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Sao K, Risbud MV. Sdc4 deletion perturbs intervertebral disc matrix homeostasis and promotes early osteopenia in the aging mouse spine. Matrix Biol 2024; 131:46-61. [PMID: 38806135 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2024.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
Syndecan 4 (SDC4), a cell surface heparan sulfate proteoglycan, is known to regulate matrix catabolism by nucleus pulposus cells in an inflammatory milieu. However, the role of SDC4 in the aging spine has never been explored. Here we analyzed the spinal phenotype of Sdc4 global knockout (KO) mice as a function of age. Micro-computed tomography showed that Sdc4 deletion severely reduced vertebral trabecular and cortical bone mass, and biomechanical properties of vertebrae were significantly altered in Sdc4 KO mice. These changes in vertebral bone were likely due to elevated osteoclastic activity. The histological assessment showed subtle phenotypic changes in the intervertebral disc. Imaging-Fourier transform-infrared analyses showed a reduced relative ratio of mature collagen crosslinks in young adult nucleus pulposus (NP) and annulus fibrosus (AF) of KO compared to wildtype discs. Additionally, relative chondroitin sulfate levels increased in the NP compartment of the KO mice. Transcriptomic analysis of NP tissue using CompBio, an AI-based tool showed biological themes associated with prominent dysregulation of heparan sulfate GAG degradation, mitochondria metabolism, autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated misfolded protein processes and ER to Golgi protein processing. Overall, this study highlights the important role of SDC4 in fine-tuning vertebral bone homeostasis and extracellular matrix homeostasis in the mouse intervertebral disc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimheak Sao
- Graduate Program in Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Jefferson College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, 1025 Walnut Street, Suite 501 College Bldg., Philadelphia, PA 19107, United States
| | - Makarand V Risbud
- Graduate Program in Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Jefferson College of Life Sciences, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Sidney Kimmel Medical College, Thomas Jefferson University, 1025 Walnut Street, Suite 501 College Bldg., Philadelphia, PA 19107, United States.
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2
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Doyle DA, DeAngelis PL, Ballard JD. CSPG4-dependent cytotoxicity for C. difficile TcdB is influenced by extracellular calcium and chondroitin sulfate. mSphere 2024; 9:e0009424. [PMID: 38470254 PMCID: PMC11036797 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00094-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024] Open
Abstract
TcdB is an intracellular bacterial toxin indispensable to Clostridioides difficile infections. The ability to use chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) as a primary cell surface receptor is evolutionarily conserved by the two major variants of TcdB. As CSPG4 does not typically undergo receptor-mediated endocytosis, we sought to identify environmental factors that stabilize interactions between TcdB and CSPG4 to promote cell binding and entry into the cytosol. Using a series of TcdB receptor-binding mutants and cell lines with various receptor expression profiles, we discovered that extracellular Ca2+ promotes receptor-specific interactions with TcdB. Specifically, TcdB exhibits preferential binding to CSPG4 in the presence of Ca2+, with the absence of Ca2+ resulting in CSPG4-independent cell surface interactions. Furthermore, Ca2+ did not enhance TcdB binding to chondroitin sulfate (CS), the sole glycosaminoglycan of CSPG4. Instead, CS was found to impact the rate of cell entry by TcdB. Collectively, results from this study indicate that Ca2+ enhances cell binding by TcdB and CS interactions contribute to subsequent steps in cell entry. IMPORTANCE Clostridioides difficile is a leading cause of antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal illness, and many disease pathologies are caused by the toxin TcdB. TcdB engages multiple cell surface receptors, with receptor tropisms differing among the variants of the toxin. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) is a critical receptor for multiple forms of TcdB, and insights into TcdB-CSPG4 interactions are applicable to many disease-causing strains of C. difficile. CSPG4 is modified by chondroitin sulfate (CS) and contains laminin-G repeats stabilized by Ca2+, yet the relative contributions of CS and Ca2+ to TcdB cytotoxicity have not been determined. This study demonstrates distinct roles in TcdB cell binding and cell entry for Ca2+ and CS, respectively. These effects are specific to CSPG4 and contribute to the activities of a prominent isoform of TcdB that utilizes this receptor. These findings advance an understanding of factors contributing to TcdB's mechanism of action and contribution to C. difficile disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Annie Doyle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Paul L. DeAngelis
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Jimmy D. Ballard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
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3
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Chatham JC, Patel RP. Protein glycosylation in cardiovascular health and disease. Nat Rev Cardiol 2024:10.1038/s41569-024-00998-z. [PMID: 38499867 DOI: 10.1038/s41569-024-00998-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Protein glycosylation, which involves the attachment of carbohydrates to proteins, is one of the most abundant protein co-translational and post-translational modifications. Advances in technology have substantially increased our knowledge of the biosynthetic pathways involved in protein glycosylation, as well as how changes in glycosylation can affect cell function. In addition, our understanding of the role of protein glycosylation in disease processes is growing, particularly in the context of immune system function, infectious diseases, neurodegeneration and cancer. Several decades ago, cell surface glycoproteins were found to have an important role in regulating ion transport across the cardiac sarcolemma. However, with very few exceptions, our understanding of how changes in protein glycosylation influence cardiovascular (patho)physiology remains remarkably limited. Therefore, in this Review, we aim to provide an overview of N-linked and O-linked protein glycosylation, including intracellular O-linked N-acetylglucosamine protein modification. We discuss our current understanding of how all forms of protein glycosylation contribute to normal cardiovascular function and their roles in cardiovascular disease. Finally, we highlight potential gaps in our knowledge about the effects of protein glycosylation on the heart and vascular system, highlighting areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Chatham
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA.
