Impact of underuse, overuse, and discretionary use on geographic variation in the use of coronary angiography after acute myocardial infarction

Education-related variation in coronary procedure rates and the contribution of private health care in Australia: a prospective cohort study

Background

Contemporary Australian evidence on socioeconomic variation in secondary cardiovascular disease (CVD) care, a possible contributor to inequalities in cardiovascular disease outcomes, is lacking. This study examined the relationship between education, an individual-level indicator of socioeconomic position, and receipt of angiography and revascularisation procedures following incident hospitalisation for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) or angina, and the role of private care in this relationship.

Methods

Participants aged ≥45 from the New South Wales population-based 45 and Up Study with no history of prior ischaemic heart disease hospitalised for AMI or angina were followed for receipt of angiography or revascularisation within 30 days of hospital admission, ascertained through linked hospital records. Education attainment, measured on baseline survey, was categorised as low (no school certificate/qualifications), intermediate (school certificate/trade/apprenticeship/diploma) and high (university degree). Cox regression estimated the association (hazard ratios [HRs]) between education and coronary procedure receipt, adjusting for demographic and health-related factors, and testing for linear trend. Private health insurance was investigated as a mediating variable.

Results

Among 4454 patients with AMI, 68.3% received angiography within 30 days of admission (crude rate: 25.8/person-year) and 48.8% received revascularisation (rate: 11.7/person-year); corresponding figures among 4348 angina patients were 59.7% (rate: 17.4/person-year) and 30.8% (rate: 5.3/person-year). Procedure rates decreased with decreasing levels of education. Comparing low to high education, angiography rates were 29% lower among AMI patients (adjusted HR = 0.71, 95% CI: 0.56–0.90) and 40% lower among angina patients (0.60, 0.47–0.76). Patterns were similar for revascularisation among those with angina (0.78, 0.61–0.99) but not AMI (0.93, 0.69–1.25). After adjustment for private health insurance status, the HRs were attenuated and there was little evidence of an association between education and angiography among those admitted for AMI.

Conclusions

There is a socioeconomic gradient in coronary procedures with the most disadvantaged patients being less likely to receive angiography following hospital admission for AMI or angina, and revascularisation procedures for angina. Unequal access to private health care contributes to these differences. The extent to which the remaining variation is clinically appropriate, or whether angiography is being underused among people with low socioeconomic position or overused among those with higher socioeconomic position, is unclear.

Defining and Measuring Diagnostic Uncertainty in Medicine: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Physicians routinely encounter diagnostic uncertainty in practice. Despite its impact on health care utilization, costs and error, measurement of diagnostic uncertainty is poorly understood. We conducted a systematic review to describe how diagnostic uncertainty is defined and measured in medical practice.

METHODS

We searched OVID Medline and PsycINFO databases from inception until May 2017 using a combination of keywords and Medical Subject Headings (MeSH). Additional search strategies included manual review of references identified in the primary search, use of a topic-specific database (AHRQ-PSNet) and expert input. We specifically focused on articles that (1) defined diagnostic uncertainty; (2) conceptualized diagnostic uncertainty in terms of its sources, complexity of its attributes or strategies for managing it; or (3) attempted to measure diagnostic uncertainty.

KEY RESULTS

We identified 123 articles for full review, none of which defined diagnostic uncertainty. Three attributes of diagnostic uncertainty were relevant for measurement: (1) it is a subjective perception experienced by the clinician; (2) it has the potential to impact diagnostic evaluation-for example, when inappropriately managed, it can lead to diagnostic delays; and (3) it is dynamic in nature, changing with time. Current methods for measuring diagnostic uncertainty in medical practice include: (1) asking clinicians about their perception of uncertainty (surveys and qualitative interviews), (2) evaluating the patient-clinician encounter (such as by reviews of medical records, transcripts of patient-clinician communication and observation), and (3) experimental techniques (patient vignette studies).

CONCLUSIONS

The term "diagnostic uncertainty" lacks a clear definition, and there is no comprehensive framework for its measurement in medical practice. Based on review findings, we propose that diagnostic uncertainty be defined as a "subjective perception of an inability to provide an accurate explanation of the patient's health problem." Methodological advancements in measuring diagnostic uncertainty can improve our understanding of diagnostic decision-making and inform interventions to reduce diagnostic errors and overuse of health care resources.

Hospital Phenotypes in the Management of Patients Admitted for Acute Myocardial Infarction

OBJECTIVES

To characterize hospital phenotypes by their combined utilization pattern of percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI), coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) procedures, and intensive care unit (ICU) admissions for patients hospitalized for acute myocardial infarction (AMI).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Using the Premier Analytical Database, we identified 129,138 hospitalizations for AMI from 246 hospitals with the capacity for performing open-heart surgery during 2010-2013. We calculated year-specific, risk-standardized estimates of PCI procedure rates, CABG procedure rates, and ICU admission rates for each hospital, adjusting for patient clinical characteristics and within-hospital correlation of patients. We used a mixture modeling approach to identify groups of hospitals (ie, hospital phenotypes) that exhibit distinct longitudinal patterns of risk-standardized PCI, CABG, and ICU admission rates.

