaltered. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis of USF-Fshr promoter binding in Usf-null mice indicated differences in the composition of promoter-bound USF dimers in granulosa and Sertoli cells. Promoter-bound USF dimer levels declined in granulosa cells from both null mice, despite increased USF2 levels in Usf1-null ovaries. However, compensatory increases in promoter-bound USF homodimers were evident in Usf-null Sertoli cells. In summary, this study provides the first in vivo evidence that USF1 and USF2 bind the Fshr promoter and revealed differences between Sertoli and granulosa cells in compensatory responses to USF loss and the USF dimeric composition required for Fshr transcription.

Regulation of FSH receptor promoter activation in the osteoclast

We have shown recently that FSH stimulates osteoclast formation and function by a direct action on a G(i)-coupled FSH receptor (FSHR). Here, we report properties of the mouse FSH receptor promoter in the context of its activation in RAW-C3 osteoclast precursor macrophages. Basal promoter activity was low, but was significantly stimulated by receptor activator for NF-kappaB-ligand (RANK-L), a critical osteoclastogenic and pro-resorptive cytokine. In contrast, FSH dampened FSHR promoter activation, while estrogen had no effect. We surmise that the FSHR expression is regulated distinctly in the osteoclast, and differently from other cells, such as the ovarian follicular and Leydig cells.

Gonadotropins and ovarian cancer

Ovarian epithelial cancer (OEC) accounts for 90% of all ovarian cancers and is the leading cause of death from gynecological cancers in North America and Europe. Despite its clinical significance, the factors that regulate the development and progression of ovarian cancer are among the least understood of all major human malignancies. The two gonadotropins, FSH and LH, are key regulators of ovarian cell functions, and the potential role of gonadotropins in the pathogenesis of ovarian cancer is suggested. Ovarian carcinomas have been found to express specific receptors for gonadotropins. The presence of gonadotropins in ovarian tumor fluid suggests the importance of these factors in the transformation and progression of ovarian cancers as well as being prognostic indicators. Functionally, there is evidence showing a direct action of gonadotropins on ovarian tumor cell growth. This review summarizes the key findings and recent advances in our understanding of these peptide hormones in ovarian cancer development and progression and their role in potential future cancer therapy. We will first discuss the supporting evidence and controversies in the "gonadotropin theory" and the use of animal models for exploring the involvement of gonadotropins in the etiology of ovarian cancer. The role of gonadotropins in regulating the proliferation, survival, and metastasis of OEC is next summarized. Relevant data from ovarian surface epithelium, which is widely believed to be the precursor of OEC, are also described. Finally, we will discuss the clinical applications of gonadotropins in ovarian cancer and the recent progress in drug development.

Transcriptional regulation of the FSH receptor: new perspectives

The cell-surface receptor for the gonadotropin follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) is expressed exclusively on Sertoli cells of the testis and granulosa cells of the ovary. FSH signal transduction through its receptor (Fshr) is critical for the timing and maintenance of normal gametogenesis in the mammalian gonad. In the 13 years since the gene encoding Fshr was first cloned, the mechanisms controlling its transcription have been extensively examined, but a clear understanding of what drives its unique cell-specificity remains elusive. Current knowledge of basal Fshr transcription highlights the role of an E-box in the proximal promoter which is bound by the basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors upstream stimulatory factor 1 (Usf1) and Usf2. Recent studies utilizing knockout mice and chromatin immunoprecipitation validated the importance of Usf to Fshr transcription and demonstrated a sexually dimorphic requirement for the Usf proteins to maintain normal Fshr expression. Studies have also shown that the promoter region itself is insufficient for appropriate Fshr expression in transgenic mice, indicating Fshr transcription depends on regulatory elements that lie outside of the promoter. Identification of such elements has been propelled by recent availability of genome sequence data, which facilitated studies using comparative genomics, DNase I hypersensitivity mapping, and transgenic analysis with large fragments of DNA. This review will focus on the current understanding of transcriptional regulatory processes that control expression of rat Fshr, including recent advances from our laboratory.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor are associated with ovarian cancer susceptibility