| | - Rakesh P Patel
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Department of Pathology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
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4
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Boewe AS, Wrublewsky S, Hoppstädter J, Götz C, Kiemer AK, Menger MD, Laschke MW, Ampofo E. C-Myc/H19/miR-29b axis downregulates nerve/glial (NG)2 expression in glioblastoma multiforme. MOLECULAR THERAPY. NUCLEIC ACIDS 2024; 35:102120. [PMID: 38318212 PMCID: PMC10839451 DOI: 10.1016/j.omtn.2024.102120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
Nerve/glial antigen (NG)2 is highly expressed in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). However, the underlying mechanisms of its upregulated expression are largely unknown. In silico analyses reveal that the tumor-suppressive miR-29b targets NG2. We used GBM-based data from The Cancer Genome Atals databases to analyze the expression pattern of miR-29b and different target genes, including NG2. Moreover, we investigated the regulatory function of miR-29b on NG2 expression and NG2-related signaling pathways. We further studied upstream mechanisms affecting miR-29b-dependent NG2 expression. We found that miR-29b downregulates NG2 expression directly and indirectly via the transcription factor Sp1. Furthermore, we identified the NG2 coreceptor platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR)α as an additional miR-29b target. As shown by a panel of functional cell assays, a reduced miR-29b-dependent NG2 expression suppresses tumor cell proliferation and migration. Signaling pathway analyses revealed that this is associated with a decreased ERK1/2 activity. In addition, we found that the long noncoding RNA H19 and c-Myc act as upstream repressors of miR-29b in GBM cells, resulting in an increased NG2 expression. These findings indicate that the c-Myc/H19/miR-29b axis crucially regulates NG2 expression in GBM and, thus, represents a target for the development of future GBM therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne S. Boewe
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Selina Wrublewsky
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Jessica Hoppstädter
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Claudia Götz
- Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Alexandra K. Kiemer
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Michael D. Menger
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Matthias W. Laschke
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Emmanuel Ampofo
- Institute for Clinical and Experimental Surgery, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg, Germany
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5
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Olbrich K, Setkowicz Z, Kawon K, Czyzycki M, Janik-Olchawa N, Carlomagno I, Aquilanti G, Chwiej J. Vibrational spectroscopy methods for investigation of the animal models of glioblastoma multiforme. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 303:123230. [PMID: 37586277 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2023.123230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and devastating primary brain tumor among adults. It is highly lethal disease, as only 25% of patients survive longer than 1 year and only 5% more than 5 years from the diagnosis. To search for the new, more effective methods of treatment, the understanding of mechanisms underlying the process of tumorigenesis is needed. The new light on this problem may be shed by the analysis of biochemical anomalies of tissues affected by tumor growth. Therefore, in the present work, we applied the Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and Raman microspectroscopy to evaluate changes in the distribution and structure of biomolecules appearing in the rat brain as a result of glioblastoma development. In turn, synchrotron X-ray fluorescence microscopy was utilized to determine the elemental anomalies appearing in the nervous tissue. To achieve the assumed goals of the study animal models of GBM were used. The rats were subjected to the intracranial implantation of glioma cells with different degree of invasiveness. For spectroscopic investigation brain slices taken from the area of cancer cells administration were used. The obtained results revealed, among others, the decrease content of lipids and compounds containing carbonyl groups, compositional and structural changes of proteins as well as abnormalities in the distribution of low atomic number elements within the region of tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Olbrich
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Zuzanna Setkowicz
- Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Kamil Kawon
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Mateusz Czyzycki
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Natalia Janik-Olchawa
- Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | | | | | - Joanna Chwiej
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Krakow, Krakow, Poland.
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6
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Chmelova M, Androvic P, Kirdajova D, Tureckova J, Kriska J, Valihrach L, Anderova M, Vargova L. A view of the genetic and proteomic profile of extracellular matrix molecules in aging and stroke. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1296455. [PMID: 38107409 PMCID: PMC10723838 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1296455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Modification of the extracellular matrix (ECM) is one of the major processes in the pathology of brain damage following an ischemic stroke. However, our understanding of how age-related ECM alterations may affect stroke pathophysiology and its outcome is still very limited. Methods We conducted an ECM-targeted re-analysis of our previously obtained RNA-Seq dataset of aging, ischemic stroke and their interactions in young adult (3-month-old) and aged (18-month-old) mice. The permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAo) in rodents was used as a model of ischemic stroke. Altogether 56 genes of interest were chosen for this study. Results We identified an increased activation of the genes encoding proteins related to ECM degradation, such as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), proteases of a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with the thrombospondin motifs (ADAMTS) family and molecules that regulate their activity, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Moreover, significant upregulation was also detected in the mRNA of other ECM molecules, such as proteoglycans, syndecans and link proteins. Notably, we identified 8 genes where this upregulation was enhanced in aged mice in comparison with the young ones. Ischemia evoked a significant downregulation in only 6 of our genes of interest, including those encoding proteins associated with the protective function of ECM molecules (e.g., brevican, Hapln4, Sparcl1); downregulation in brevican was more prominent in aged mice. The study was expanded by proteome analysis, where we observed an ischemia-induced overexpression in three proteins, which are associated with neuroinflammation (fibronectin and vitronectin) and neurodegeneration (link protein Hapln2). In fibronectin and Hapln2, this overexpression was more pronounced in aged post-ischemic animals. Conclusion Based on these results, we can conclude that the ratio between the protecting and degrading mechanisms in the aged brain is shifted toward degradation and contributes to the aged tissues' increased sensitivity to ischemic insults. Altogether, our data provide fresh perspectives on the processes underlying ischemic injury in the aging brain and serve as a freely accessible resource for upcoming research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Chmelova
- Department of Neuroscience, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Peter Androvic
- Laboratory of Gene Expression, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences – BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
| | - Denisa Kirdajova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jana Tureckova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jan Kriska
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Lukas Valihrach
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
- Laboratory of Gene Expression, Institute of Biotechnology of the Czech Academy of Sciences – BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
| | - Miroslava Anderova
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Lydia Vargova
- Department of Neuroscience, Second Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
- Department of Cellular Neurophysiology, Institute of Experimental Medicine of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
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7
