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Salgueiro VC, Passemar C, Vázquez-Iniesta L, Lerma L, Floto A, Prados-Rosales R. Extracellular vesicles in mycobacteria: new findings in biogenesis, host-pathogen interactions, and diagnostics. mBio 2024; 15:e0255223. [PMID: 38567992 PMCID: PMC11077946 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02552-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in mycobacterial species 15 years back, we have learned that this phenomenon is conserved in the Mycobacterium genus and has critical roles in bacterial physiology and host-pathogen interactions. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the tuberculosis (TB) causative agent, produces EVs both in vitro and in vivo including a diverse set of biomolecules with demonstrated immunomodulatory effects. Moreover, Mtb EVs (MEVs) have been shown to possess vaccine properties and carry biomarkers with diagnostic capacity. Although information on MEV biogenesis relative to other bacterial species is scarce, recent studies have shed light on how MEVs originate and are released to the extracellular space. In this minireview, we discuss past and new information about the vesiculogenesis phenomenon in Mtb, including biogenesis, MEV cargo, aspects in the context of host-pathogen interactions, and applications that could help to develop effective tools to tackle the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivian C. Salgueiro
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health, and Microbiology. School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Charlotte Passemar
- Cambridge Center for Lung Infection, Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lucía Vázquez-Iniesta
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health, and Microbiology. School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Lerma
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health, and Microbiology. School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Floto
- Cambridge Center for Lung Infection, Royal Papworth Hospital NHS Trust, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Rafael Prados-Rosales
- Department of Preventive Medicine, Public Health, and Microbiology. School of Medicine, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Welsh JA, Goberdhan DCI, O'Driscoll L, Buzas EI, Blenkiron C, Bussolati B, Cai H, Di Vizio D, Driedonks TAP, Erdbrügger U, Falcon‐Perez JM, Fu Q, Hill AF, Lenassi M, Lim SK, Mahoney MG, Mohanty S, Möller A, Nieuwland R, Ochiya T, Sahoo S, Torrecilhas AC, Zheng L, Zijlstra A, Abuelreich S, Bagabas R, Bergese P, Bridges EM, Brucale M, Burger D, Carney RP, Cocucci E, Colombo F, Crescitelli R, Hanser E, Harris AL, Haughey NJ, Hendrix A, Ivanov AR, Jovanovic‐Talisman T, Kruh‐Garcia NA, Ku'ulei‐Lyn Faustino V, Kyburz D, Lässer C, Lennon KM, Lötvall J, Maddox AL, Martens‐Uzunova ES, Mizenko RR, Newman LA, Ridolfi A, Rohde E, Rojalin T, Rowland A, Saftics A, Sandau US, Saugstad JA, Shekari F, Swift S, Ter‐Ovanesyan D, Tosar JP, Useckaite Z, Valle F, Varga Z, van der Pol E, van Herwijnen MJC, Wauben MHM, Wehman AM, Williams S, Zendrini A, Zimmerman AJ, MISEV Consortium, Théry C, Witwer KW. Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches. J Extracell Vesicles 2024; 13:e12404. [PMID: 38326288 PMCID: PMC10850029 DOI: 10.1002/jev2.12404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs), through their complex cargo, can reflect the state of their cell of origin and change the functions and phenotypes of other cells. These features indicate strong biomarker and therapeutic potential and have generated broad interest, as evidenced by the steady year-on-year increase in the numbers of scientific publications about EVs. Important advances have been made in EV metrology and in understanding and applying EV biology. However, hurdles remain to realising the potential of EVs in domains ranging from basic biology to clinical applications due to challenges in EV nomenclature, separation from non-vesicular extracellular particles, characterisation and functional studies. To address the challenges and opportunities in this rapidly evolving field, the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles (ISEV) updates its 'Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles', which was first published in 2014 and then in 2018 as MISEV2014 and MISEV2018, respectively. The goal of the current document, MISEV2023, is to provide researchers with an updated snapshot of available approaches and their advantages and limitations for production, separation and characterisation of EVs from multiple sources, including cell culture, body fluids and solid tissues. In addition to presenting the latest state of the art in basic principles of EV research, this document also covers advanced techniques and approaches that are currently expanding the boundaries of the field. MISEV2023 also includes new sections on EV release and uptake and a brief discussion of in vivo approaches to study EVs. Compiling feedback from ISEV expert task forces and more than 1000 researchers, this document conveys the current state of EV research to facilitate robust scientific discoveries and move the field forward even more rapidly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A. Welsh
- Translational Nanobiology Section, Laboratory of PathologyNational Cancer Institute, National Institutes of HealthBethesdaMarylandUSA
| | - Deborah C. I. Goberdhan
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive HealthUniversity of Oxford, Women's Centre, John Radcliffe HospitalOxfordUK
| | - Lorraine O'Driscoll
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity Biomedical Sciences InstituteTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
- Trinity St. James's Cancer InstituteTrinity College DublinDublinIreland
| | - Edit I. Buzas
- Department of Genetics, Cell‐ and ImmunobiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- HCEMM‐SU Extracellular Vesicle Research GroupSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
- HUN‐REN‐SU Translational Extracellular Vesicle Research GroupSemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Cherie Blenkiron
- Faculty of Medical and Health SciencesThe University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Benedetta Bussolati
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health SciencesUniversity of TurinTurinItaly
| | | | - Dolores Di Vizio
- Department of Surgery, Division of Cancer Biology and TherapeuticsCedars‐Sinai Medical CenterLos AngelesCaliforniaUSA