RESULTS

We identified 3 distinct phenotypes among the 246 hospitals: (1) high PCI-low CABG-high ICU admission (39.2% of the hospitals), (2) high PCI-low CABG-low ICU admission (30.5%), and (3) low PCI-high CABG-moderate ICU admission (30.4%). Hospitals in the high PCI-low CABG-high ICU admission phenotype had significantly higher risk-standardized in-hospital costs and 30-day risk-standardized payment yet similar risk-standardized mortality and readmission rates compared with hospitals in the low PCI-high CABG-moderate ICU admission phenotype. Hospitals in these phenotypes differed by geographic region.

CONCLUSIONS

Hospitals differ in how they manage patients hospitalized for AMI. Their distinctive practice patterns suggest that some hospital phenotypes may be more successful in producing good outcomes at lower cost.

Systematic overuse of healthcare services: a conceptual model

A perfect storm of factors influences the overuse of healthcare services in the USA. Considerable attention has been placed on geographic variation in utilization; however, empiric data has shown that geographic variation in utilization is not associated with overuse. While there has been renewed interest in overuse in recent years, much of the focus has been on the overuse of individual procedures. In this paper we argue that overuse should be thought of as a widespread and pervasive phenomenon that we coin as systematic overuse. While not directly observable (i.e., a latent phenomenon), we suggest that systematic overuse could be identified by tracking a portfolio of overused procedures. Such a portfolio would reflect systematic overuse if it is associated with higher healthcare costs and no health benefit (including worse health outcomes) across a healthcare system. In this report we define and conceptualize systematic overuse and illustrate how it can be identified and validated via a simple empirical example using several Choosing Wisely indicators. The concept of systematic overuse requires further development and empirical verification, and this paper provides an important first step, a conceptual framework, to that end.

Nationwide trends in use and timeliness of diagnostic coronary angiography in acute coronary syndromes from 2005 to 2011: Does distance to invasive heart centres matter?

AIMS

To examine trends in the use of diagnostic coronary angiography according to distance from home to the nearest invasive heart centre following implementation of fast-track protocols and extensive pre-hospital triaging of acute coronary syndrome patients.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We performed a register-based cohort study of all patients admitted to Danish hospitals with incident acute coronary syndrome in 2005-2011. Diagnostic coronary angiography within 60 days of admission was investigated according to distance tertiles (DTs) calculated as range from each patient's home to the nearest invasive heart centre (short DT: <22 km, medium DT: 22-65 km, long DT: >65 km). Cox proportional hazards models were applied.Among the 52,409 patients included, diagnostic coronary angiography was increasingly used during 2005-2011 (short DT: 76% to 81%; medium DT: 74% to 81%; long DT: 69% to 78%; all p-values for trend <0.001). Using the short DT as reference the adjusted hazard ratios for medium DT were 0.87 (0.84-0.89) for 2005-2007, 0.94 (0.90-0.98) for 2008-2009 and 0.94 (0.90-0.98) for 2010-2011. Corresponding figures for long DT were 0.74 (0.72-0.76) for 2005-2007, 0.87 (0.83-0.90) for 2008-2009 and 0.94 (0.90-0.98) for 2010-2011. Length of hospital stay, time to coronary angiography, and 60-day mortality decreased in all DT.

CONCLUSIONS

This nationwide study found significant increases in diagnostic coronary angiography use over time in incident acute coronary syndrome patients with a relatively larger increase in patients residing farthest from an invasive heart centre. Additionally, selected quality of care measures improved in the entire cohort, suggesting a benefit of national clinical protocols.

Variable penetration of primary angioplasty in Europe--what determines the implementation rate?

Primary percutaneous coronary intervention (PPCI) is the recommended treatment for patients with acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI). A survey conducted in 2008 in the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) countries reported that the annual incidence of hospital admissions for acute STEMI is around 800 patients per million inhabitants. The survey also showed that STEMI patients' access to reperfusion therapy and the use of PPCI or thrombolytic therapy (TT) vary considerably among countries. Northern, Western and Central Europe already had well-developed PPCI services, offering PPCI to 60-90% of all STEMI patients. Southern Europe and the Balkans were still predominantly using TT and had a higher proportion of patients who were left without any reperfusion treatment. The survey concluded that a nationwide PPCI strategy results in more patients being offered reperfusion therapy. To address the inequalities in STEMI patients' access to life-saving PPCI and to support the implementation of the ESC STEMI treatment guidelines in Europe, the Stent for Life (SFL) Initiative was launched jointly by the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI) and EuroPCR in 2008. The aim of the SFL Initiative is to improve the delivery of life-saving PPCI for STEMI patients. Currently, 10 national cardiac societies support the SFL Initiative in their respective countries. SFL national action programmes have been developed and are being implemented in several countries. The formation of regional PPCI networks involving emergency medical services, non-PPCI hospitals and PPCI centres is considered to be a critical factor in implementing PPCI services effectively. Better monitoring of STEMI incidence and prospective registration of PPCI in all countries is required to document improvements in health care and to identify areas where further effort is required. Furthermore, studies on potential factors or characteristics that explain the national penetration of PPCI are needed. Such knowledge will be necessary to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the implementation, and will be the first step in ensuring equal access to PPCI treatment for STEMI patients in Europe. Establishing the delivery of PPCI in an effective, high-quality and timely manner is a great challenge.