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Childress KO, Cencer CS, Tyska MJ, Lacy DB. Nectin-3 and shed forms of CSPG4 can serve as epithelial cell receptors for Clostridioides difficile TcdB. mBio 2023; 14:e0185723. [PMID: 37747247 PMCID: PMC10653914 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01857-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Toxin B (TcdB) is a major virulence factor of Clostridioides difficile, a Gram-positive pathogen that is a leading cause of hospital-acquired diarrhea. While previous studies have established that TcdB can engage multiple cell surface receptors in vitro, little is known about how these interactions promote disease and where these receptors localize on colonic tissue. Here, we used immunofluorescence microscopy to visualize Nectin-3 and CSPG4 on tissue, revealing unexpected localization of both receptors on colonic epithelial cells. We show that Nectin-3, which was previously characterized as an adherens junction protein, is also localized to the brush border of colonocytes. Staining for CSPG4 revealed that it is present along epithelial cell junctions, suggesting that it is shed by fibroblasts along the crypt-surface axis. Collectively, our study provides new insights into how TcdB can gain access to the receptors Nectin-3 and CSPG4 to intoxicate colonic epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin O. Childress
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Caroline S. Cencer
- Department of Cell and Development Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Matthew J. Tyska
- Department of Cell and Development Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - D. Borden Lacy
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Veterans Affairs Tennessee Valley Healthcare System, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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8
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Teppert K, Winter N, Herbel V, Brandes C, Lennartz S, Engert F, Kaiser A, Schaser T, Lock D. Combining CSPG4-CAR and CD20-CCR for treatment of metastatic melanoma. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1178060. [PMID: 37901209 PMCID: PMC10603253 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1178060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The prognosis for patients with metastatic melanoma is poor and treatment options are limited. Genetically-engineered T cell therapy targeting chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), however, represents a promising treatment option, especially as both primary melanoma cells as well as metastases uniformly express CSPG4. Aiming to prevent off-tumor toxicity while maintaining a high cytolytic potential, we combined a chimeric co-stimulatory receptor (CCR) and a CSPG4-directed second-generation chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) with moderate potency. CCRs are artificial receptors similar to CARs, but lacking the CD3ζ activation element. Thus, T cells expressing solely a CCR, do not induce any cytolytic activity upon target cell binding, but are capable of boosting the CAR T cell response when both CAR and CCR engage their target antigens simultaneously. Here we demonstrate that co-expression of a CCR can significantly enhance the anti-tumor response of CSPG4-CAR T cells in vitro as well as in vivo. Importantly, this boosting effect was not dependent on co-expression of both CCR- and CAR-target on the very same tumor cell, but was also achieved upon trans activation. Finally, our data support the idea of using a CCR as a powerful tool to enhance the cytolytic potential of CAR T cells, which might open a novel therapeutic window for the treatment of metastatic melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Dominik Lock
- Miltenyi Biotec B.V. & Co. KG, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany
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9
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Kim H, Skuba A, Xia J, Han SB, Zhai J, Hu H, Kang SH, Son YJ. Oligodendrocyte precursor cells stop sensory axons regenerating into the spinal cord. Cell Rep 2023; 42:113068. [PMID: 37656624 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary somatosensory axons stop regenerating as they re-enter the spinal cord, resulting in incurable sensory loss. What arrests them has remained unclear. We previously showed that axons stop by forming synaptic contacts with unknown non-neuronal cells. Here, we identified these cells in adult mice as oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). We also found that only a few axons stop regenerating by forming dystrophic endings, exclusively at the CNS:peripheral nervous system (PNS) borderline where OPCs are absent. Most axons stop in contact with a dense network of OPC processes. Live imaging, immuno-electron microscopy (immuno-EM), and OPC-dorsal root ganglia (DRG) co-culture additionally suggest that axons are rapidly immobilized by forming synapses with OPCs. Genetic OPC ablation enables many axons to continue regenerating deep into the spinal cord. We propose that sensory axons stop regenerating by encountering OPCs that induce presynaptic differentiation. Our findings identify OPCs as a major regenerative barrier that prevents intraspinal restoration of sensory circuits following spinal root injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyukmin Kim
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Andy Skuba
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jingsheng Xia
- Department of Medicine, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Sung Baek Han
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Jinbin Zhai
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Huijuan Hu
- Department of Medicine, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Shin H Kang
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Young-Jin Son
- Department of Neural Sciences, Shriners Hospitals Pediatric Research Center, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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10
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Pechanec MY, Beall JM, Katzman S, Maga EA, Mienaltowski MJ. Examining the Effects of In Vitro Co-Culture of Equine Adipose-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells With Tendon Proper and Peritenon Cells. J Equine Vet Sci 2023; 126:104262. [PMID: 36841345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2023.104262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Revised: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Tendinopathies remain the leading contributor to career-ending injuries in horses because of the complexity of tendon repair. As such, cell-based therapies like injections of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs, or MSCs) into injured tendons are becoming increasingly popular though their long-term efficacy on a molecular and wholistic level remains contentious. Thus, we co-cultured equine MSCs with intrinsic (tendon proper) and extrinsic (peritenon) tendon cell populations to examine interactions between these cells. Gene expression for common tenogenic, perivascular, and differentiation markers was quantified at 48 and 120 hours. Additionally, cellular metabolism of proliferation was examined every 24 hours for peritenon and tendon proper cells co-cultured with MSCs. MSCs co-cultured with tendon proper or peritenon cells had altered expression profiles demonstrating trend toward tenogenic phenotype with the exception of decreases in type I collagen (COL1A1). Peritenon cells co-cultured with MSCs had a trending and significant decrease in biglycan (BGN) and CSPG4 at 48 hours and 120 hours but overall significant increases in lysyl oxidase (LOX), mohawk (MKX), and scleraxis (SCX) within 48 hours. Tendon proper cells co-cultured with MSCs also exhibited increases in LOX and SCX at 48 hours. Furthermore, cell proliferation improved overall for tendon proper cells co-cultured with MSCs. The co-culture study results suggest that adipose-derived MSCs contribute beneficially to tenogenic stimulation of peritenon or tendon proper cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Y Pechanec
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA
| | - Jessica M Beall
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA
| | - Scott Katzman
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA
| | - Elizabeth A Maga
- Department of Animal Science, University of California Davis, Davis, CA
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11
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He Q, Hu H, Yang F, Song D, Zhang X, Dai X. Advances in chimeric antigen receptor T cells therapy in the treatment of breast cancer. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 162:114609. [PMID: 37001182 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently occurring cancer type seriously threatening the lives of women worldwide. Clinically, the high frequency of diverse resistance to current therapeutic strategies advocates a demand to develop novel and effective approaches for the efficient treatment of BC. The chimeric antigen receptor T (CAR-T) cells therapy, one of the immunotherapies, has displayed powerful capacity to specifically kill and eliminate tumors. Due to the success of CAR-T therapy achieved in treating hematological malignancy, the effect of CAR-T cells therapy has been tested in various human diseases including breast cancer. This review summarized and discussed the landscape of the CAR-T therapy for breast cancer, including the advances, challenge and countermeasure of CAR-T therapy in research and clinical application. The roles of potential antigen targets, tumor microenvironment, immune escape in regulating CAR-T therapy, the combination of CAR-T therapy with other therapeutic strategies to further enhance therapeutic efficacy of CAR-T treatment were also highlighted. Therefore, our review provided a comprehensive understanding of CAR-T cell therapy in breast cancer which will awake huge interests for future in-depth investigation of CAR-T based therapy in cancer treatment.