| | - Tom A. P. Driedonks
- Department CDL ResearchUniversity Medical Center UtrechtUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Uta Erdbrügger
- University of Virginia Health SystemCharlottesvilleVirginiaUSA
| | - Juan M. Falcon‐Perez
- Exosomes Laboratory, Center for Cooperative Research in BiosciencesBasque Research and Technology AllianceDerioSpain
- Metabolomics Platform, Center for Cooperative Research in BiosciencesBasque Research and Technology AllianceDerioSpain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for ScienceBilbaoSpain
| | - Qing‐Ling Fu
- Otorhinolaryngology Hospital, The First Affiliated HospitalSun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
- Extracellular Vesicle Research and Clinical Translational CenterThe First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat‐sen UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Andrew F. Hill
- Institute for Health and SportVictoria UniversityMelbourneAustralia
| | - Metka Lenassi
- Faculty of MedicineUniversity of LjubljanaLjubljanaSlovenia
| | - Sai Kiang Lim
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology (IMCB)Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR)SingaporeSingapore
- Paracrine Therapeutics Pte. Ltd.SingaporeSingapore
- Department of Surgery, YLL School of MedicineNational University SingaporeSingaporeSingapore
| | - Mỹ G. Mahoney
- Thomas Jefferson UniversityPhiladelphiaPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Sujata Mohanty
- Stem Cell FacilityAll India Institute of Medical SciencesNew DelhiIndia
| | - Andreas Möller
- Chinese University of Hong KongHong KongHong Kong S.A.R.
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research InstituteBrisbaneAustralia
| | - Rienk Nieuwland
- Laboratory of Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMCUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Amsterdam Vesicle Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMCUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | | | - Susmita Sahoo
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount SinaiNew YorkNew YorkUSA
| | - Ana C. Torrecilhas
- Laboratório de Imunologia Celular e Bioquímica de Fungos e Protozoários, Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Instituto de Ciências Ambientais, Químicas e FarmacêuticasUniversidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP) Campus DiademaDiademaBrazil
| | - Lei Zheng
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Nanfang HospitalSouthern Medical UniversityGuangzhouChina
| | - Andries Zijlstra
- Department of PathologyVanderbilt University Medical CenterNashvilleTennesseeUSA
- GenentechSouth San FranciscoCaliforniaUSA
| | - Sarah Abuelreich
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Reem Bagabas
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Paolo Bergese
- Department of Molecular and Translational MedicineUniversity of BresciaBresciaItaly
- Center for Colloid and Surface Science (CSGI)FlorenceItaly
- National Center for Gene Therapy and Drugs based on RNA TechnologyPaduaItaly
| | - Esther M. Bridges
- Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Marco Brucale
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche ‐ Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali NanostrutturatiBolognaItaly
- Consorzio Interuniversitario per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande InterfaseFlorenceItaly
| | - Dylan Burger
- Kidney Research CentreOttawa Hopsital Research InstituteOttawaCanada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular MedicineUniversity of OttawaOttawaCanada
- School of Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of OttawaOttawaCanada
| | - Randy P. Carney
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Emanuele Cocucci
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of PharmacyThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOhioUSA
- Comprehensive Cancer CenterThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOhioUSA
| | - Federico Colombo
- Division of Pharmaceutics and Pharmacology, College of PharmacyThe Ohio State UniversityColumbusOhioUSA
| | - Rossella Crescitelli
- Sahlgrenska Center for Cancer Research, Department of Surgery, Institute of Clinical SciencesSahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
- Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Institute of Clinical SciencesSahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Edveena Hanser
- Department of BiomedicineUniversity Hospital BaselBaselSwitzerland
- Department of BiomedicineUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | | | - Norman J. Haughey
- Departments of Neurology and PsychiatryJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - An Hendrix
- Laboratory of Experimental Cancer Research, Department of Human Structure and RepairGhent UniversityGhentBelgium
- Cancer Research Institute GhentGhentBelgium
| | - Alexander R. Ivanov
- Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Department of Chemistry and Chemical BiologyNortheastern UniversityBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Tijana Jovanovic‐Talisman
- Department of Cancer Biology and Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Nicole A. Kruh‐Garcia
- Bio‐pharmaceutical Manufacturing and Academic Resource Center (BioMARC)Infectious Disease Research Center, Colorado State UniversityFort CollinsColoradoUSA
| | - Vroniqa Ku'ulei‐Lyn Faustino
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Diego Kyburz
- Department of BiomedicineUniversity of BaselBaselSwitzerland
- Department of RheumatologyUniversity Hospital BaselBaselSwitzerland
| | - Cecilia Lässer
- Krefting Research Centre, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical NutritionInstitute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Kathleen M. Lennon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Jan Lötvall
- Krefting Research Centre, Institute of Medicine at Sahlgrenska AcademyUniversity of GothenburgGothenburgSweden
| | - Adam L. Maddox
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Elena S. Martens‐Uzunova
- Erasmus MC Cancer InstituteUniversity Medical Center Rotterdam, Department of UrologyRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Rachel R. Mizenko
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Lauren A. Newman
- College of Medicine and Public HealthFlinders UniversityAdelaideAustralia
| | - Andrea Ridolfi
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, and LaserLaB AmsterdamVrije Universiteit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Eva Rohde