Epidemiological studies suggested that ovulation was associated with ovarian carcinogenesis. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) played an important role in follicular development and was recently found to affect growth of ovarian epithelial cells. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) Thr307Ala and Asn680Ser were two non-synonymous variations in the coding region of the FSH receptor (FSHR) gene. This hitherto first case-control study investigating the association between these two FSHR SNPs and the risk of ovarian cancer involved 202 histopathologically confirmed ovarian cancer patients and 266 age-matched cancer-free control subjects using restriction fragment length polymorphism assay and direct sequencing. Our results demonstrated that the 307Ala and 680Ser carriers were associated with significantly increased risk of developing serous and mucinous types of ovarian cancers (P < 0.0005, OR = 2.60, 95% CI = 1.56-4.34; and P < 0.0005, OR = 2.89, 95% CI = 1.73-4.84, adjusted for age, respectively) but not endometrioid and clear cell types. The two SNPs were found to be in modest linkage disequilibrium, D' = 0.804 and 0.701, r2 = 0.581 and 0.406 for the cancer and control groups, respectively. The major haplotype of 307Ala-680Ser was also associated with higher cancer risk (P = 0.033, OR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.03-1.88), especially for the serous and mucinous carcinomas (P = 0.001, OR = 1.82, 95% CI = 1.27-2.60). Our results suggested that the two FSHR SNPs might affect the susceptibility of women to specific subtypes of ovarian cancer. Different types of ovarian cancer might adopt distinct carcinogenetic pathways. Such understanding may be important in selecting patients for ovulation induction therapy.

Upstream stimulating factors: highly versatile stress-responsive transcription factors

Upstream stimulating factors (USF), USF-1 and USF-2, are members of the eucaryotic evolutionary conserved basic-Helix-Loop-Helix-Leucine Zipper transcription factor family. They interact with high affinity to cognate E-box regulatory elements (CANNTG), which are largely represented across the whole genome in eucaryotes. The ubiquitously expressed USF-transcription factors participate in distinct transcriptional processes, mediating recruitment of chromatin remodelling enzymes and interacting with co-activators and members of the transcription pre-initiation complex. Results obtained from both cell lines and knock-out mice indicates that USF factors are key regulators of a wide number of gene regulation networks, including the stress and immune responses, cell cycle and proliferation, lipid and glucid metabolism, and in melanocytes USF-1 has been implicated as a key UV-activated regulator of genes associated with pigmentation. This review will focus on general characteristics of the USF-transcription factors and their place in some regulatory networks.

Genetic complexity of FSH receptor function

The interaction between follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and the FSH receptor (FSHR) is essential for normal oogenesis and spermatogenesis. Recently, single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been assigned to the FSHR gene. These give rise to different FSHR haplotypes that modify the action of FSH. In women, FSH sensitivities during the menstrual cycle and different cycle lengths are observed, depending on the FSHR haplotype. Thus, SNPs of the FSHR determine the ovarian response and should, therefore, be considered in controlled ovarian hyperstimulation during assisted-reproduction techniques in women with normal ovarian function. In men, the impact of the FSHR SNPs is unclear. The genetic complexity of FSHR should be considered when studying FSH action. These SNPs are one of the first examples in which genetic changes contribute to fine-tuning the endocrine regulation of reproduction. A rational pharmacogenetic approach that combines FSH dose according to the FSHR haplotype is envisaged.

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the promoter region influence the expression of the human follicle-stimulating hormone receptor

OBJECTIVE

To characterize novel single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the human FSH receptor (FSHR) promoter region.

DESIGN

Retrospective and basic research study.

SETTING

University hospital.

PATIENTS

Women (202 from Germany and 55 from Indonesia) with male or tubal factor infertility undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation for IVF treatment.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Frequency, distribution, and correlation with clinical data of the SNPs. Dual luciferase assays and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA).

RESULT(S)

We identified two SNPs and three mutations in the promoter region of the human FSHR which could be allocated to positions -29, -37, -114, -123, and -138 upstream of the translational initiation codon. One SNP showed a high incidence (-29: 44%, n = 202), but no correlation with basal FSH serum levels or ovarian response with the SNP at position -29 was found. Luciferase reporter assays, using pGL3 vector constructs, showed that mutations at positions -37 and -138 lead to significantly higher promoter activity. EMSA indicate that putative binding sites for transcription factors are affected by the SNPs.

CONCLUSIONS

The newly identified SNPs do not seem to influence clinical parameters substantially, but modulate expression of the FSHR via changes in transcription factor binding sites.