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12
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Schiera G, Cancemi P, Di Liegro CM, Naselli F, Volpes S, Cruciata I, Cardinale PS, Vaglica F, Calligaris M, Carreca AP, Chiarelli R, Scilabra SD, Leone O, Caradonna F, Di Liegro I. An In Vitro Model of Glioma Development. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14050990. [PMID: 37239349 DOI: 10.3390/genes14050990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Gliomas are the prevalent forms of brain cancer and derive from glial cells. Among them, astrocytomas are the most frequent. Astrocytes are fundamental for most brain functions, as they contribute to neuronal metabolism and neurotransmission. When they acquire cancer properties, their functions are altered, and, in addition, they start invading the brain parenchyma. Thus, a better knowledge of transformed astrocyte molecular properties is essential. With this aim, we previously developed rat astrocyte clones with increasing cancer properties. In this study, we used proteomic analysis to compare the most transformed clone (A-FC6) with normal primary astrocytes. We found that 154 proteins are downregulated and 101 upregulated in the clone. Moreover, 46 proteins are only expressed in the clone and 82 only in the normal cells. Notably, only 11 upregulated/unique proteins are encoded in the duplicated q arm of isochromosome 8 (i(8q)), which cytogenetically characterizes the clone. Since both normal and transformed brain cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs), which might induce epigenetic modifications in the neighboring cells, we also compared EVs released from transformed and normal astrocytes. Interestingly, we found that the clone releases EVs containing proteins, such as matrix metalloproteinase 3 (MMP3), that can modify the extracellular matrix, thus allowing invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriella Schiera
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Patrizia Cancemi
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Carlo Maria Di Liegro
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Flores Naselli
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Sara Volpes
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Ilenia Cruciata
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Paola Sofia Cardinale
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabiola Vaglica
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Matteo Calligaris
- Proteomics Group, Department of Research, ISMETT-IRCCS, Ri.MED Foundation, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Anna Paola Carreca
- Proteomics Group, Department of Research, ISMETT-IRCCS, Ri.MED Foundation, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Roberto Chiarelli
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Simone Dario Scilabra
- Proteomics Group, Department of Research, ISMETT-IRCCS, Ri.MED Foundation, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Olga Leone
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palerm, Via del Vespro, 129, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Fabio Caradonna
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 16, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Italia Di Liegro
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics, University of Palerm, Via del Vespro, 129, 90127 Palermo, Italy
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13
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Larabee JL, Doyle DA, Ahmed UKB, Shadid TM, Sharp RR, Jones KL, Kim YM, Li S, Ballard JD. Discovery of Hippo signaling as a regulator of CSPG4 expression and as a therapeutic target for Clostridioides difficile disease. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011272. [PMID: 36972308 PMCID: PMC10079225 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The signaling pathways and networks regulating expression of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), a cancer-related protein that serves as a receptor for Clostridiodes difficile TcdB, are poorly defined. In this study, TcdB-resistant/CSPG4-negative HeLa cells were generated by exposure to increasing concentrations of the toxin. The cells that emerged (HeLa R5) lost expression of CSPG4 mRNA and were resistant to binding by TcdB. mRNA expression profiles paired with integrated pathway analysis correlated changes in the Hippo and estrogen signaling pathways with a CSPG4 decrease in HeLa R5 cells. Both signaling pathways altered CSPG4 expression when modulated chemically or through CRISPR-mediated deletion of key transcriptional regulators in the Hippo pathway. Based on the in vitro findings, we predicted and experimentally confirmed that a Hippo pathway inactivating drug (XMU-MP-1) provides protection from C. difficile disease in a mouse model. These results provide insights into key regulators of CSPG4 expression and identify a therapeutic for C. difficile disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason L. Larabee
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - D. Annie Doyle
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Ummey Khalecha Bintha Ahmed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Tyler M. Shadid
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Rachel R. Sharp
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Cytometry Research, Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Kenneth L. Jones
- Laboratory for Molecular Biology and Cytometry Research, Harold Hamm Diabetes Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
- Department of Cell Biology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Young Mi Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Shibo Li
- Department of Pediatrics, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
| | - Jimmy D. Ballard
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, United States of America
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14
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Xu J, Yuan A, Su R, Yang Q, Fan X, Zhang J. Trophoblast-specific knockdown of CSPG4 expression causes pregnancy complications with poor placentation in mice. Reprod Biol 2023; 23:100731. [PMID: 36634519 DOI: 10.1016/j.repbio.2023.100731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The multifunctional molecule chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4/NG2) plays key roles in organogenesis and tumorigenesis. However, its roles in placentation remain unclear. In this study, CSPG4 expression in human and mouse placentas was investigated through immunohistochemistry (IHC), qPCR and western blotting. The theoretical structure and function of CSPG4 were assessed using bioinformatic tools, and the functions of CSPG4 in fetal and placental development were investigated using a mouse model established by trophoblast-specific CSPG4 knockdown and a trophoblast cell line with CSPG4 knockout by lentivirus infection. The results showed that CSPG4 was mainly located in trophoblasts in both human placentas and mouse placentas, with a higher level in preeclampsia (PE) placentas than in healthy control placentas. Furthermore, there was a trend of increasing expression in mouse placentas during pregnancy. The 3D structure of CSPG4 was visualized using an M model composed of two chains, and the structure implied that CSPG4 was a multifunctional molecule containing multiple pockets with multiligand binding sites and enzyme active sites. Trophoblast-specific CSPG4 knockdown caused frequent fetal loss, and viable fetal development was restricted by poor placentation, with mice placentas having reduced weight and width. The proliferation and invasion of CSPG4-knockout trophoblasts were significantly inhibited, and as such, the molecular signaling of AKT and ERK phosphorylation was inhibited, and the expression of MMP2 and MMP9 was reduced. In summary, CSPG4 deficiency inhibited trophoblast proliferation and invasion, which was associated with AKT, ERK and MMP signaling. CSPG4 deficiency also caused pregnancy complications with poor placentation in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junfei Xu