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, University HospitalSalzburger Landeskliniken GmbH of Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- GMP Unit, Paracelsus Medical UniversitySalzburgAustria
- Transfer Centre for Extracellular Vesicle Theralytic Technologies, EV‐TTSalzburgAustria
| | - Tatu Rojalin
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCaliforniaUSA
- Expansion Therapeutics, Structural Biology and BiophysicsJupiterFloridaUSA
| | - Andrew Rowland
- College of Medicine and Public HealthFlinders UniversityAdelaideAustralia
| | - Andras Saftics
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Beckman Research InstituteCity of Hope Comprehensive Cancer CenterDuarteCaliforniaUSA
| | - Ursula S. Sandau
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative MedicineOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandOregonUSA
| | - Julie A. Saugstad
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative MedicineOregon Health & Science UniversityPortlandOregonUSA
| | - Faezeh Shekari
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research CenterRoyan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECRTehranIran
- Celer DiagnosticsTorontoCanada
| | - Simon Swift
- Waipapa Taumata Rau University of AucklandAucklandNew Zealand
| | - Dmitry Ter‐Ovanesyan
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired EngineeringHarvard UniversityBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | - Juan P. Tosar
- Universidad de la RepúblicaMontevideoUruguay
- Institut Pasteur de MontevideoMontevideoUruguay
| | - Zivile Useckaite
- College of Medicine and Public HealthFlinders UniversityAdelaideAustralia
| | - Francesco Valle
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche ‐ Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali NanostrutturatiBolognaItaly
- Consorzio Interuniversitario per lo Sviluppo dei Sistemi a Grande InterfaseFlorenceItaly
| | - Zoltan Varga
- Biological Nanochemistry Research GroupInstitute of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural SciencesBudapestHungary
- Department of Biophysics and Radiation BiologySemmelweis UniversityBudapestHungary
| | - Edwin van der Pol
- Amsterdam Vesicle Center, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Location AMCUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Amsterdam UMC, location AMCUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Laboratory of Experimental Clinical Chemistry, Amsterdam UMC, location AMCUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Martijn J. C. van Herwijnen
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Marca H. M. Wauben
- Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary MedicineUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | | | | | - Andrea Zendrini
- Department of Molecular and Translational MedicineUniversity of BresciaBresciaItaly
- Center for Colloid and Surface Science (CSGI)FlorenceItaly
| | - Alan J. Zimmerman
- Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis, Department of Chemistry and Chemical BiologyNortheastern UniversityBostonMassachusettsUSA
| | | | - Clotilde Théry
- Institut Curie, INSERM U932PSL UniversityParisFrance
- CurieCoreTech Extracellular Vesicles, Institut CurieParisFrance
| | - Kenneth W. Witwer
- Department of Molecular and Comparative PathobiologyJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- EV Core Facility “EXCEL”, Institute for Basic Biomedical SciencesJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- The Richman Family Precision Medicine Center of Excellence in Alzheimer's DiseaseJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
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Płaczkiewicz J, Gieczewska K, Musiałowski M, Adamczyk-Popławska M, Bącal P, Kwiatek A. Availability of iron ions impacts physicochemical properties and proteome of outer membrane vesicles released by Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Sci Rep 2023; 13:18733. [PMID: 37907530 PMCID: PMC10618220 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-45498-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are bilayer structures released by bacteria for various purposes, e.g., response to environmental factors, bacterial communication, and interactions with host cells. One of the environmental variables bacteria need to react is the amount and availability of iron, a crucial element for bacteria biology. We have investigated the impact of the iron amount and availability on OMV secretion by pathogenic Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which, depending on the infection site, challenges different iron availability. N. gonorrhoeae releases OMVs in iron starvation and repletion growth environments. However, OMVs differed in physicochemical features and proteome according to iron amount and availability during the bacteria growth, as was analyzed by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Infrared spectroscopy with a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, and Atomic Force Microscopy. OMVs from iron starvation and repletion conditions had a higher variation in size, different flexibility, and different membrane protein and lipid components than OMVs isolated from control growth conditions. These OMVs also varied qualitatively and quantitatively in their total proteome composition and contained proteins unique for iron starvation and repletion conditions. Thus, the modulation of OMVs' properties seems to be a part of N. gonorrhoeae adaptation to surroundings and indicates a new direction of antigonococcal proceeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagoda Płaczkiewicz
- Department of Molecular Virology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
- International Centre for Translational Eye Research, Ophthalmic Biology Group, Warsaw, Poland, 01-230
| | - Katarzyna Gieczewska
- Department of Plant Anatomy and Cytology, Institute of Experimental Biology and Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland, 02-096
| | - Marcin Musiałowski
- Department of Geomicrobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland, 02-096
| | - Monika Adamczyk-Popławska
- Department of Molecular Virology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paweł Bącal
- Institute of Paleobiology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland, 00-818
| | - Agnieszka Kwiatek
- Department of Molecular Virology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland.