Gene Regulation in Spermatogenesis

Mammalian spermatogenesis is a complex hormone-dependent developmental program in which a myriad of events must take place to ensure that germ cells reach their proper stage of development at the proper time. Many of these events are controlled by cell type- and stage-specific transcription factors. The regulatory mechanisms involved provide an intriguing paradigm for the field of developmental biology and may lead to the development of new contraceptives an and innovative routs to treat male infertility. In this review, we address three aspects of the genetic regulatory mechanism that drive spermatogenesis. First, we detail what is known about how steroid hormones (both androgens and estrogens) and their cognate receptors initiate and maintain mammalian spermatogenesis. Steroids act through three mechanistic routes: (i) direct activation of genes through hormone-dependent promoter elements, (ii) secondary transcriptional responses through activation of hormone-dependent transcription factors, and (iii) rapid, transcription-independent (nonclassical) events induced by steroid hormones. Second, we provide a survey of transcription factors that function in mammalian spermatogenesis, including homeobox, zinc-finger, heat-shock, and cAMP-response family members. Our survey is not intended to cover all examples but to give a flavor for the gamut of biological roles conferred by transcription factors in the testis, particularly those defined in knockout mice. Third, we address how testis-specific transcription is achieved. In particular, we cover the evidence for and against the idea that some testis-specific genes are transcriptionally silent in somatic tissues as a result of DNA methylation.

Testicular cell lines

The range of in vivo or in vitro immortalized cell lines currently available provides a variety of model systems for studies of normal and pathological cell functions. The cell lines have been derived from spontaneous or experimentally induced tumors, or through in vitro immortalization. The transgenic (TG) techniques provide a powerful approach, allowing the production of in vivo animal models for a variety of diseases, including malignant tumors, through tissue-specific expression of oncogenes or other tumor-promoting genes. The TG techniques also enable the production of cell lines with specific characteristics, through insertion of desired genes into specific cell types, which can then be immortalized upon cell culture. The use of temperature-sensitive immortalizing genes offers an additional advantage of controlling gene expression, including the proliferation and differentiation of the cells to be immortalized. As regards the male reproductive system, a number of cell lines of testicular somatic cells are currently available. This review covers mainly the immortalized cell lines of testicular Leydig and Sertoli cells, with special reference to murine cell lines for the study of testicular endocrine function and tumorigenesis. These cell lines also provide useful tools to investigate the molecular basis of hormone actions and testicular cell interactions.

Cross talk of two Krupple transcription factors regulates expression of the ovine FSH receptor gene

The follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) in gonadal cells is required for normal folliculogenesis and spermatogenesis. To understand its regulation, we identified a CACC-box from -46 to -67 of the ovine FSHR promoter. Antibody supershift with a 22-bp DNA probe and nuclear extract from a Sertoli cell line demonstrated that a testis-specific zinc finger protein, ZNF202, might be one of the binding proteins. Western blots using ZNF202 antibody and Southwestern blot analyses with the DNA probe detected the same 60kDa protein in both Sertoli and ovarian granulosa cell lines. Gel shift assays also revealed that the DNA-protein complex from Sertoli cells overexpressing the human Ras-responsive element binding protein-1 (RREB-1) migrated the same way as the complex containing endogenous CACC-box binding protein. Transfection studies indicated that ZNF202 repressed ovine FSHR promoter activity whereas RREB-1 was likely to function as an activator. These data suggest that selective expression and cross talk of functionally distinctive Krupple transcription factors could regulate tissue- and stage-specific expression of FSHR gene.

Retinoic acid mediates transcriptional repression of ovine follicle-stimulating hormone receptor gene via a pleiotropic nuclear receptor response element

The FSH receptor (FSHR) and retinoid receptors are critical regulators of gonadal function. Unlike the latter, the FSH receptors are expressed exclusively in ovarian granulosa and testicular Sertoli cells in a developmental fashion. Toward understanding the nature of various transcription factors that direct a tissue- and stage-specific expression of the FSHR gene, we have studied FP4, one of the two footprinting regions (FP3 and FP4) mapped at -241 to -269 and -284 to -303, respectively, upstream of the transcription start site of the ovine FSHR gene. Gel mobility shift assays with FP4 probe revealed two sequence-specific DNA-protein complexes in the presence of nuclear extracts from two immortal gonadal cell lines. Antibody supershift assays demonstrated that retinoic acid receptor (RAR) was involved in the complex 1 whereas steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1) was present in the complex 2. Mutation studies revealed that DNA binding sites for RAR and SF-1 were overlapping each other within a 19-base pair length of nucleotide sequence of FP4, and a mutation in the half RAR binding site seriously affected SF-1 binding. Reporter assays showed that FP4 conferred SF-1 transactivation as well as RAR-mediated, ligand-dependent repression. Overexpression of SF-1 in a transformed Sertoli cell line partially overcame RAR-mediated suppression. For the first time, our studies reveal a direct retinoid modulation of the gonadotropin receptor promoter and suggest a mechanism by which activators and repressors compete for composite elements providing antagonistic pathways that could modulate the expression of FSHR.