Geographic variation of chronic opioid use in fibromyalgia

BACKGROUND

Opioid use for the treatment of chronic nonmalignant pain has increased drastically over the past decade. Although no evidence of efficacy exists supporting the treatment of fibromyalgia (FM) with chronic opioid therapy, a large number of patients are receiving this therapy. Geographic variation in the use of opioids has been demonstrated in the past, but there are no studies examining variation of chronic opioid use.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines both the extent of geographic variation and the factors associated with variation across states of chronic opioid use among patients with FM.

METHODS

Using a large, nationally representative dataset of commercially insured individuals, the following characteristics were examined: sex, disease prevalence, physician prevalence, illicit drug use, and the prescence of a prescription monitoring program. Other contextual and structural characteristics were also assessed.

RESULTS

The analysis included 245,758 patients with FM; 11.3% received chronic opioid therapy during the study period. There was a 5-fold difference between the states with the lowest rate of use (~4%) and those with the highest (~20%). The weighted %CV was 36.2%. Percent female and previous illicit opioid use rates were associated with higher rates of chronic opioid use, and FM prevalence and physician prevalence were associated with lower rates. The presence of a prescription monitoring program was not significantly correlated.

CONCLUSIONS

Geographic variation in chronic opioid use among patients with FM exists at rates similar to those seen in other studies examining opioid use. This large level of geographic variation suggests that the prescribing decision is not based solely on physician-patient interaction but also on contextual and structural factors at the state level. The level of physician and condition prevalence suggest that information dissemination and peer-to-peer interaction may play a key role in adopting evidence-based medicine for the treatment of patients suffering from FM and related conditions. Level of diagnosis prevalence as a predictor of evidence-based practice has not been reported in the literature and is an important contribution to research on geographic variation.

Completion of guideline-recommended initial evaluation of atrial fibrillation

BACKGROUND

Guidelines recommend evaluation of cardiac function, valvular and ischemic heart disease, and thyroid, kidney, and liver function on initial diagnosis of atrial fibrillation (AF).

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesized that initial workup of patients with newly identified AF would vary by age, sex, and burden of comorbid illness.

METHODS

In a retrospective analysis of a large sample of commercially insured patients 18 to 64 years old (n = 40 245) and a nationally representative 5% cohort of Medicare beneficiaries 65 years or older (n = 204 676), we measured claims for guideline-recommended services for initial evaluation of AF among patients with a new diagnosis between 2000 and 2008.

RESULTS

From 30 days before through 90 days after AF diagnosis, basic evaluation, including physician visit, electrocardiogram, and echocardiography, was completed in up to 66.6% of patients. Completion rates for all guideline-recommended evaluations were 17.4% in the commercially insured sample and 18.5% in the Medicare cohort in 2007. Evaluation rates increased over time. Blood tests assessing thyroid function were documented for approximately one-third of patients in each cohort. Increasing the observation period to 1 year before through 3 months after the AF diagnosis markedly increased completion rates, but rates of thyroid function testing remained low (50%-60%). There were minor differences in evaluation completeness by sex, race, and geographic region.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in guideline-recommended evaluation rates by demographic characteristics after a new diagnosis of AF were of minor clinical importance. Basic evaluation had satisfactory completion rates; however, rates of laboratory testing were low.

Evaluative care guideline compliance is associated with provision of benign prostatic hyperplasia surgery

OBJECTIVE

To determine the impact of evaluative care guideline compliance on surgical intervention for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).

METHODS

From Medicare claims data, we developed a cohort of men new to a urologist with a diagnosis of BPH. We determined urologists' compliance with guideline recommended care (3 months) and their time- and geography-standardized average monthly Medicare expenditures (1 year). At the level of the urologist, we assessed the impact of these measures on the use of surgical therapy within 1 year of the new patient visit.

RESULTS

Of 10 248 patients in the cohort, 675 received surgical intervention (6.7%). Guideline compliance (2% received surgery in highest quintile; 11% lowest quintile) was associated with surgical intervention. The results were robust to adjustment for patient and surgeon factors (Guideline Compliance, odds ratio = 0.09; 95% confidence interval = 0.06-0.15, highest to lowest adherence).

CONCLUSION

Urologists who tend to follow the AUA best practice guidelines for BPH evaluation perform surgical interventions on their BPH patients less frequently than urologists who do not follow these guidelines.

The relationship between geographic variations and overuse of healthcare services: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To examine the relationship between overuse of healthcare services and geographic variations in medical care.

DESIGN

Systematic Review.

DATA SOURCES

Articles published in Medline between 1978, the year of publication of the first framework to measure quality, and January 1, 2009.

STUDY SELECTION

Four investigators screened 114,830 titles and 2 investigators screened all selected abstracts and articles for possible inclusion and extracted all data.

