Novel function of the poly(C)-binding protein alpha CP3 as a transcriptional repressor of the mu opioid receptor gene

Molecular and functional characterization of porcine poly C binding protein 1 (PCBP1)

BACKGROUND

Poly C Binding Protein 1 (PCBP1) belongs to the heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein family. It is a multifunctional protein that participates in several functional circuits and plays a variety of roles in cellular processes. Although PCBP1 has been identified in several mammals, its function in porcine was unclear.

RESULTS

In this study, we cloned the gene of porcine PCBP1 and analyzed its evolutionary relationships among different species. We found porcine PCBP1 protein sequence was similar to that of other animals. The subcellular localization of PCBP1 in porcine kidney cells 15 (PK-15) cells was analyzed by immunofluorescence assay (IFA) and revealed that PCBP1 was mainly localized to the nucleus. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was used to compare PCBP1 mRNA levels in different tissues of 30-day-old pigs. Results indicated that PCBP1 was expressed in various tissues and was most abundant in the liver. Finally, the effects of PCBP1 on cell cycle and apoptosis were investigated following its overexpression or knockdown in PK-15 cells. The findings demonstrated that PCBP1 knockdown arrested cell cycle in G0/G1 phase, and enhanced cell apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Porcine PCBP1 is a highly conserved protein, plays an important role in determining cell fate, and its functions need further study.

Overexpression of splicing factor poly(rC)-binding protein 1 elicits cycle arrest, apoptosis induction, and p73 splicing in human cervical carcinoma cells

PURPOSE

Splicing factor poly(rC)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) is a novel tumor suppressor that is downregulated in several cancers thereby regulating tumor formation and metastasis. However, the involvement of PCBP1 in apoptosis of cancer cells and the molecular mechanism remains elusive. On this basis, we sought to investigate the role of splicing factor PCBP1 in the apoptosis in human cervical cancer cells.

METHODS

To investigate PCBP1 functions in vitro, we overexpressed PCBP1 in human cervical cancer cells. A series of cytological function assays were employed to study to the role of PCBP1 in cell proliferation, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis.

RESULTS

Overexpression of PCBP1 was found to greatly repress proliferation of HeLa cells in a time-dependent manner. It also induced a significant increase in G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis. Furthermore, overexpressed PCBP1 favored the production of long isoforms of p73, thereby inducing upregulated ratio of Bax/Bcl-2, the release of cytochrome c and the expression of caspase-3.

CONCLUSION

Our results revealed that PCBP1 played a vital role in p73 splicing, cycle arrest and apoptosis induction in human cervical carcinoma cells. Targeting PCBP1 may be a potential therapeutic strategy for cervical cancer therapy.

Anlotinib Inhibits PFKFB3-Driven Glycolysis in Myofibroblasts to Reverse Pulmonary Fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal disease in which the normal alveolar network is gradually replaced by fibrotic scars. Current evidence suggests that metabolic alterations correlate with myofibroblast activation in IPF. Anlotinib has been proposed to have antifibrotic effects, but the efficacy and mechanisms of anlotinib against lung fibrosis have not been systematically evaluated. The antifibrotic effects of anlotinib were evaluated in bleomycin-induced mouse models and transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1)-stimulated lung fibroblasts. We measured lactate levels, 2-NBDG glucose uptake and the extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) to assess glycolysis in fibroblasts. RNA-protein coimmunoprecipitation (RIP) and polysome analyses were performed to investigate novel mechanisms of glycolytic reprogramming in pulmonary fibrosis. We found that anlotinib diminished myofibroblast activation and inhibited the augmentation of glycolysis. Moreover, we show that PCBP3 posttranscriptionally increases PFKFB3 expression by promoting its translation during myofibroblast activation, thus promoting glycolysis in myofibroblasts. Regarding mechanism, anlotinib exerts potent antifibrotic effects by downregulating PCBP3, reducing PFKFB3 translation and inhibiting glycolysis in myofibroblasts. Furthermore, we observed that anlotinib had preventative and therapeutic antifibrotic effects on bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Therefore, we identify PCBP3 as a protein involved in the regulation of glycolysis reprogramming and lung fibrogenesis and propose it as a therapeutic target for pulmonary fibrosis. Our data suggest that anlotinib has antifibrotic effects on the lungs, and we provide a novel mechanism for this effect. Anlotinib may constitute a novel and potent candidate for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