- College of Biological and Food Engineering, Huaihua University, Key Laboratory of Research and Utilization of Ethnomedicinal Plant Resources of Hunan Province, Huaihua 418000, China
| | - Anwen Yuan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Rui Su
- Research Center for Reproduction and Health Development, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Qing Yang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Xiujun Fan
- Research Center for Reproduction and Health Development, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Juzuo Zhang
- College of Biological and Food Engineering, Huaihua University, Key Laboratory of Research and Utilization of Ethnomedicinal Plant Resources of Hunan Province, Huaihua 418000, China; Research Center for Reproduction and Health Development, Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen 518055, China.
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15
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Chen K, Yong J, Zauner R, Wally V, Whitelock J, Sajinovic M, Kopecki Z, Liang K, Scott KF, Mellick AS. Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan 4 as a Marker for Aggressive Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2022; 14:cancers14225564. [PMID: 36428658 PMCID: PMC9688099 DOI: 10.3390/cancers14225564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) is a cell surface proteoglycan that is currently under investigation as a marker of cancer malignancy, and as a potential target of anticancer drug treatment. CSPG4 acts as a driver of tumourigenesis by regulating turnover of the extracellular matrix (ECM) to promote tumour cell invasion, migration as well as inflammation and angiogenesis. While CSPG4 has been widely studied in certain malignancies, such as melanoma, evidence is emerging from global gene expression studies, which suggests a role for CSPG4 in squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). While relatively treatable, lack of widely agreed upon diagnostic markers for SCCs is problematic, especially for clinicians managing certain patients, including those who are aged or infirm, as well as those with underlying conditions such as epidermolysis bullosa (EB), for which a delayed diagnosis is likely lethal. In this review, we have discussed the structure of CSPG4, and quantitatively analysed CSPG4 expression in the tissues and pathologies where it has been identified to determine the usefulness of CSPG4 expression as a diagnostic marker and therapeutic target in management of malignant SCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Chen
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW 2560, Australia
| | - Joel Yong
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia
| | - Roland Zauner
- EB House Austria, Research Program for Molecular Therapy of Genodermatoses, Department of Dermatology & Allergology, University Hospital of the Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Verena Wally
- EB House Austria, Research Program for Molecular Therapy of Genodermatoses, Department of Dermatology & Allergology, University Hospital of the Paracelsus Medical University, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - John Whitelock
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia
| | - Mila Sajinovic
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
| | - Zlatko Kopecki
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095, Australia
| | - Kang Liang
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia
| | - Kieran Francis Scott
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW 2560, Australia
| | - Albert Sleiman Mellick
- Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Medicine, University of New South Wales, Liverpool, NSW 2170, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW 2033, Australia
- Correspondence:
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16
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Jiang M, Shin J, Simeon R, Chang JY, Meng R, Wang Y, Shinde O, Li P, Chen Z, Zhang J. Structural dynamics of receptor recognition and pH-induced dissociation of full-length Clostridioides difficile Toxin B. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001589. [PMID: 35324891 PMCID: PMC8982864 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile secretes Toxin B (TcdB) as one of its major virulence factors, which binds to intestinal epithelial and subepithelial receptors, including frizzled proteins and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4). Here, we present cryo-EM structures of full-length TcdB in complex with the CSPG4 domain 1 fragment (D1401-560) at cytosolic pH and the cysteine-rich domain of frizzled-2 (CRD2) at both cytosolic and acidic pHs. CSPG4 specifically binds to the autoprocessing and delivery domains of TcdB via networks of salt bridges, hydrophobic and aromatic/proline interactions, which are disrupted upon acidification eventually leading to CSPG4 drastically dissociating from TcdB. In contrast, FZD2 moderately dissociates from TcdB under acidic pH, most likely due to its partial unfolding. These results reveal structural dynamics of TcdB during its preentry step upon endosomal acidification, which provide a basis for developing therapeutics against C. difficile infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengqiu Jiang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Joonyoung Shin
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Rudo Simeon
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Jeng-Yih Chang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ran Meng
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Yuhang Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Omkar Shinde
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Pingwei Li
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Zhilei Chen
- Department of Microbial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas, United States of America
| | - Junjie Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
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17