Orphan receptor chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factors inhibit steroid factor-1, upstream stimulatory factor, and activator protein-1 activation of ovine follicle-stimulating hormone receptor expression via composite cis-elements

The FSH receptor (FSHR) is selectively expressed in the granulosa and Sertoli cells in a development-dependent manner. Little is known regarding how the regulatory factors balance expression of this gene in ovarian cycles or spermatogenic stages. We have used the ovine FSHR promoter as a model system and identified a third regulatory element (RE-3) located at -197 to -171 of the strongest promoter. Gel mobility shift and antibody supershift assays demonstrated that nuclear factors c-Fos/c-Jun, steroidogenic factor-1 (SF-1), upstream stimulatory factor-1/2 (USF-1/2), and chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor-1/2 (COUP-TFI/II) potentially bound to RE-3. We have also extended our previous observations by showing that a sequence containing an E-box was not only bound by USF proteins but also recognized by COUP-TF orphan receptors. Functional studies demonstrated that USF-1/2, c-Fos/c-Jun, and SF-1 were activators, whereas COUP-TFs were repressors. Our studies indicated that RE-3 mediated SF-1 activation as well as phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate stimulation, whereas COUP-TFs inhibited AP-1, USFs, and SF-1 activation. We also demonstrated that both COUP-TF-binding sites in the core promoter were required for the bipartite elements to oppose their competitor binding. These data suggest a mechanism by which positive and negative regulators compete for the common regulatory elements, providing antagonistic pathways that might govern the expression of FSHR in gonadal cells.

Identification of a novel gene product, Sertoli cell gene with a zinc finger domain, that is important for FSH activation of testicular Sertoli cells

Sertoli cells provide the cytoarchitectural support and microenvironment necessary for the process of spermatogenesis. A novel, ubiquitously expressed cDNA clone was isolated from Sertoli cells and termed Sertoli cell gene with a zinc finger domain (SERZ). A significant homology of SERZ was found with a mouse genomic sequence that suggested the presence of at least 10 exons. An open reading frame at the 5'-end of the cDNA, termed SERZ-alpha, had a cryptic basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain, but no start codon. When a start codon was engineered into the 5'-end of the cDNA, an in vitro translation product of SERZ-alpha was obtained. The longest second open reading frame with an ATG start site at 304 bp from the 5'-end coded for a 308-amino acid SERZ-beta polypeptide. Motif analysis and BLAST search of SERZ-beta showed significant homology to the DHHC domain of conserved zinc finger proteins. A number of potential phosphorylation sites were observed in the SERZ-beta polypeptide sequence. The long 5'-untranslated region of SERZ-beta prompted an investigation of both potential alternate polypeptide products, SERZ-alpha and SERZ-beta. Both SERZ-alpha and SERZ-beta proteins were detected with specific antibodies to SERZ-beta and the 5'-end open reading frame SERZ-alpha in a Western blot analysis of total Sertoli cell proteins. The presence of the SERZ-beta polypeptide was also confirmed by in vitro translation of the cDNA, but SERZ-alpha was not translated in vitro in the absence of an engineered start codon. The expression pattern of SERZ mRNA was observed in all tissues examined. The transcript size of SERZ as determined by Northern blot analysis is approximately 2.7 kb. An antisense oligonucleotide to SERZ was found not to influence basal levels of transferrin promoter activation, but significantly blocked FSH-induced transferrin promoter activation. SERZ mRNA expression was not regulated by FSH treatment of Sertoli cell cultures. In summary, a novel gene product, SERZ, was identified that appears to have a role in maintaining Sertoli cell differentiated functions and mediating FSH actions. Translation of SERZ may give rise to two gene products; however, the SERZ-beta containing the zinc finger domain is probably the principal product of the SERZ gene.

The expression of the follicle-stimulating hormone receptor in spermatogenesis

Results from experiments using mouse models suggest that the role of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in spermatogenesis is the regulation of Sertoli cell proliferation and, ultimately, the size and spermatogenic capacity of the testis. The regulation of the expression of the FSH receptor (FSHR) gene is very cell specific and plays an initial role in the ultimate response of the Sertoli cells to FSH. The extreme cell specificity and the importance of the FSH response to spermatogenesis have led to an extensive characterization of the promoter of the FSHR gene. Several widely expressed transcription factors - including USF 1 and 2, GATA-1, and SF-1 and potential elements such as an E2F site and an Inr region - have been shown to contribute to the maximal transcription of the transfected FSHR gene. However, these experiments have failed to provide clues as to the cell-specific expression of the FSHR gene. In both cell transfections and in transgenic mice, the promoter can direct expression of transgenes promiscuously. The rodent FSHR promoter contains conserved CpG dinucleotides that were shown to be methylated in nonexpressing cells and tissue but unmethylated in Sertoli cells. The methylated CpG sites could interfere with the binding of general transcription factors and/or lead to a repressive chromatin structure in the nonexpressing cells. While yet-undiscovered cell-specific factors may play a role in the expression of the FSHR gene, repression and activation of local chromatin structure are likely to be involved.