KH-Domain Poly(C)-Binding Proteins as Versatile Regulators of Multiple Biological Processes

Five known members of the family of KH-domain poly(C)-binding proteins (Pcbp1-4, hnRNP-K) have an unusually broad spectrum of cellular functions that include regulation of gene transcription, regulation of pre-mRNA processing, splicing, mRNA stability, translational silencing and enhancement, the control of iron turnover, and many others. Mechanistically, these proteins act via nucleic acid binding and protein-protein interactions. Through performing these multiple tasks, the KH-domain poly(C)-binding family members are involved in a wide variety of biological processes such as embryonic development, cell differentiation, and cancer. Deregulation of KH-domain protein expression is frequently associated with severe developmental defects and neoplasia. This review summarizes progress in studies of the KH-domain proteins made over past two decades. The review also reports our recent finding implying an involvement of the KH-factor Pcbp1 into control of transition from naïve to primed pluripotency cell state.

Cancer the'RBP'eutics-RNA-binding proteins as therapeutic targets for cancer

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play a critical role in the regulation of various RNA processes, including splicing, cleavage and polyadenylation, transport, translation and degradation of coding RNAs, non-coding RNAs and microRNAs. Recent studies indicate that RBPs not only play an instrumental role in normal cellular processes but have also emerged as major players in the development and spread of cancer. Herein, we review the current knowledge about RNA binding proteins and their role in tumorigenesis as well as the potential to target RBPs for cancer therapeutics.

RNA-binding proteins, neural development and the addictions

Transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression defines the neurobiological mechanisms that bridge genetic and environmental risk factors with neurobehavioral dysfunction underlying the addictions. More than 1000 genes in the eukaryotic genome code for multifunctional RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) that can regulate all levels of RNA biogenesis. More than 50% of these RBPs are expressed in the brain where they regulate alternative splicing, transport, localization, stability and translation of RNAs during development and adulthood. Dysfunction of RBPs can exert global effects on their targetomes that underlie neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases as well as neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism and schizophrenia. Here, we consider the evidence that RBPs influence key molecular targets, neurodevelopment, synaptic plasticity and neurobehavioral dysfunction underlying the addictions. Increasingly well-powered genome-wide association studies in humans and mammalian model organisms combined with ever more precise transcriptomic and proteomic approaches will continue to uncover novel and possibly selective roles for RBPs in the addictions. Key challenges include identifying the biological functions of the dynamic RBP targetomes from specific cell types throughout subcellular space (e.g. the nuclear spliceome vs. the synaptic translatome) and time and manipulating RBP programs through post-transcriptional modifications to prevent or reverse aberrant neurodevelopment and plasticity underlying the addictions.

Post-Transcriptional Regulation of the Human Mu-Opioid Receptor (MOR) by Morphine-Induced RNA Binding Proteins hnRNP K and PCBP1

Expression of the mu-opioid receptor (MOR) protein is controlled by extensive transcriptional and post-transcriptional processing. MOR gene expression has previously been shown to be altered by a post-transcriptional mechanism involving the MOR mRNA untranslated region (UTR). Here, we demonstrate for the first time the role of heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleic acids (hnRNA)-binding protein (hnRNP) K and poly(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) as post-transcriptional inducers in MOR gene regulation. In the absence of morphine, a significant level of MOR mRNA is sustained in its resting state and partitions in the translationally inactive polysomal fraction. Morphine stimulation activates the downstream targets hnRNP K and PCPB1 and induces partitioning of the MOR mRNA to the translationally active fraction. Using reporter and ligand binding assays, as well as RNA EMSA, we reveal potential RNP binding sites located in the 5'-untranslated region of human MOR mRNA. In addition, we also found that morphine-induced RNPs could regulate MOR expression. Our results establish the role of hnRNP K and PCPB1 in the translational control of morphine-induced MOR expression in human neuroblastoma (NMB) cells as well as cells stably expressing MOR (NMB1). J. Cell. Physiol. 232: 576-584, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Neuron-restrictive silencer factor in periaqueductal gray contributes to remifentanil-induced postoperative hyperalgesia via repression of the mu-opioid receptor