DATA EXTRACTION

We extracted data on rates of overuse in different geographic areas. We also extracted data on underuse, if available, for the same population in which overuse was measured.

RESULTS

Five papers examined the relationship between geographic variations and overuse of healthcare services. One study in 2008 compared the appropriateness of coronary angiography (CA) for acute myocardial infarction in high-cost areas versus low cost areas in the Medicare population and found largely similar rates of inappropriateness (12.2% vs. 16.2%). A study in 2000 using national data concluded that overuse of CA explained little of the geographic variations in the use of this procedure in the Medicare program. An older study of Medicare patients found similar rates of inappropriate use of CA (15% to 17% vs. 18%), endoscopy (15% vs. 18% 19%), and carotid endarterectomy (29% vs. 30%) in low-use and high-use regions. A small area reanalysis of data from this study of 3 procedures found no evidence of a relationship between inappropriate use of procedures and volume in 23 adjacent counties of California. Another 2008 study found that inappropriate chemotherapy for stage I cancer was less common in low-cost areas compared with high-cost areas (3.1% vs. 6.3%).

CONCLUSIONS

The limited available evidence does not lend support to the hypothesis that inappropriate use of procedures is a major source of geographic variations in intensity and/or costs of care. More research is needed to improve our understanding of the relationship between geographic variations and the quality of care.

Too much of a good thing is wonderful? A conceptual analysis of excessive examinations and diagnostic futility in diagnostic radiology

It has been argued extensively that diagnostic services are a general good, but that it is offered in excess. So what is the problem? Is not "too much of a good thing wonderful", to paraphrase Mae West? This article explores such a possibility in the field of radiological services where it is argued that more than 40% of the examinations are excessive. The question of whether radiological examinations are excessive cries for a definition of diagnostic futility. However, no such definition is found in the literature. As a response, this article addresses the issue of diagnostic futility in five steps. First, it investigates whether the concept of therapeutic futility can be adapted to diagnostics. A closer analysis of the concept of therapeutic futility reveals that this will not do the trick. Second, the article scrutinizes whether there are sources for clarifying diagnostic futility in the extensive debate on excessive radiological examination. Investigating the debate's terms and definitions reveals a disparate terminology and no clear concepts. On the contrary, the study uncovers that quite different and incompatible issues are at stake. Third, the article examines a procedural approach, which is widely used for settling controversies over utility by focusing on the role of the professionals. On scrutiny however, a procedural approach will not solve the problem in diagnostics. Fourth, a value analysis reveals how we have to decide on the negative value of excessive examinations before we can measure excess. The final and constructive part presents a definition of diagnostic futility drawing upon the lessons from the previous analytical steps. Altogether, too much radiological examination is not a good thing. This is simply because radiological examinations are not unanimously good. Excessive radiological examinations can be defined, but not by one simple general and value-neutral definition. We have to settle with contextually framed value-related definitions. Such definitions will state how bad "too much of a good thing" is and make it possible to assess how much of the bad thing there is. Hence we have to know how bad it is before we can tell how much of it there is in the world.

Dissecting racial disparities in the treatment of patients with locoregional pancreatic cancer: a 2-step process

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have demonstrated that black patients with pancreatic cancer are less likely to undergo resection and have worse overall survival compared with white patients. The objective of this study was to determine whether these disparities occur at the point of surgical evaluation or after evaluation has taken place.

METHODS

The authors used the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)-Medicare linked data (1992-2002) to compare black patients and white patients with locoregional pancreatic cancer in univariate models. Logistic regression was used to determine the effect of race on surgical evaluation and on surgical resection after evaluation. Cox proportional hazards models were used to identify which factors influenced 2-year survival.

RESULTS

Nine percent of 3777 patients were black. Blacks were substantially less likely than whites to undergo evaluation by a surgeon (odds ratio, 0.57; 95% confidence interval, 0.42-0.77) when the model was adjusted for demographics, tumor characteristics, surgical evaluation, socioeconomic status, and year of diagnosis. Patients who were younger and who had fewer comorbidities, abdominal imaging, and a primary care physician were more likely to undergo surgical evaluation. Once they were seen by a surgeon, blacks still were less likely than whites to undergo resection (odds ratio, 0.64; 95% confidence interval, 0.49-0.84). Although black patients had decreased survival in an unadjusted model, race no longer was significant after accounting for resection.

CONCLUSIONS

Twenty-nine percent of black patients with potentially resectable pancreatic cancers never received surgical evaluation. Without surgical evaluation, patients cannot make an informed decision and will not be offered resection. Attaining higher rates of surgical evaluation in black patients would be the first step to eliminating the observed disparity in the resection rate.

The relationship between physician supply, cardiovascular health service use and cardiac disease burden in Ontario: supply-need mismatch

BACKGROUND

While health service use appears to be positively correlated with resource availability, no study has explored the interactions among health service supply, cardiovascular disease burden and health service use. The objective of the present study was to examine the relationship among cardiovascular evaluation and management intensity, physician supply and cardiovascular disease burden in the Canadian population.