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Rangel-Ramírez VV, González-Sánchez HM, Lucio-García C. Exosomes: from biology to immunotherapy in infectious diseases. Infect Dis (Lond) 2023; 55:79-107. [PMID: 36562253 DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2022.2149852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Exosomes are extracellular vesicles derived from the endosomal compartment, which are released by all kinds of eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms. These vesicles contain a variety of biomolecules that differ both in quantity and type depending on the origin and cellular state. Exosomes are internalized by recipient cells, delivering their content and thus contributing to cell-cell communication in health and disease. During infections exosomes may exert a dual role, on one hand, they can transmit pathogen-related molecules mediating further infection and damage, and on the other hand, they can protect the host by activating the immune response and reducing pathogen spread. Selective packaging of pathogenic components may mediate these effects. Recently, quantitative analysis of samples by omics technologies has allowed a deep characterization of the proteins, lipids, RNA, and metabolite cargoes of exosomes. Knowledge about the content of these vesicles may facilitate their therapeutic application. Furthermore, as exosomes have been detected in almost all biological fluids, pathogenic or host-derived components can be identified in liquid biopsies, making them suitable for diagnosis and prognosis. This review attempts to organize the recent findings on exosome composition and function during viral, bacterial, fungal, and protozoan infections, and their contribution to host defense or to pathogen spread. Moreover, we summarize the current perspectives and future directions regarding the potential application of exosomes for prophylactic and therapeutic purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - César Lucio-García
- Centro de Investigación sobre Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, Cuernavaca, México
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Proteomic Profiling Reveals Distinct Bacterial Extracellular Vesicle Subpopulations with Possibly Unique Functionality. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0168622. [PMID: 36533919 PMCID: PMC9888257 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01686-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are 20- to 200-nm secreted packages of lipids, small molecules, and proteins that contribute to diverse bacterial processes. In plant systems, OMVs from pathogenic and beneficial strains elicit plant immune responses that inhibit seedling growth and protect against future pathogen challenge. Previous studies of OMV-plant interactions suggest functionally important differences in the protein composition of Pseudomonas syringae and Pseudomonas fluorescens OMVs, and that their composition and activity differ as a result of medium culture conditions. Here, we show that plant apoplast-mimicking minimal medium conditions impact OMV protein content dramatically in P. syringae but not in P. fluorescens relative to complete medium conditions. Comparative, 2-way analysis of the four conditions reveals subsets of proteins that may contribute to OMV-mediated bacterial virulence and plant immune activation as well as those involved in bacterial stress tolerance or adaptation to a beneficial relationship with plants. Additional localization enrichment analysis of these subsets suggests the presence of outer-inner membrane vesicles (OIMVs). Collectively, these results reveal distinct differences in bacterial extracellular vesicle cargo and biogenesis routes from pathogenic and beneficial plant bacteria in different medium conditions and point to distinct populations of vesicles with diverse functional roles. IMPORTANCE Recent publications have shown that bacterial vesicles play important roles in interkingdom communication between bacteria and plants. Indeed, our recently published data reveal that bacterial vesicles from pathogenic and beneficial strains elicit immune responses in plants that protect against future pathogen challenge. However, the molecules underlying these striking phenomena remain unknown. Our recent work indicated that proteins packaged in vesicles are critically important for vesicle-mediated seedling growth inhibition, often considered an indirect measure of plant immune activation. In this study, we characterize the protein cargo of vesicles from Pseudomonas syringae pathovar tomato DC3000 and Pseudomonas fluorescens from two different medium conditions and show that distinct subpopulations of vesicles contribute to bacterial virulence and stress tolerance. Furthermore, we reveal differences in how beneficial and pathogenic bacterial species respond to harsh environmental conditions through vesicle packaging. Importantly, we find that protein cargo implicates outer-inner membrane vesicles in bacterial stress responses, while outer membrane vesicles are packaged for virulence.