BACKGROUND

The ultra-short-acting mu-opioid receptor (MOR) agonist remifentanil induces postoperative hyperalgesia both in preclinical and clinical research studies. However, the precise mechanisms remain unclear, although changes in opioid receptor expression might be a correlative feature. Neuron-restrictive silencer factor (NRSF) functions as a crucial regulator of MOR expression in specific neuronal cells. Using a mouse model of incisional postoperative pain, we assessed the expression of MOR and NRSF and investigated whether disruption of NRSF expression could prevent the postoperative nociceptive sensitization induced by surgical incision and subcutaneous infusion of remifentanil.

METHODS

Paw withdrawal mechanical threshold (PWMT) and paw withdrawal thermal latency (PWTL) were independently used to assess mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia after surgery and cerebral ventricle injection of NRSF antisense oligonucleotide. Western blotting analyses were preformed to assess the expression levels of MOR and NRSF.

RESULTS

NRSF expression levels were enhanced after intraoperative infusion of remifentanil, resulting in repression of MOR expression in the periaqueductal gray (PAG). NRSF blockade with an NRSF antisense oligonucleotide significantly enhanced the expression levels of MOR and alleviated mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia induced by intraoperative infusion of remifentanil.

CONCLUSION

NRSF functions as a negative regulator of MOR in PAG and contributes to remifentanil-induced postoperative hyperalgesia. NRSF in PAG may be a potential target for this pain therapy.

Each member of the poly-r(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP) family exhibits iron chaperone activity toward ferritin

The mechanisms through which iron-dependent enzymes receive their metal cofactors are largely unknown. Poly r(C)-binding protein 1 (PCBP1) is an iron chaperone for ferritin; both PCBP1 and its paralog PCBP2 are required for iron delivery to the prolyl hydroxylase that regulates HIF1. Here we show that PCBP2 is also an iron chaperone for ferritin. Co-expression of PCBP2 and human ferritins in yeast activated the iron deficiency response and increased iron deposition into ferritin. Depletion of PCBP2 in Huh7 cells diminished iron incorporation into ferritin. Both PCBP1 and PCBP2 were co-immunoprecipitated with ferritin in HEK293 cells, and expression of both PCBPs was required for ferritin complex formation in cells. PCBP1 and -2 exhibited high affinity binding to ferritin in vitro. Mammalian genomes encode 4 PCBPs, including the minimally expressed PCBPs 3 and 4. Expression of PCBP3 and -4 in yeast activated the iron deficiency response, but only PCBP3 exhibited strong interactions with ferritin. Expression of PCBP1 and ferritin in an iron-sensitive, ccc1 yeast strain intensified the toxic effects of iron, whereas expression of PCBP4 protected the cells from iron toxicity. Thus, PCBP1 and -2 form a complex for iron delivery to ferritin, and all PCBPs may share iron chaperone activity.