METHODS

The present cross-sectional, population-based study consisted of adult residents in Ontario in 2001. Cardiac evaluation and management intensity, the main outcome measure, was measured at the individual level, and consisted of receiving one or more of the following services: noninvasive cardiac testing, coronary angiography and statin use (the latter among individuals 65 years of age and older). Mortality was the secondary outcome measure. Cardiovascular disease burden, and cardiologist and primary care physician supply were measured at the regional (ie, county) level. Analyses were adjusted for age and sex using Poisson regression, accounting for regional clustering.

RESULTS

Regional per capita cardiologist supply varied more than twofold across regions, but was inversely related to the regional cardiovascular disease burden (r=-0.34, P=0.01). Primary care physician supply was relatively evenly distributed across regions. Residents in areas with more cardiologists were more likely to receive some form of cardiac intervention (RR=1.074, 95% CI 1.066 to 1.082 per additional cardiologist per 100,000). Those in areas with more primary care physicians were also more likely to receive noninvasive cardiac testing (RR=1.056, 95% CI 1.051 to 1.061 per six additional primary care physicians per 100,000). However, the intensity of provision of cardiac health services was unrelated to regional cardiovascular disease burden and was not associated with improved survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The mismatch between physician supply and cardiac disease burden may explain why cardiovascular health service use is neither concordant with the cardiovascular disease burden nor associated with mortality in the population. These results underscore the importance of physician service maldistribution and supply-sensitive care on the appropriateness of cardiac health service use.

Variation in estimated Medicare prescription drug plan costs and affordability for beneficiaries living in different states

BACKGROUND

Medicare Part D prescription drug plans (PDPs) implemented in January 2006 are designed to improve beneficiaries' access to pharmaceuticals and use market competition to yield affordable drug costs. Variations in estimated PDP costs for beneficiaries living in different states have not previously been characterized.

OBJECTIVE

To describe variations in the estimated costs of PDPs (plan premium, copays, and coinsurance) within and across states.

DESIGN

To estimate PDP costs based on 4 actual patient cases that exemplify common conditions and prescription drug combinations for Medicare beneficiaries, we used the online tool provided by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services.

MEASUREMENTS

Principal study outcomes included (a) variation across states in the estimated annual cost of the lowest-cost PDP for each case and (b) variation in the estimated affordability of the lowest-cost PDPs across states, based on cost-of-living-adjusted median income for zero-earner households.

RESULTS

For all 4 patient cases, we found substantive within-state and between-state differences in the estimated costs of Medicare PDPs incurred by beneficiaries. The estimated annual costs to beneficiaries of the lowest-cost PDPs varied across states by as much as $320 for medications in the least expensive scenario, and by as much as $13,000 for the most expensive scenario. On average across states, a beneficiary with cost-of-living-adjusted median income would expect to spend 3%-28% of annual income to pay for medications in the lowest-cost PDPs in the 4 patient cases. The affordability of the lowest-cost plans varied across states, and for 2 of the 4 cases the lowest-cost PDP estimates were negatively correlated with cost-of-living-adjusted median income.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantive differences in estimated PDP costs are evident across states for patients with common Medicare conditions. Importantly, the lowest-cost plans were not proportionally affordable with respect to state-specific cost-of-living-adjusted median income. Refinement of the Medicare drug program may be needed to improve national balance in PDP affordability for beneficiaries living in different states.

Changes in practice patterns affecting in-hospital and post-discharge survival among ACS patients

Background

Adherence to clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of specific illnesses may result in unexpected outcomes, given that multiple therapies must often be given to patients with diverse medical conditions. Yet, few studies have presented empirical evidence that quality improvement (QI) programs both change practice by improving adherence to guidelines and improve patient outcomes under the conditions of actual practice. Thus, we focus on patient survival, following hospitalization for acute coronary syndrome in three successive patient cohorts from the same community hospitals, with a quality improvement intervention occurring between cohorts two and three.

Methods

This study is a comparison of three historical cohorts of Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS) patients in the same five community hospitals in 1994–5, 1997, 2002–3. A quality improvement project, the Guidelines Applied to Practice (GAP), was implemented in these hospitals in 2001.

Study participants were recruited from community hospitals located in two Michigan communities during three separate time periods. The cohorts comprise (1) patients enrolled between December 1993 and April 1995 (N = 814), (2) patients enrolled between February 1997 and September 1997 (N = 452), and (3) patients enrolled between January 14, 2002 and April 13, 2003 (N = 710).

Mortality data were obtained from Michigan's Bureau of Vital Statistics for all three patient cohorts. Predictor variables, obtained from medical record reviews, included demographic information, indicators of disease severity (ejection fraction), co-morbid conditions, hospital treatment information concerning most invasive procedures and the use of ace-inhibitors, beta-blockers and aspirin in the hospital and as discharge recommendations.

Results

Adjusted in-hospital mortality showed a marked improvement with a HR = 0.16 (p < 0.001) comparing 2003 patients in the same hospitals to those 10 years earlier. Large gains in the in-hospital mortality were maintained based on 1-year mortality rates after hospital discharge.