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Kroniger T, Mehanny M, Schlüter R, Trautwein-Schult A, Köllner B, Becher D. Effect of Iron Limitation, Elevated Temperature, and Florfenicol on the Proteome and Vesiculation of the Fish Pathogen Aeromonas salmonicida. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10091735. [PMID: 36144337 PMCID: PMC9503180 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10091735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We analyzed the proteomic response of the Gram-negative fish pathogen A. salmonicida to iron limitation, an elevated incubation temperature, and the antibiotic florfenicol. Proteins from different subcellular fractions (cytosol, inner membrane, outer membrane, extracellular and outer membrane vesicles) were enriched and analyzed. We identified several iron-regulated proteins that were not reported in the literature for A. salmonicida before. We could also show that hemolysin, an oxidative-stress-resistance chaperone, a putative hemin receptor, an M36 peptidase, and an uncharacterized protein were significantly higher in abundance not only under iron limitation but also with an elevated incubation temperature. This may indicate that these proteins involved in the infection process of A. salmonicida are induced by both factors. The analysis of the outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) with and without applied stresses revealed significant differences in the proteomes. OMVs were smaller and contained more cytoplasmic proteins after antibiotic treatment. After cultivation with low iron availability, several iron-regulated proteins were found in the OMVs, indicating that A. salmonicida OMVs potentially have a function in iron acquisition, as reported for other bacteria. The presence of iron-regulated transporters further indicates that OMVs obtained from ‘stressed’ bacteria might be suitable vaccine candidates that induce a protective anti-virulence immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Kroniger
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Microbial Proteomics, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Mina Mehanny
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Rabea Schlüter
- Imaging Center of the Department of Biology, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Anke Trautwein-Schult
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Microbial Proteomics, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Bernd Köllner
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Dörte Becher
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Microbial Proteomics, Center for Functional Genomics of Microbes, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-3834-420-5903
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Rodriguez GM, Sharma N, Biswas A, Sharma N. The Iron Response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Its Implications for Tuberculosis Pathogenesis and Novel Therapeutics. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:876667. [PMID: 35646739 PMCID: PMC9132128 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.876667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Most pathogenic bacteria require iron for growth. However, this metal is not freely available in the mammalian host. Due to its poor solubility and propensity to catalyze the generation of reactive oxygen species, host iron is kept in solution bound to specialized iron binding proteins. Access to iron is an important factor in the outcome of bacterial infections; iron limitation frequently induces virulence and drives pathogenic interactions with host cells. Here, we review the response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to changes in iron availability, the relevance of this response to TB pathogenesis, and its potential for the design of new therapeutic interventions.
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Qiao L, Rao Y, Zhu K, Rao X, Zhou R. Engineered Remolding and Application of Bacterial Membrane Vesicles. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:729369. [PMID: 34690971 PMCID: PMC8532528 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.729369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial membrane vesicles (MVs) are produced by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria during growth in vitro and in vivo. MVs are nanoscale vesicular structures with diameters ranging from 20 to 400 nm. MVs incorporate bacterial lipids, proteins, and often nucleic acids, and can effectively stimulate host immune response against bacterial infections. As vaccine candidates and drug delivery systems, MVs possess high biosafety owing to the lack of self-replication ability. However, wild-type bacterial strains have poor MV yield, and MVs from the wild-type strains may be harmful due to the carriage of toxic components, such as lipopolysaccharides, hemolysins, enzymes, etc. In this review, we summarize the genetic modification of vesicle-producing bacteria to reduce MV toxicity, enhance vesicle immunogenicity, and increase vesicle production. The engineered MVs exhibit broad applications in vaccine designs, vaccine delivery vesicles, and drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Qiao
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yifan Rao
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Keting Zhu
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiancai Rao
- Department of Microbiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Microbial Engineering Under the Educational Committee in Chongqing, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Renjie Zhou
- Department of Emergency, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
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9
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González MF, Díaz P, Sandoval-Bórquez A, Herrera D, Quest AFG. Helicobacter pylori Outer Membrane Vesicles and Extracellular Vesicles from Helicobacter pylori-Infected Cells in Gastric Disease Development. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22094823. [PMID: 34062919 PMCID: PMC8124820 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22094823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived vesicles important in intercellular communication that play an essential role in host-pathogen interactions, spreading pathogen-derived as well as host-derived molecules during infection. Pathogens can induce changes in the composition of EVs derived from the infected cells and use them to manipulate their microenvironment and, for instance, modulate innate and adaptive inflammatory immune responses, both in a stimulatory or suppressive manner. Gastric cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide and infection with Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is considered the main risk factor for developing this disease, which is characterized by a strong inflammatory component. EVs released by host cells infected with H. pylori contribute significantly to inflammation, and in doing so promote the development of disease. Additionally, H. pylori liberates vesicles, called outer membrane vesicles (H. pylori-OMVs), which contribute to atrophia and cell transformation in the gastric epithelium. In this review, the participation of both EVs from cells infected with H. pylori and H. pylori-OMVs associated with the development of gastric cancer will be discussed. By deciphering which functions of these external vesicles during H. pylori infection benefit the host or the pathogen, novel treatment strategies may become available to prevent disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Fernanda González
- Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile; (M.F.G.); (P.D.); (A.S.-B.); (D.H.)
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Paula Díaz
- Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile; (M.F.G.); (P.D.); (A.S.-B.); (D.H.)
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Alejandra Sandoval-Bórquez
- Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile; (M.F.G.); (P.D.); (A.S.-B.); (D.H.)
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Daniela Herrera
- Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile; (M.F.G.); (P.D.); (A.S.-B.); (D.H.)
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
| | - Andrew F. G. Quest
- Center for studies on Exercise, Metabolism and Cancer (CEMC), Laboratory of Cellular Communication, Program of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICBM), Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile; (M.F.G.); (P.D.); (A.S.-B.); (D.H.)