Vimentin interacts with the 5'-untranslated region of mouse mu opioid receptor (MOR) and is required for post-transcriptional regulation

The opioid receptors are among the most highly studied members of the superfamily of G-protein coupled receptors. Morphine and endogenous mu opioid peptides exert their pharmacological actions mainly through the mu opioid receptor (MOR). Expression of opioid receptor proteins is controlled by extensive transcriptional and post-transcriptional processing. Previously, the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) of the mouse MOR was found to be important for post-transcriptional regulation of the MOR gene in neuronal cells. Here, we demonstrate for the first time the role of vimentin as a post-transcriptional repressor in MOR gene regulation. To identify potential regulators of the mouse MOR gene, we performed affinity column chromatography using 5′-UTR-specific RNA oligonucleotides using neuroblastoma NS20Y cells. Chromatography was followed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. We identified an intermediate filament protein, vimentin, which bound specifically to the region between -175 and -150 (175–150) of the MOR 5′-UTR. Binding was confirmed by western blot analysis and RNA supershift assay. Furthermore, a cotransfection study demonstrated that the presence of vimentin resulted in reduced expression of the mouse MOR. Our data suggest that vimentin functions as a repressor of MOR translation, dependent on 175–150 of the MOR 5′-UTR.

The polypyrimidine/polypurine motif in the mouse mu opioid receptor gene promoter is a supercoiling-regulatory element

The mu opioid receptor (MOR) is the principle molecular target of opioid analgesics. The polypyrimidine/polypurine (PPy/u) motif enhances the activity of the MOR gene promoter by adopting a non-B DNA conformation. Here, we report that the PPy/u motif regulates the processivity of torsional stress, which is important for endogenous MOR gene expression. Analysis by topoisomerase assays, S1 nuclease digests, and atomic force microscopy showed that, unlike homologous PPy/u motifs, the position- and orientation-induced structural strains to the mouse PPy/u element affect its ability to perturb the relaxation activity of topoisomerase, resulting in polypurine strand-nicked and catenated DNA conformations. Raman spectrum microscopy confirmed that mouse PPy/u containing-plasmid DNA molecules under the different structural strains have a different configuration of ring bases as well as altered Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds. The mouse MOR PPy/u motif drives reporter gene expression fortyfold more effectively in the sense orientation than in the antisense orientation. Furthermore, mouse neuronal cells activate MOR gene expression in response to the perturbations of topology by topoisomerase inhibitors, whereas human cells do not. These results suggest that, interestingly among homologous PPy/u motifs, the mouse MOR PPy/u motif dynamically responds to torsional stress and consequently regulates MOR gene expression in vivo.

Post-transcriptional regulation of mu-opioid receptor: role of the RNA-binding proteins heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein H1 and F

Classical opioids have been historically used for the treatment of pain and are among the most widely used drugs for both acute severe pain and long-term pain. Morphine and endogenous mu-opioid peptides exert their pharmacological actions mainly through the mu-opioid receptor (MOR). However, the expression of opioid receptor (OR) proteins is controlled by extensive transcriptional and post-transcriptional processing. Previously, the 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of the mouse MOR was found to be important for post-transcriptional regulation of the MOR gene in neuronal cells. To identify proteins binding to the 5'-UTR as potential regulators of the mouse MOR gene, affinity column chromatography using 5'-UTR-specific RNA oligonucleotides was performed using neuroblastoma NS20Y cells. Chromatography was followed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. We identified two heterogeneous ribonucleoproteins (hnRNPs) that bound to RNA sequences of interest: hnRNP H1 and hnRNP F. Binding of these proteins to the RNA region was M4-region sequence-specific as confirmed by Western-blot analysis and RNA supershift assay. Furthermore, a cotransfection study showed that the presence of hnRNP H1 and F resulted in repressed expression of the mouse MOR. Our data suggest that hnRNP H1 and F can function as repressors of MOR translation dependent on the M4 (-75 to -71 bp upstream of ATG) sequences. We demonstrate for the first time a role of hnRNPs as post-transcriptional repressors in MOR gene regulation.

The cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 is regulated by RNA-binding protein PCBP4 via mRNA stability

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play a major role in many post-transcriptional processes, including mRNA stability, alternative splicing and translation. PCBP4, also called MCG10, is an RBP belonging to the poly(C)-binding protein family and a target of p53 tumor suppressor. Ectopic expression of PCBP4 induces cell-cycle arrest in G₂ and apoptosis. To identify RNA targets regulated by PCBP4 and further decipher its function, we generated multiple cell lines in which PCBP4 is either inducibly over-expressed or knocked down. We found that PCBP4 expression decreases cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21 induction in response to DNA damage. We also provided evidence that PCBP4 regulates p21 expression independently of p53. In addition, we showed that a deficiency in PCBP4 enhances p21 induction upon DNA damage. To validate PCBP4 regulation of p21, we made PCBP4-deficient mice and showed that p21 expression is markedly increased in PCBP4-deficient primary mouse embryo fibroblasts compared to that in wild-type counterparts. Finally, we uncovered that PCBP4 binds to the 3′-UTR of p21 transcript in vitro and in vivo to regulate p21 mRNA stability. Taken together, we revealed that PCBP4 regulates both basal and stress-induced p21 expression through binding p21 3′-UTR and modulating p21 mRNA stability.

Up-regulation of the mu-opioid receptor gene is mediated through chromatin remodeling and transcriptional factors in differentiated neuronal cells

The effects of morphine are mediated mainly through the mu opioid receptor (MOR). Expression of the MOR is up-regulated during neuronal differentiation in P19 embryonal carcinoma cells and epigenetic changes play an important role in MOR up-regulation. This study investigates the basis for differentiation-dependent alterations of MOR chromatin by studying the recruitment or dissociation of several factors to the remodeled chromatin locus. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays were used to demonstrate the recruitment of the transcriptional activator Sp1 and the chromatin remodeling factors Brg1 and BAF155 to this promoter, as well as the dissociation of repressors [histone deacetylases, mSin3A, Brm, and methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2)]. Histone modifications (acetylation, induction of histone H3-lys4 methylation, and reduction of H3-lys9 methylation) were consistently detected on this promoter. Overexpression of Sp1 strongly enhanced MOR promoter activity, and the histone deacetylase inhibitor trichostatin A also increased promoter activity. In vitro DNA CpG-methylation of the promoter partially blocked binding of the Sp1 factor but induced MeCP2 binding. Coimmunoprecipitation studies also found novel evidence of an endogenous MeCP2 interaction with Sp3 but a weaker interaction with Sp1. Overall, the results suggest that during neuronal differentiation, MeCP2 and DNA methylation mediate remodeling of the MOR promoter by chromatin remodeling factors (Brg1 and BAF155) from a compacted state to a conformation allowing access for transcriptional factors. Subsequent recruitment of the activating transcription factor Sp1 to the remodeled promoter results in MOR up-regulation.

Heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein E3 modestly activates splicing of tau exon 10 via its proximal downstream intron, a hotspot for frontotemporal dementia mutations

The microtubule-associated protein tau is important to normal neuronal activity in the mammalian nervous system. Aggregated tau is the major component of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), structures present in the brains of people affected by neurodegenerative diseases called tauopathies. Tauopathies include Alzheimer's disease (AD), frontotemporal dementia with Parkinsonism (FTDP) and the early-onset dementia observed in Down syndrome (DS; trisomy 21). Splicing misregulation of adult-specific exon 10 results in expression of abnormal ratios of tau isoforms, leading to FTDP. Positions +3 to +19 of the intron downstream of exon 10 define a hotspot: Point mutations in it result in tauopathies. All these mutations increase exon 10 inclusion except for mutation +19, which almost entirely excludes exon 10. To investigate the tau connection between DS and AD, we examined splicing factors located on chromosome 21 for their effect on tau exon 10. By co-transfections, co-immunoprecipitations and RNAi constructs, we discovered that one of them, hnRNPE3 (PCBP3), modestly activates splicing of exon 10 by interacting with its proximal downstream intron around position +19. These results, coupled with the developmental profile of hnRNPE3, suggest a pathogenic role for splicing factors on chromosome 21 in neurodegenerative diseases with tangles and create a connection between tau splicing and the early-onset dementia of Down syndrome.