Conclusion

Changes in practice patterns that follow recommended guidelines can significantly improve care for ACS patients. In-hospital mortality gains were maintained in the year following discharge.

[The CRUSADE study, evaluation model of quality in percutaneous coronary intervention]

Improvement of care quality does not end with the publication of clinical trials that show clinical evidence of effectiveness or with its support by the different international therapeutic guides. This quality improvement requires evaluation in the real population. This can be done by analysis of clinical registries, that would evaluate adequate compliance of the clinical guides and their effectiveness in the real population. The CRUSADE study is a study that evaluates use, prognosis and factors of prediction, of invasive strategy by early percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) (first 48 hours of the ischemic event) in high-risk patients with non-ST segment elevation acute coronary syndrome (NSTE-ACS). Of the 17,926 patients studied, 8037 (44.8%) underwent cardiac catheterism in the first 48 hours of the ischemic event. Intrahospital mortality of the invasive strategy was significantly less than medical treatment (2.5% versus 3.7%). The patients who underwent an early invasive strategy were a selected population, as the more solid independent prediction factors were associated to early invasive treatment: cardiology care, earlier age, absence of renal failure, absence of heart failure both previously or on arrival to the hospital and lower heart rate. Finally, it could be concluded that, in spite of the decrease of mortality achieved with the early invasive strategy, this would not done in most of the patients, being reserved for subgroups with lower comorbidity and for those seen by the cardiologists.

Variability of practice in anatomic pathology and its effect on patient outcomes

Variability in the delivery of medical care negatively affects patient outcomes and contributes to escalating health care costs. Such heterogeneity exists on geographic, provider-related, institutional, and financial levels. Efforts to reduce it have resulted in the development of evidence-based clinical practice guidelines that have been only inconsistently adopted. Testing patterns in anatomic pathology (AP) also manifest considerable inconsistency, further contributing to suboptimal health outcomes and increased costs. Test variability in AP can be identified in its clinician-dependent preanalytic aspect and in the analytic phase as well, including the gross prosection of specimens, their processing, and reporting formats. To address selected facets of these issues, pathologists have developed practice guidelines that generally are based on "expert" opinion, representing the weakest form of evidence. Interpretative variability in AP has been investigated in numerous published studies that have measuring the "kappa statistic." Few of those analyses have addressed the impact of diagnostic disagreement on patient care; in addition, proposed and effective methods to reduce interpretative variability have only rarely been included.

Access to myocardial revascularization procedures: closing the gap with time?

Background

Early access to revascularization procedures is known to be related to a more favorable outcome in myocardial infarction (MI) patients, but access to specialized care varies widely amongst the population. We aim to test if the early gap found in the revascularization rates, according to distance between patients' location and the closest specialized cardiology center (SCC), remains on a long term basis.

Methods

We conducted a population-based cohort study using data from the Quebec's hospital discharge register (MED-ECHO). The study population includes all patients 25 years and older living in the province of Quebec, who were hospitalized for a MI in 1999 with a follow up time of one year after the index hospitalization. The main variable is revascularization (percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty or a coronary artery bypass graft). The population is divided in four groups depending how close they are from a SCC (<32 km, 32–64 km, 64–105 km and ≥105 km). Revascularization rates are adjusted for age and sex.

Results

The study population includes 11,802 individuals, 66% are men. The one-year incidence rate of MI is 244 individuals per 100,000 inhabitants. At index hospitalization, a significant gap is found between patients living close (< 32 km) to a SCC and patients living farther (≥32 km). During the first year, a gap reduction can be observed but only for patients living at an intermediate distance from the specialized center (64–105 km).

Conclusion

The gap observed in revascularization rates at the index hospitalization for MI is in favour of patients living closer (< 32 km) to a SCC. This gap remains unchanged over the first year after an MI except for patients living between 64 and 105 km, where a closing of the gap can be noticed.

Spatial variation in the management and outcomes of acute coronary syndrome

Background

Regional disparities in medical care and outcomes with patients suffering from an acute coronary syndrome (ACS) have been reported and raise the need to a better understanding of links between treatment, care and outcomes. Little is known about the relationship and its spatial variability between invasive cardiac procedure (ICP), hospital death (HD), length of stay (LoS) and early hospital readmission (EHR). The objectives were to describe and compare the regional rates of ICP, HD, EHR, and the average LoS after an ACS in 2000 in the province of Quebec. We also assessed whether there was a relationship between ICP and HD, LoS, and EHR, and if the relationships varied spatially.

Methods

Using secondary data from a provincial hospital register, a population-based retrospective cohort of 24,544 patients hospitalized in Quebec (Canada) for an ACS in 2000 was built. ACS was defined as myocardial infarction (ICD-9: 410) or unstable angina (ICD-9: 411). ICP was defined as the presence of angiography, angioplasty or aortocoronary bypass (CCA: 480–483, 489), HD as all death cause at index hospitalization, LoS as the number of days between admission and discharge from the index hospitalization, and EHR as hospital readmission for a coronary heart disease ≤30 days after discharge from hospital. The EHR was evaluated on survivors at discharge.