- Advanced Center for Chronic Diseases (ACCDiS), Faculty of Medicine, Universidad de Chile, Santiago 8380453, Chile
- Corporación Centro de Estudios Científicos de las Enfermedades Crónicas (CECEC), Santiago 7680201, Chile
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +56-2-29786832
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10
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Outer Membrane Vesicle Production by Helicobacter pylori Represents an Approach for the Delivery of Virulence Factors CagA, VacA and UreA into Human Gastric Adenocarcinoma (AGS) Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22083942. [PMID: 33920443 PMCID: PMC8069053 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22083942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori infection is the etiology of several gastric-related diseases including gastric cancer. Cytotoxin associated gene A (CagA), vacuolating cytotoxin A (VacA) and α-subunit of urease (UreA) are three major virulence factors of H. pylori, and each of them has a distinct entry pathway and pathogenic mechanism during bacterial infection. H. pylori can shed outer membrane vesicles (OMVs). Therefore, it would be interesting to explore the production kinetics of H. pylori OMVs and its connection with the entry of key virulence factors into host cells. Here, we isolated OMVs from H. pylori 26,695 strain and characterized their properties and interaction kinetics with human gastric adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells. We found that the generation of OMVs and the presence of CagA, VacA and UreA in OMVs were a lasting event throughout different phases of bacterial growth. H. pylori OMVs entered AGS cells mainly through macropinocytosis/phagocytosis. Furthermore, CagA, VacA and UreA could enter AGS cells via OMVs and the treatment with H. pylori OMVs would cause cell death. Comparison of H. pylori 26,695 and clinical strains suggested that the production and characteristics of OMVs are not only limited to laboratory strains commonly in use, but a general phenomenon to most H. pylori strains.
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11
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Environmental conditions modulate the protein content and immunomodulatory activity of extracellular vesicles produced by the probiotic Propionibacterium freudenreichii. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.02263-20. [PMID: 33310709 PMCID: PMC7851693 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02263-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a probiotic Gram-positive bacterium with promising immunomodulatory properties. It modulates regulatory cytokines, mitigates the inflammatory response in vitro and in vivo These properties were initially attributed to specific bacterial surface proteins. Recently, we showed that extracellular vesicles (EVs) produced by P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 mimic the immunomodulatory features of parent cells in vitro (i.e. modulating NF-κB transcription factor activity and IL-8 release) which underlies the role of EVs as mediators of the probiotic effects of the bacterium. The modulation of EV properties, and particularly of those with potential therapeutic applications such as the EVs produced by the probiotic P. freudenreichii, is one of the challenges in the field to achieve efficient yields with the desired optimal functionality. Here we evaluated whether the culture medium in which the bacteria are grown could be used as a lever to modulate the protein content and hence the properties of P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA129 EVs. The physical, biochemical and functional properties of EVs produced from cells cultivated on laboratory Yeast Extract Lactate (YEL) medium and cow milk ultrafiltrate (UF) medium were compared. UF-derived EVs were more abundant, smaller in diameter and displayed more intense anti-inflammatory activity than YEL-derived EVs. Furthermore, the growth media modulated EV content in terms of both the identities and abundances of their protein cargos, suggesting different patterns of interaction with the host. Proteins involved in amino acid metabolism and central carbon metabolism were modulated, as were the key surface proteins mediating host-propionibacteria interactions.Importance Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cellular membrane-derived nanosized particles that are produced by most cells in all three kingdoms of life. They play a pivotal role in cell-cell communication through their ability to transport bioactive molecules from donor to recipient cells. Bacterial EVs are important factors in host-microbe interactions. Recently we have shown that EVs produced by the probiotic P. freudenreichii exhibited immunomodulatory properties. We evaluate here the impact of environmental conditions, notably culture media, on P. freudenreichii EV production and function. We show that EVs display considerable differences in protein cargo and immunomodulation depending on the culture medium used. This work offers new perspectives for the development of probiotic EV-based molecular delivery systems, and reinforces the optimization of growth conditions as a tool to modulate the potential therapeutic applications of EVs.