Differential use of an in-frame translation initiation codon regulates human mu opioid receptor (OPRM1)

The pharmacological effects of morphine and morphine-like drugs are mediated primarily through the micro opioid receptor. Here we show that differential use of an in-frame translational start codon in the 5'-untranslated region of the OPRM1 generates different translational products in vivo and in vitro. The 5'-end of the OPRM1 gene is necessary for initiating the alternate form and for subsequent degradation of the protein. Initiation of OPRM1 at the upstream site decreases the initiation at the main AUG site. However, alternative initiation of the long form of OPRM1 produces a protein with a short half-life, resulting from degradation mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Reporter and degradation assays showed that mutations of this long form at the second and third lysines reduce ubiquitin-dependent proteasome degradation, stabilizing the protein. The data suggest that MOP expression is controlled in part by initiation of the long form of MOP at the alternate site.

Long-term morphine treatment decreases the association of mu-opioid receptor (MOR1) mRNA with polysomes through miRNA23b

Mu-opioid receptor (MOR) mediates most of the pharmacological effects of opioid drugs. The expression of MOR is temporarily and spatially regulated at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. Long-term morphine treatment that induces tolerance does not alter MOR mRNA expression, suggesting no direct link between agonist treatment and MOR gene transcription. We previously identified the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of the major transcript of mu-opioid receptor (MOR1) and revealed a novel trans-acting factor, miRNA23b, that binds to the K box motif in the 3'-UTR. The interaction between miRNA23b with the MOR1 3'-UTR suppressed receptor translation by inhibiting polysome-mRNA association. In this report, we demonstrate that long-term morphine treatment increases miRNA23b expression in a dose- and time-dependent manner and represses the association of MOR1 mRNA with polysomes through the MOR1 3'-UTR. The translational luciferase reporter assay shows a suppression effect of morphine on reporter activity that requires the MOR1 3'-UTR. This suggests a potential link between MOR expression and morphine treatment at the post-transcriptional level in which a specific miRNA, miRNA23b, is involved.

uAUG-mediated translational initiations are responsible for human mu opioid receptor gene expression

Mu opioid receptor (MOR) is the main site of interaction for major clinical analgesics, particularly morphine. MOR expression is regulated at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. However, the protein expression of the MOR gene is relatively low and the translational control of MOR gene has not been well studied. The 5′-untranslated region (UTR) of the human MOR (OPRM1) mRNA contains four upstream AUG codons (uAUG) preceding the main translation initiation site. We mutated the four uAUGs individually and in combination. Mutations of the third uAUG, containing the same open reading frame, had the strongest inhibitory effect. The inhibitory effect caused by the third in-frame uAUG was confirmed by in vitro translation and receptor-binding assays. Toeprinting results showed that OPRM1 ribosomes initiated efficiently at the first uAUG, and subsequently re-initiated at the in-frame #3 uAUG and the physiological AUG site. This re-initiation resulted in negative expression of OPRM1 under normal conditions. These results indicate that re-initiation in MOR gene expression could play an important role in OPRM1 regulation.

Poly(C)-binding proteins as transcriptional regulators of gene expression

Poly(C)-binding proteins (PCBPs) are generally known as RNA-binding proteins that interact in a sequence-specific fashion with single-stranded poly(C). They can be divided into two groups: hnRNP K and PCBP1-4. These proteins are involved mainly in various posttranscriptional regulations (e.g., mRNA stabilization or translational activation/silencing). In this review, we summarize and discuss how PCBPs act as transcriptional regulators by binding to specific elements in gene promoters that interact with the RNA polymerase II transcription machinery. Transcriptional regulation of PCBPs might itself be regulated by their localization within the cell. For example, activation by p21-activated kinase 1 induces increased nuclear retention of PCBP1, as well as increased promoter activity. PCBPs can function as a signal-dependent and coordinated regulator of transcription in eukaryotic cells. We address the molecular mechanisms by which PCBPs binding to single- and double-stranded DNA mediates gene expression.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2007

This paper is the thirtieth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2007 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior, and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia; stress and social status; tolerance and dependence; learning and memory; eating and drinking; alcohol and drugs of abuse; sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology; mental illness and mood; seizures and neurologic disorders; electrical-related activity and neurophysiology; general activity and locomotion; gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions; cardiovascular responses; respiration and thermoregulation; and immunological responses.