Methylation of CpG dinucleotides alters binding and silences testis-specific transcription directed by the mouse lactate dehydrogenase C promoter

The mouse lactate dehydrogenase c gene (mldhc) is transcribed only in cells of the germinal epithelium. Cloning and analysis of the mldhc promoter revealed that a 100-base pair fragment was able to drive testis-specific transcription in vitro and in transgenic mice. Several testis-specific genes are believed to be regulated at least in part through differential methylation of CpG dinucleotides. We investigated the possibility that transcriptional repression of the mldhc gene is mediated in somatic tissues by hypermethylation of CpG dinucleotides. The CpG dinucleotides within a fragment of the mldhc promoter containing a GC box and tandem activating transcription factor/cAMP-responsive element binding sites are hypermethylated in somatic tissues and hypomethylated in testis. Methylation of the activating transcription factor/cAMP-responsive elements altered the protein binding pattern observed in electrophoretic mobility shift assays using mouse liver but not testis nuclear extract. Furthermore, methylation of an extended mldhc promoter fragment driving lac Z silenced transcription from the promoter in a transient transfection assay. These data suggest that tissue-specific differential methylation plays a role in mldhc silencing in somatic tissues.

Role of CACC-box in the regulation of ovine follicle-stimulating hormone receptor expression

Tissue-specific and stage-specific expression of follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSH-R) in granulosa and Sertoli cells is required for normal development of ovarian follicles and germ cells. However, little is known of the transcription factors that regulate the FSH-R gene and its promoter. Using an ovine FSH-R promoter as a model system, we have identified a second DNase I footprinting 2 (FP2) region from -46 to -67 of the strongest ovine FSH-R promoter (-200 to +163) relative to the transcription start site. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay with a 22-base pair DNA probe (-46 to -67) and nuclear extracts from Sertoli (15P1) and granulosa (JC-410) cell lines demonstrated a sequence-specific DNA-protein complex. Further Southwestern and UV cross-linking analyses detected three predominant proteins of molecular weights 87, 60, and 50 kDa present in both Sertoli and granulosa cells bound to a 32P-labeled DNA probe as a complex. Gel competition experiments with DNA probes containing known Krupple-like factor binding sites revealed that the testis-specific zinc finger protein, ZNF202-like factor, Ras-responsive element binding protein-like factor, or both, may be among the potential candidate regulators. Mutation within the CACC box of the promoter abolished Krupple-like factor binding and significantly diminished promoter activity in both gonadal cells. These data suggest that Krupple-like transcription factors may play a role in the regulation of ovine FSH-R expression.

Molecular mechanisms for aberrant expression of the human breast cancer specific gene 1 in breast cancer cells: control of transcription by DNA methylation and intronic sequences

Breast cancer specific gene 1 (BCSG1), also referred as synuclein gamma, is the third member of a neuronal protein family synuclein. BCSG1 is not expressed in normal breast tissues but highly expressed in advanced infiltrating breast carcinomas. When over expressed, BCSG1 significantly stimulates breast cancer metastasis. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the abnormal transcription of BCSG1 in breast cancer cells, in this study, we isolated a 2195 base pair fragment of human BCSG1 gene. This fragment includes 1 kb 5'-flanking region, exon 1, and intron 1. By analysing the promoter activity and the methylation status of the exon 1 region, we show that (1) Intron 1 plays critical roles in the control of BCSG1 gene transcription through cis-regulatory sequences that affect BCSG1 transcription in cell type-specific and cell type-nonspecific manners. (2) The activator protein-1 (AP-1) is functionally involved in BCSG1 transcription in breast cancer cells through its binding to an AP-1 motif located in the intron 1. (3) The exon 1 region of BCSG1 gene contains a CpG island that is unmethylated in BCSG1-positive SKBR-3 and T47D cells but densely methylated in BCSG1-negative MCF-7 cells. (4) Treating MCF-7 cells with a demethylating agent 5-Aza-2'-deoxycytidine specifically activated BCSG1 transcription. Thus, our results suggest that while the cellular content of transcription activators and repressors that interact with the cis-regulatory sequences present in the intron 1 contribute prominently to the tissue-specific expression of BCSG1, demethylation of exon 1 is an important factor responsible for the aberrant expression of BCSG1 in breast carcinomas.