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12
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McMillan HM, Zebell SG, Ristaino JB, Dong X, Kuehn MJ. Protective plant immune responses are elicited by bacterial outer membrane vesicles. Cell Rep 2021; 34:108645. [PMID: 33472073 PMCID: PMC8158063 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) perform a variety of functions in bacterial survival and virulence. In mammalian systems, OMVs activate immune responses and are exploited as vaccines. However, little work has focused on the interactions of OMVs with plant hosts. Here, we report that OMVs from Pseudomonas syringae and P. fluorescens activate plant immune responses that protect against bacterial and oomycete pathogens. OMV-mediated immunomodulatory activity from these species displayed different sensitivity to biochemical stressors, reflecting differences in OMV content. Importantly, OMV-mediated plant responses are distinct from those triggered by conserved bacterial epitopes or effector molecules alone. Our study shows that OMV-induced protective immune responses are independent of the T3SS and protein, but that OMV-mediated seedling growth inhibition largely depends on proteinaceous components. OMVs provide a unique opportunity to understand the interplay between virulence and host response strategies and add a new dimension to consider in host-microbe interactions. The role that bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) play in plant-microbe interactions is poorly characterized. McMillan et al. show that OMVs elicit plant immune responses that protect against pathogens. This study also reveals a use for OMVs as tools to probe the plant immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M McMillan
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Sophia G Zebell
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Jean B Ristaino
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Xinnian Dong
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA; Department of Biochemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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13
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Helicobacter pylori-Derived Outer Membrane Vesicles (OMVs): Role in Bacterial Pathogenesis? Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8091328. [PMID: 32878302 PMCID: PMC7564109 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8091328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Persistent infections with the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) have been closely associated with the induction and progression of a wide range of gastric disorders, including acute and chronic gastritis, ulceration in the stomach and duodenum, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, and gastric adenocarcinoma. The pathogenesis of H. pylori is determined by a complicated network of manifold mechanisms of pathogen–host interactions, which involves a coordinated interplay of H. pylori pathogenicity and virulence factors with host cells. While these molecular and cellular mechanisms have been intensively investigated to date, the knowledge about outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) derived from H. pylori and their implication in bacterial pathogenesis is not well developed. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on H. pylori-derived OMVs.
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14
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Rueter C, Bielaszewska M. Secretion and Delivery of Intestinal Pathogenic Escherichia coli Virulence Factors via Outer Membrane Vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:91. [PMID: 32211344 PMCID: PMC7068151 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) are nanoscale proteoliposomes secreted from the cell envelope of all Gram-negative bacteria. Originally considered as an artifact of the cell wall, OMVs are now recognized as a general secretion system, which serves to improve the fitness of bacteria and facilitate bacterial interactions in polymicrobial communities as well as interactions between the microbe and the host. In general, OMVs are released in increased amounts from pathogenic bacteria and have been found to harbor much of the contents of the parental bacterium. They mainly encompass components of the outer membrane and the periplasm including various virulence factors such as toxins, adhesins, and immunomodulatory molecules. Numerous studies have clearly shown that the delivery of toxins and other virulence factors via OMVs essentially influences their interactions with host cells. Here, we review the OMV-mediated intracellular deployment of toxins and other virulence factors with a special focus on intestinal pathogenic Escherichia coli. Especially, OMVs ubiquitously produced and secreted by enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) appear as a highly advanced mechanism for secretion and simultaneous, coordinated and direct delivery of bacterial virulence factors into host cells. OMV-associated virulence factors are not only stabilized by the association with OMVs, but can also often target previously unknown target structures and perform novel activities. The toxins are released by OMVs in their active forms and are transported via cell sorting processes to their specific cell compartments, where they can develop their detrimental effects. OMVs can be considered as bacterial “long distance weapons” that attack host tissues and help bacterial pathogens to establish the colonization of their biological niche(s), impair host cell function, and modulate the defense of the host. Thus, OMVs contribute significantly to the virulence of the pathogenic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Rueter
- Center for Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE), Institute of Infectiology, University of Muenster, Münster, Germany
| | - Martina Bielaszewska
- National Institute of Public Health, Reference Laboratory for E. coli and Shigellae, Prague, Czechia.,Institute for Hygiene, University Hospital of Muenster, University of Muenster, Münster, Germany
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15
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Detection and Quantification of eDNA-Associated Bacterial Membrane Vesicles by Flow Cytometry. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20215307. [PMID: 31731390 PMCID: PMC6862651 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20215307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 10/18/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria generate membrane vesicles, which are structures known as extracellular vesicles (EVs), reported to be involved in different pathogenic mechanisms, as it has been demonstrated that EVs participate in biofilm formation, cell-to-cell communication, bacteria–host interactions, and nutrients supply. EVs deliver nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides. It has been reported that Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and Lactobacillus reuteri (L. reuteri), of both planktonic and biofilm phenotypes, produce EVs carrying extracellular DNA (eDNA). Here, we used polychromatic flow cytometry (PFC) to identify, enumerate, and characterize EVs as well as the eDNA-delivering EV compartment in the biofilm and planktonic phenotypes of H.pylori ATCC 43629 and L. reuteri DSM 17938. Biofilm formation was demonstrated and analyzed by fluorescence microscopy, using a classical live/dead staining protocol. The enumeration of EVs and the detection of eDNA-associated EVs were performed by PFC, analyzing both whole samples (cells plus vesicles) and EVs isolated by ultracentrifugation confirm EVs isolated by ultracentrifugation. PFC analysis was performed relying on a known-size beaded system and a mix of three different fluorescent tracers. In detail, the whole EV compartment was stained by a lipophilic cationic dye (LCD), which was combined to PKH26 and PicoGreen that selectively stain lipids and DNA, respectively. Fluorescence microscopy results displayed that both H. pylori and L. reuteri produced well-structured biofilms. PFC data highlighted that, in both detected bacterial species, biofilms produced higher EVs counts when paralleled to the related planktonic phenotypes. Furthermore, the staining with PicoGreen showed that most of the generated vesicles were associated with eDNA. These data suggest that the use of PFC, set according to the parameters here described, allows for the study of the production of eDNA-associated EVs in different microbial species in the same or several phases of growth, thus opening new perspectives in the study of microbial derived EVs in clinical samples.