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Reed DA, Zhao Y, Bagheri Varzaneh M, Shin JS, Rozynek J, Miloro M, Han M. NG2/CSPG4 regulates cartilage degeneration during TMJ osteoarthritis. FRONTIERS IN DENTAL MEDICINE 2022; 3:1004942. [PMID: 36685663 PMCID: PMC9850834 DOI: 10.3389/fdmed.2022.1004942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in the mechanical homeostasis of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) can lead to the initiation and progression of degenerative arthropathies such as osteoarthritis (OA). Cells sense and engage with their mechanical microenvironment through interactions with the extracellular matrix. In the mandibular condylar cartilage, the pericellular microenvironment is composed of type VI collagen. NG2/CSPG4 is a transmembrane proteoglycan that binds with type VI collagen, and has been implicated in the cell stress response through mechanical loading-sensitive signaling networks including ERK 1/2. The objective of this study is to define the role of NG2/CSPG4 in the initiation and progression of TMJ OA and to determine if NG2/CSPG4 engages ERK 1/2 in a mechanical loading dependent manner. In vivo, we induced TMJ OA in control and NG2/CSPG4 knockout mice using a surgical destabilization approach. In control mice, NG2/CSPG4 is depleted during the early stages of TMJ OA and NG2/CSPG4 knockout mice have more severe cartilage degeneration, elevated expression of key OA proteases, and suppression of OA matrix synthesis genes. In vitro, we characterized the transcriptome and protein from control and NG2/CSPG4 knockout cells and found significant dysregulation of the ERK 1/2 signaling axis. To characterize the mechanobiological response of NG2/CSPG4, we applied mechanical loads on cell-agarose-collagen scaffolds using a compression bioreactor and illustrate that NG2/CSPG4 knockout cells fail to mechanically activate ERK 1/2 and are associated with changes in the expression of the same key OA biomarkers measured in vivo. Together, these findings implicate NG2/CSPG4 in the mechanical homeostasis of TMJ cartilage and in the progression of degenerative arthropathies including OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Reed
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States,,CORRESPONDENCE: David A. Reed,
| | - Yan Zhao
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Mina Bagheri Varzaneh
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Jun Soo Shin
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Jacob Rozynek
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Michael Miloro
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Michael Han
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, University of Illinois Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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18
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Abstract
Cell surface proteoglycans, such as syndecans and glypicans, regulate molecular interactions that mediate cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Through these activities, surface proteoglycans modulate critical biological processes of development, inflammation, infection, tissue repair, and cancer metastasis. Proteoglycans are unique glycoproteins comprised of one or several glycosaminoglycans attached covalently to core proteins. Glycosaminoglycans mediate the majority of ligand-binding functions of proteoglycans. Accumulating evidence indicates that surface proteoglycans regulate the onset, progression, and outcome of lung diseases, including lung injury, infection, fibrosis, and cancer. This article will review key features of surface proteoglycan biology in lung health and disease.
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19
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Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4, a targetable oncoantigen that promotes ovarian cancer growth, invasion, cisplatin resistance and spheroid formation. Transl Oncol 2021; 16:101318. [PMID: 34942534 PMCID: PMC8695353 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2021.101318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a highly heterogeneous disease encompassing several distinct molecular subtypes and clinical entities. Despite the initial success of surgical debulking and adjuvant chemotherapy, recurrence with chemotherapy resistant tumors is common in patients with EOC and leads to poor overall survival. The extensive genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity associated with ovarian cancers has hindered the identification of effective prognostic and predictive biomarkers in EOC patients. In the current studies, we identify a tumor cell surface oncoantigen, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4), as an independent risk factor for decreased survival of patients with EOC. Our results show that CSPG4 promotes EOC cell invasion, cisplatin resistance and spheroid formation in vitro and tumor expansion in vivo. Mechanistically, spheroid formation and tumor cell invasion are due to CSPG4-stimulated expression of the mesenchymal transcription factor ZEB1. Furthermore, we have developed a novel monoclonal anti-CSGP4 antibody against the juxtamembrane domain of the core protein that limits CSPG4-stimulated ZEB1 expression, tumor cell invasion and promotes EOC apoptosis within spheroid cultures. We therefore propose that CSPG4 expression drives phenotypic heterogeneity and malignant progression in EOC tumors. These studies further demonstrate that CSPG4 expression levels are a potential diagnostic biomarker in EOC and indicate that targeting cells which express this oncoantigen could limit recurrence and improve outcomes in patients with EOC.
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20
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Kawon K, Setkowicz Z, Drozdz A, Janeczko K, Chwiej J. The methods of vibrational microspectroscopy reveals long-term biochemical anomalies within the region of mechanical injury within the rat brain. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 263:120214. [PMID: 34325168 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2021.120214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI), meaning functional or structural brain damage which appear as a result of the application of the external physical force, constitutes the main cause of death and disability of individuals and a great socioeconomic problem. To search for the new therapeutic strategies for TBI, better knowledge about posttraumatic pathological changes occurring in the brain is necessary. Therefore in the present paper the Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy and Raman microscopy were used to examine local and remote biochemical changes occurring in the rat brain as a result of focal cortex injury. The site of the injury and the dorsal part of the hippocampal formation together with the above situated cortex and white matter were the subject of the study. The topographic and quantitative biochemical analysis followed with the statistical study using principal component analysis showed significant biomolecular anomalies within the lesion site but not in the area of the dorsal hippocampal formation and in the above situated white matter and cortex. The observed intralesional anomalies included significantly decreased accumulation of lipids and their structural changes within the place of injury. Also the levels of compounds containing phosphate and carbonyl groups were lower within the lesion site comparing to the surrounding cortex. The opposite relation was, in turn, found for the bands characteristic to proteins and cholesterol/cholesterol esters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Kawon
- AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, Krakow, Poland
| | - Zuzanna Setkowicz
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Drozdz
- AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, Krakow, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Janeczko
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Chwiej
- AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, Krakow, Poland.