Results

ICP rate was 43.7% varying from 29.4% to 51.6% according to regions. HD rate was 6.9% (range: 3.3–8.2%), average LoS was 11.5 days (range: 7.5–14.4; median LoS: 8 days) and EHR rate was 8.3% (range: 4.7–14.2%). ICP was positively associated with LoS and negatively with HD and EHR; the relationship between ICP and LoS varied spatially. An increased distance to a specialized cardiology center was associated with a decreased likelihood of ICP, a decrease in LoS, but an increased likelihood of EHR.

Conclusion

The main results of this study are the regional variability of the outcomes even after accounting for age, gender, ICP and distance to a cardiology center; the significant relationships between ICP and HD, LoS and EHR, and the spatial variability in the relationships between ICP and LoS.

Long-term outcomes of regional variations in intensity of invasive vs medical management of Medicare Patients with acute myocardial infarction

CONTEXT

The health and policy implications of the marked regional variations in intensity of invasive compared with medical management of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate patient clinical characteristics associated with receiving more intensive treatment; and to assess whether AMI patients residing in regions with more intensive invasive treatment and management strategies have better long-term survival than those residing in regions with more intensive medical management strategies.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS

National cohort study of 158,831 elderly Medicare patients hospitalized with first episode of confirmed AMI in 1994-1995, followed up for 7 years (mean, 3.6 years), according to the intensity of invasive management (performance of cardiac catheterization within 30 days) and medical management (prescription of beta-blockers to appropriate patients at discharge) in their region of residence. Baseline chart reviews were drawn from the Cooperative Cardiovascular Project and linked to Medicare health administrative data.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Long-term survival over 7 years of follow-up.

RESULTS

Patient baseline AMI severity was similar across regions. In all regions, younger and healthier patients were more likely than older high-risk patients to receive invasive treatment and medical therapy. Regions with more invasive treatment practice styles had more cardiac catheterization laboratory capacity; patients in these regions were more likely to receive interventional treatment, regardless of age, clinical indication, or risk profile. The absolute unadjusted difference in 7-year survival between regions providing the highest rates of both invasive and medical management strategies and those providing the lowest rates of both was 6.2%. For both ST- and non-ST-segment elevation AMI patients, survival improved with regional intensity of both invasive and medical management. In areas with higher rates of medical management, there appeared to be little or no improvement in survival associated with increased invasive treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

In elderly Medicare patients with AMI, more intensive medical treatment provides population survival benefits. However, routine use of more costly and invasive treatment strategies may not be associated with an overall population benefit beyond that seen with excellent medical management. Efforts should focus on directing invasive clinical resources to patients with the greatest expected benefit.

Race and Gender Disparities in Rates of Cardiac Revascularization

BACKGROUND

Numerous studies have documented substantial differences by race and gender in the use of coronary artery bypass graft surgery and percutaneous coronary angioplasty. However, few studies have examined whether these differences reflect problems in quality of care.

METHOD

We selected a random sample stratified by gender, race, and income of 5026 Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 to 75 who underwent inpatient coronary angiography during 1991 to 1992 in 1 of 5 states. We compared the frequency of 2 problems in quality by race and gender: underuse or the failure to receive a clinically indicated revascularization procedure and receipt of revascularization when it was not clinically indicated. We used 2 independent sets of criteria developed by the RAND Corporation and the American College of Cardiology/American Hospital Association (ACC/AHA). We also examined survival of the cohort through March 31, 1994.

RESULTS

Revascularization procedures were clinically indicated more frequently among whites than blacks and among men than women. Failure to receive revascularization when it was indicated was more common among blacks than among whites (40% vs. 23-24%, depending on the criteria, both P<0.001) but similar among men and women (25% vs. 22-24%, P>0.05). Racial disparities remained similar after adjusting for patient and hospital characteristics. Among patients rated inappropriate, use of procedures was greater for whites than blacks using RAND criteria (10.5% vs. 5.8%, P<0.01) and greater for men than for women (14.2% vs. 5.3% by RAND criteria, P=0.001; 8.2% vs. 4.0%% by ACC/AHA criteria, P=0.04). After multivariate adjustment, the disparities for race and gender remained similar and were statistically significant using RAND criteria. Mortality rates tended to validate our appropriateness criteria for underuse.

CONCLUSIONS

Racial differences in procedure use reflect higher rates of clinical appropriateness among whites, greater underuse among blacks, and more frequent revascularization when it was not clinically indicated among whites. Underuse is associated with higher mortality. In contrast, men had higher rates of clinical appropriateness and were more likely to receive revascularization when it was not clinically indicated. There was no evidence of greater underuse among women.

Does the ownership of the admitting hospital make a difference? Outcomes and process of care of Medicare beneficiaries admitted with acute myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Concerns have been expressed about quality of for-profit hospitals and their use of expensive technologies.

OBJECTIVE

To determine differences in mortality after admission for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and in the use of low- and high-tech services for AMI among for-profit, public, and private nonprofit hospitals.