Post-transcriptional regulation of mouse mu opioid receptor (MOR1) via its 3' untranslated region: a role for microRNA23b

Expression of the mu opioid receptor (MOR1) protein is regulated temporally and spatially. Although transcription of its gene has been studied extensively, regulation of MOR1 protein production at the level of translation is poorly understood. Using reporter assays, we found that the MOR1 3'-untranslated region (UTR) represses reporter expression at the post-transcriptional level. Suppression by the 3'-UTR of MOR1 is mediated through decreased mRNA association with polysomes, which requires microRNA23b (miRNA23b), a specific miRNA that is expressed in mouse brain and NS20Y mouse neuroblastoma cells. miRNA23b interacts with the MOR1 3'-UTR via a K box motif. By knocking down endogenous miRNA23b in NS20Y cells, we confirmed that miRNA23b inhibits MOR1 protein expression in vivo. This is the first study reporting a translationally repressive role for the MOR1 3'-UTR. We propose a mechanism in which miRNA23b blocks the association of MOR1 mRNA with polysomes, thereby arresting its translation and suppressing the production of MOR1 protein.

A proteomics approach for identification of single strand DNA-binding proteins involved in transcriptional regulation of mouse mu opioid receptor gene

The pharmacological actions of morphine and morphine-like drugs such as heroin are mediated primarily through the μ opioid receptor. Previously a single strand DNA element of the mouse μ opioid receptor gene (Oprm1) proximal promoter was found to be important for regulating Oprm1 in neuronal cells. To identify proteins binding to the single strand DNA element as potential regulators for Oprm1, affinity column chromatography with the single strand DNA element was performed using neuroblastoma NS20Y cells followed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. We identified five poly(C)-binding proteins: heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) K, α-complex proteins (αCP) αCP1, αCP2, αCP2-KL, and αCP3. Binding of these proteins to the single strand DNA element of Oprm1 was sequence-specific as confirmed by supershift assays. In cotransfection studies, hnRNP K, αCP1, αCP2, and αCP2-KL activated the Oprm1 promoter activity, whereas αCP3 acted as a repressor. Ectopic expression of hnRNP K, αCP1, αCP2, and αCP2-KL also led to activation of the endogenous Oprm1 transcripts, and αCP3 repressed endogenous Oprm1 transcripts. We demonstrate novel roles as transcriptional regulators in Oprm1 regulation for hnRNP K and αCP binding to the single strand DNA element.

Transcriptional regulation of mouse mu opioid receptor gene in neuronal cells by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1

The pharmacological actions of morphine and morphine-like drugs such as heroin mediate primarily through the mu opioid receptor (MOR). It represents the target of the most valuable painkiller in contemporary medicine. Here we report that poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) binds to the double-stranded poly(C) element essential for the MOR promoter and represses promoter activity at the transcriptional level. We identified PARP-1 by affinity column chromatography using the double-stranded poly(C) element, followed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. PARP-1 binding to the poly(C) sequence of the MOR gene was sequence-specific as confirmed by the supershift assay. In cotransfection studies, PARP-1 repressed the MOR promoter only when the poly(C) sequence was intact. When PARP-1 was disrupted in NS20Y cells using siRNA, transcription of the endogenous target MOR gene increased significantly. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays showed specific binding of PARP-1 to the double-stranded poly(C) element essential for the MOR promoter. Inhibition of PARP-1's catalytic domain with 3-aminobenzamide increased endogenous MOR mRNA levels in cultured NS20Y cells, suggesting that automodification of PARP-1 regulates MOR transcription. Our data suggest that PARP-1 can function as a repressor of MOR transcription dependent on the MOR poly(C) sequence. We demonstrate for the first time a role of PARP-1 as a transcriptional repressor in MOR gene regulation.