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21
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Hayes AJ, Melrose J. Neural Tissue Homeostasis and Repair Is Regulated via CS and DS Proteoglycan Motifs. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:696640. [PMID: 34409033 PMCID: PMC8365427 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.696640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) is the most abundant and widely distributed glycosaminoglycan (GAG) in the human body. As a component of proteoglycans (PGs) it has numerous roles in matrix stabilization and cellular regulation. This chapter highlights the roles of CS and CS-PGs in the central and peripheral nervous systems (CNS/PNS). CS has specific cell regulatory roles that control tissue function and homeostasis. The CNS/PNS contains a diverse range of CS-PGs which direct the development of embryonic neural axonal networks, and the responses of neural cell populations in mature tissues to traumatic injury. Following brain trauma and spinal cord injury, a stabilizing CS-PG-rich scar tissue is laid down at the defect site to protect neural tissues, which are amongst the softest tissues of the human body. Unfortunately, the CS concentrated in gliotic scars also inhibits neural outgrowth and functional recovery. CS has well known inhibitory properties over neural behavior, and animal models of CNS/PNS injury have demonstrated that selective degradation of CS using chondroitinase improves neuronal functional recovery. CS-PGs are present diffusely in the CNS but also form denser regions of extracellular matrix termed perineuronal nets which surround neurons. Hyaluronan is immobilized in hyalectan CS-PG aggregates in these perineural structures, which provide neural protection, synapse, and neural plasticity, and have roles in memory and cognitive learning. Despite the generally inhibitory cues delivered by CS-A and CS-C, some CS-PGs containing highly charged CS disaccharides (CS-D, CS-E) or dermatan sulfate (DS) disaccharides that promote neural outgrowth and functional recovery. CS/DS thus has varied cell regulatory properties and structural ECM supportive roles in the CNS/PNS depending on the glycoform present and its location in tissue niches and specific cellular contexts. Studies on the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster and the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have provided insightful information on neural interconnectivity and the role of the ECM and its PGs in neural development and in tissue morphogenesis in a whole organism environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J. Hayes
- Bioimaging Research Hub, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - James Melrose
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratories, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, Royal North Shore Hospital and The Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, St. Leonard’s, NSW, Australia
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22
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Chen P, Zeng J, Liu Z, Thaker H, Wang S, Tian S, Zhang J, Tao L, Gutierrez CB, Xing L, Gerhard R, Huang L, Dong M, Jin R. Structural basis for CSPG4 as a receptor for TcdB and a therapeutic target in Clostridioides difficile infection. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3748. [PMID: 34145250 PMCID: PMC8213806 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23878-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
C. difficile is a major cause of antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal infections. Two C. difficile exotoxins (TcdA and TcdB) are major virulence factors associated with these infections, and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) is a potential receptor for TcdB, but its pathophysiological relevance and the molecular details that govern recognition remain unknown. Here, we determine the cryo-EM structure of a TcdB–CSPG4 complex, revealing a unique binding site spatially composed of multiple discontinuous regions across TcdB. Mutations that selectively disrupt CSPG4 binding reduce TcdB toxicity in mice, while CSPG4-knockout mice show reduced damage to colonic tissues during C. difficile infections. We further show that bezlotoxumab, the only FDA approved anti-TcdB antibody, blocks CSPG4 binding via an allosteric mechanism, but it displays low neutralizing potency on many TcdB variants from epidemic hypervirulent strains due to sequence variations in its epitopes. In contrast, a CSPG4-mimicking decoy neutralizes major TcdB variants, suggesting a strategy to develop broad-spectrum therapeutics against TcdB. Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4 (CSPG4) is a potential receptor for C. difficile toxin B (TcdB) during C. difficile infections (CDIs). Here, the cryo-EM structure of a TcdB–CSPG4 complex and CDI mouse models offer insights into CSPG4 role in CDIs and suggest a therapeutic strategy targeting TcdB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Chen
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Ji Zeng
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Zheng Liu
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Hatim Thaker
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Siyu Wang
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Gastrointestinal, Colorectal and Anal Surgery, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Songhai Tian
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jie Zhang
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Liang Tao
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Key Laboratory of Structural Biology of Zhejiang Province, School of Life Sciences, Westlake University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Westlake Institute for Advanced Study, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Craig B Gutierrez
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Li Xing
- UC Irvine Materials Research Institute (IMRI), University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Ralf Gerhard
- Institute of Toxicology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lan Huang
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Min Dong
- Department of Urology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. .,Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Rongsheng Jin
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.