STUDY DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENTS

Cooperative Cardiovascular Project data for 129,092 Medicare patients admitted for AMI from 1994 to 1995.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Mortality at 30 days and 1 year postadmission; use of aspirin, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, beta-blockers at discharge, thrombolytic therapy, catheterization, percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), and coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) compared by ownership.

RESULTS

Mortality rates at 30 days and at 1 year at for-profit hospitals were no different from those at public and private nonprofit hospitals. Without patient illness variables, nonprofit hospitals had lower mortality rates at 30 days (relative risk [RR], 0.95; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.91-0.99) and at 1 year (RR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.93-0.99) than did for-profit hospitals, but there was no difference in mortality between public and for-profit hospitals. Beneficiaries at nonprofit hospitals were more likely to receive aspirin (RR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.03-1.05) and ACE inhibitors (RR, 1.05; 95% CI, 1.02-1.08) than at for-profit hospitals, but had lower rates of PTCA (RR, 0.91; 95% CI, 0.86-0.96) and CABG (RR, 0.93; 95% CI, 0.86-1.00).

CONCLUSIONS

Although outcomes did not vary by ownership, for-profit hospitals were more likely to use expensive, high-tech procedures. This pattern appears to be the result of for-profit hospitals' propensity to locate in areas with demand for high-tech care for AMI.

Why is there a quality chasm?

Medical care seems to obtain less value from the resources it uses than other industries do, a phenomenon not limited to the United States. I explore several reasons for this, including consumers' ignorance, the rate of technological change, the widespread use of administered pricing, the difficulty of appraising a given provider's quality, and the role of the public sector with objectives other than efficiency. Although these causes suggest that the performance of medical care may always lag behind that of other industries, greater use of information technology and improved financial incentives will help to reduce the size of the quality chasm.

Understanding individual and small area variation in the underuse of coronary angiography following acute myocardial infarction

BACKGROUND

Underuse of coronary angiography is common among patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and the magnitude of underuse varies across geographic areas.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the influence of patient demographic, clinical and hospital characteristics on underuse of coronary angiography, and the contribution of these factors to variation in underuse across geographic regions.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Cohort study using data from the Cooperative Cardiovascular Project.

SUBJECTS

Nine thousand four hundred fifty-eight patients in 95 hospital referral regions (HRRs) hospitalized for AMI in 1994 to 1995 and for whom angiography was rated necessary.

MEASURES

Odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) associated with underuse of angiography according to patient and hospital characteristics. The difference between low and high rates of underuse of angiography across regions after controlling for regional differences in patient and hospital characteristics.

RESULTS

Of those for whom angiography was rated necessary, 42% did not undergo the procedure. Underuse of angiography was associated with several patient demographic and hospital attributes (eg, female gender, black race, treatment in a hospital without angiography, treatment by a general practitioner) as well as with prevalent clinical characteristics, such as renal insufficiency, congestive heart failure, prior coronary artery bypass surgery, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Across HRRs, variation in underuse ranged from 24.0% to 58.3%. The difference between low and high rates did not decline significantly after controlling for regional differences in patient or hospital characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

At the patient-level, rates of necessary angiography may be improved if we address disparities in care related to sociodemographic characteristics and to the technological capabilities of hospitals. In addition, practice guidelines should be updated to reflect clinical concerns about the risks and benefits of angiography and subsequent revascularization in certain patient sub-groups, both to provide appropriate guidance to physicians and to facilitate better estimates of underuse. The causes of regional variation in underuse do not appear to be related to regional differences in patient or hospital characteristics, and therefore, require further study.

Does more "appropriateness" explain higher rates of cardiac procedures among patients hospitalized with coronary heart disease?

BACKGROUND

There have been few studies of the extent to which differences in the pool of patients being managed might account for geographic variations in treatment rates.

OBJECTIVE

For two cardiac procedures, cardiac catheterization and revascularization, we evaluate the hypothesis that differences in "the percentage of patients for whom the procedure is appropriate" is a factor explaining variations in use rates among those hospitalized with coronary heart disease (CHD).

RESEARCH DESIGN

Based on hospital utilization patterns in Massachusetts in 1990, we created 70 small geographic areas. Using 1992 Massachusetts Peer Review Organization data, areas were ranked from highest to lowest based on (empirical-Bayes-adjusted) hospitalization rates for each procedure. One thousand seven hundred four cases from 43 hospitals were sampled, roughly half each from high and low use areas. Half had a procedure and half were candidates for the same procedure but did not have it. For each procedure, medical records were reviewed to determine whether the procedure was (or, for those not having it, would have been) appropriate, based on criteria developed using a modified Delphi approach.

RESULTS

Among those having either procedure, appropriateness rates were similar in high and low rate areas (P = 0.59 for catheterization and P = 0.30 for revascularization). However, among candidates for either procedure who did not have it, appropriateness for performing the procedure was greater in high-rate areas (41.4% vs. 32.1%, P = 0.05 for catheterization; 71.2% vs. 57.2%, P = 0.003, for revascularization).

CONCLUSION

Among those hospitalized with CHD, appropriateness rates for two cardiac procedures are higher in areas with higher use rates.