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23
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Melrose J, Hayes AJ, Bix G. The CNS/PNS Extracellular Matrix Provides Instructive Guidance Cues to Neural Cells and Neuroregulatory Proteins in Neural Development and Repair. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115583. [PMID: 34070424 PMCID: PMC8197505 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background. The extracellular matrix of the PNS/CNS is unusual in that it is dominated by glycosaminoglycans, especially hyaluronan, whose space filling and hydrating properties make essential contributions to the functional properties of this tissue. Hyaluronan has a relatively simple structure but its space-filling properties ensure micro-compartments are maintained in the brain ultrastructure, ensuring ionic niches and gradients are maintained for optimal cellular function. Hyaluronan has cell-instructive, anti-inflammatory properties and forms macro-molecular aggregates with the lectican CS-proteoglycans, forming dense protective perineuronal net structures that provide neural and synaptic plasticity and support cognitive learning. Aims. To highlight the central nervous system/peripheral nervous system (CNS/PNS) and its diverse extracellular and cell-associated proteoglycans that have cell-instructive properties regulating neural repair processes and functional recovery through interactions with cell adhesive molecules, receptors and neuroregulatory proteins. Despite a general lack of stabilising fibrillar collagenous and elastic structures in the CNS/PNS, a sophisticated dynamic extracellular matrix is nevertheless important in tissue form and function. Conclusions. This review provides examples of the sophistication of the CNS/PNS extracellular matrix, showing how it maintains homeostasis and regulates neural repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, Kolling Institute, Northern Sydney Local Health District, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, Northern, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards, NSW 2065, Australia
- Correspondence:
| | - Anthony J. Hayes
- Bioimaging Research Hub, Cardiff School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK;
| | - Gregory Bix
- Clinical Neuroscience Research Center, Departments of Neurosurgery and Neurology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA;
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24
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Extracellular Matrix in Neural Plasticity and Regeneration. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2020; 42:647-664. [PMID: 33128689 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-020-00986-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a fundamental component of biological tissues. The ECM in the central nervous system (CNS) is unique in both composition and function. Functions such as learning, memory, synaptogenesis, and plasticity are regulated by numerous ECM molecules. The neural ECM acts as a non-specific physical barrier that modulates neuronal plasticity and axon regeneration. There are two specialized types of ECM in the CNS, diffuse perisynaptic ECM and condensed ECM, which selectively surround the perikaryon and initial part of dendritic trees in subtypes of neurons, forming perineuronal nets. This review presents the current knowledge about the role of important neuronal ECM molecules in maintaining the basic functions of a neuron, including electrogenesis and the ability to form neural circuits. The review mainly focuses on the role of ECM components that participate in the control of key events such as cell survival, axonal growth, and synaptic remodeling. Particular attention is drawn to the numerous molecular partners of the main ECM components. These regulatory molecules are integrated into the cell membrane or disposed into the matrix itself in solid or soluble form. The interaction of the main matrix components with molecular partners seems essential in molecular mechanisms controlling neuronal functions. Special attention is paid to the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan 4, type 1 transmembrane protein, neural-glial antigen 2 (NG2/CSPG4), whose cleaved extracellular domain is such a molecular partner that it not only acts directly on neural and vascular cells, but also exerts its influence indirectly by binding to resident ECM molecules.
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25
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Mencio CP, Hussein RK, Yu P, Geller HM. The Role of Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycans in Nervous System Development. J Histochem Cytochem 2020; 69:61-80. [PMID: 32936033 DOI: 10.1369/0022155420959147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The orderly development of the nervous system is characterized by phases of cell proliferation and differentiation, neural migration, axonal outgrowth and synapse formation, and stabilization. Each of these processes is a result of the modulation of genetic programs by extracellular cues. In particular, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) have been found to be involved in almost every aspect of this well-orchestrated yet delicate process. The evidence of their involvement is complex, often contradictory, and lacking in mechanistic clarity; however, it remains obvious that CSPGs are key cogs in building a functional brain. This review focuses on current knowledge of the role of CSPGs in each of the major stages of neural development with emphasis on areas requiring further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin P Mencio
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Rowan K Hussein
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Panpan Yu
- Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Ministry of Education Joint International Research Laboratory of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Herbert M Geller
- Laboratory of Developmental Neurobiology, Cell and Developmental Biology Center, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Maryland
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26
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iPS-Derived Early Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells from SPMS Patients Reveal Deficient In Vitro Cell Migration Stimulation. Cells 2020; 9:cells9081803. [PMID: 32751289 PMCID: PMC7463559 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The most challenging aspect of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis (SPMS) is the lack of efficient regenerative response for remyelination, which is carried out by the endogenous population of adult oligoprogenitor cells (OPCs) after proper activation. OPCs must proliferate and migrate to the lesion and then differentiate into mature oligodendrocytes. To investigate the OPC cellular component in SPMS, we developed induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from SPMS-affected donors and age-matched controls (CT). We confirmed their efficient and similar OPC differentiation capacity, although we reported SPMS-OPCs were transcriptionally distinguishable from their CT counterparts. Analysis of OPC-generated conditioned media (CM) also evinced differences in protein secretion. We further confirmed SPMS-OPC CM presented a deficient capacity to stimulate OPC in vitro migration that can be compensated by exogenous addition of specific components. Our results provide an SPMS-OPC cellular model and encouraging venues to study potential cell communication deficiencies in the progressive form of multiple sclerosis (MS) for future treatment strategies.
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27
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Tarone L, Barutello G, Iussich S, Giacobino D, Quaglino E, Buracco P, Cavallo F, Riccardo F. Naturally occurring cancers in pet dogs as pre-clinical models for cancer immunotherapy. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2019; 68:1839-1853. [PMID: 31222484 PMCID: PMC11028358 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-019-02360-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite the significant progress in tumor prevention, early detection, diagnosis and treatment made over recent decades, cancer is still an enormous public health challenge all around the world, with the number of people affected increasing every year. A great deal of effort is therefore being devoted to the search for novel safe, effective and economically sustainable treatments for the growing population of neoplastic patients. One main obstacle to this process is the extremely low percentage of therapeutic approaches that, after successfully passing pre-clinical testing, actually demonstrate activity when finally tested in humans. This disappointing and expensive failure rate is partly due to the pre-clinical murine models used for in vivo testing, which cannot faithfully recapitulate the multifaceted nature and evolution of human malignancies. These features are better mirrored in natural disease models, i.e., companion animals affected by cancers. Herein, we discuss the relevance of spontaneous canine tumors for the evaluation of the safety and anti-tumor activity of novel therapeutic strategies before in-human trials, and present our experience in the development of a vaccine that targets chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan (CSPG)4 as an example of these comparative oncology studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lidia Tarone
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Via Nizza, 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Barutello
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Via Nizza, 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Selina Iussich
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini, 2, 10095, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Davide Giacobino
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini, 2, 10095, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Elena Quaglino
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Via Nizza, 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Buracco
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Largo Braccini, 2, 10095, Grugliasco, Italy
| | - Federica Cavallo
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Via Nizza, 52, 10126, Turin, Italy.
| | - Federica Riccardo
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, Molecular Biotechnology Center, University of Turin, Via Nizza, 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
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