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16
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Samainukul N, Linn AK, Javadi MB, Sakdee S, Angsuthanasombat C, Katzenmeier G. Importance of the Cys 124-Cys 128 intermolecular disulfide bonding for oligomeric assembly and hemolytic activity of the Helicobacter pylori TlyA hemolysin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 514:365-371. [PMID: 31040022 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.04.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Although the TlyA hemolysin from Helicobacter pylori has been implicated as a potential virulence factor involved in mediating host cell colonization and hence disease progression, its structural determinants underlying the biological activity are still largely uncertain. In this study, an important role of the formation of a particular disulfide bond for functional oligomeric assembly of the H. pylori TlyA toxin was evidently elucidated. The 27-kDa TlyA recombinant protein was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, subsequently purified to near homogeneity by cation exchange chromatography, and proven to be hemolytically active against sheep erythrocytes. Additionally, TlyA-induced hemolytic activity was significantly diminished under conditions of disulfide bond reduction with a thiol-reducing agent, dithiothreitol. When the purified TlyA protein was subjected to modified SDS-PAGE under non-reducing conditions, the presence of an oligomeric state of this protein was clearly revealed by its apparent molecular mass of ∼48 kDa. Recombinant E. coli cells expressing TlyA also displayed contact-dependent hemolysis of erythrocytes, suggesting TlyA localization at the bacterial outer membrane and thus supporting the formation of disulfide-bonded TlyA. Homology-based modeling and in silico structural assembly analysis of TlyA signified potential intermolecular, rather than intramolecular, disulfide bonding through Cys124 and Cys128. Subsequently, single substitution of either of these Cys residues with Ser severely affected the oligomeric assembly of both TlyA mutants and hence abolished their hemolytic activity. Altogether, our present data provide pivotal evidence that the formation of intermolecular disulfide bonding between Cys124 and Cys128 plays a critical role in structural assembly of a biologically active-TlyA oligomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nitchakan Samainukul
- Graduate Program in Immunology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10700, Thailand; Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Aung Khine Linn
- Graduate Program in Immunology, Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10700, Thailand; Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Mohammad Bagher Javadi
- Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Somsri Sakdee
- Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand
| | - Chanan Angsuthanasombat
- Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand; Division of Biochemistry and Biochemical Technology, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand.
| | - Gerd Katzenmeier
- Bacterial Toxin Reseach Innovation Cluster (BRIC), Institute of Molecular Biosciences, Mahidol University, Salaya Campus, Nakornpathom, 73170, Thailand.
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17
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Hong J, Dauros-Singorenko P, Whitcombe A, Payne L, Blenkiron C, Phillips A, Swift S. Analysis of the Escherichia coli extracellular vesicle proteome identifies markers of purity and culture conditions. J Extracell Vesicles 2019; 8:1632099. [PMID: 31275533 PMCID: PMC6598517 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2019.1632099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2018] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteria release nano-sized extracellular vesicles (EVs) into the extracellular milieu. Bacterial EVs contain molecular cargo originating from the parent bacterium and have important roles in bacterial survival and pathogenesis. Using 8-plex iTRAQ approaches, we profiled the EV proteome of two Escherichia coli strains, uropathogenic (UPEC) 536 and probiotic Nissle 1917. For these strains, we compared the proteome of crude input EVs prepared by ultracentrifugation alone with EVs purified by either density gradient centrifugation (DGC) or size exclusion chromatography (SEC). We further compared the proteome of EVs from bacterial cultures that were grown in iron-restricted (R) and iron-supplemented (RF) conditions. Overall, outer membrane components were highly enriched, and bacterial inner membrane components were significantly depleted in both UPEC and Nissle EVs, in keeping with an outer membrane origin. In addition, we found enrichment of ribosome-related Gene Ontology terms in UPEC EVs and proteins involved in glycolytic processes and ligase activity in Nissle EVs. We have identified that three proteins (RbsB of UPEC in R; YoeA of UPEC in RF; BamA of Nissle in R) were consistently enriched in the DGC- and SEC-purified EV samples in comparison to their crude input EV, whereas conversely the 60 kDa chaperonin GroEL was enriched in the crude input EVs for both UPEC and Nissle in R condition. Such proteins may have utility as technical markers for assessing the purity of E. coli EV preparations. Several proteins were changed in their abundance depending on the iron availability in the media. Data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD011345. In summary, we have undertaken a comprehensive characterization of the protein content of E. coli EVs and found evidence of specific EV cargos for physiological activity and conserved protein cargo that may find utility as markers in the future. Abbreviation: DGC: density gradient centrifugation; DTT: 1,4-dithiothreitol; EV: extracellular vesicles; FDR: false discovery rate; GO: Gene Ontology; R: iron-restricted; RF: iron-supplemented; iTRAQ: isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation; OMV: outer membrane vesicle; SWATH-MS: sequential window acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra; SEC: size exclusion chromatography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwon Hong
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Surgical and Translational Research Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Priscila Dauros-Singorenko
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alana Whitcombe
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Leo Payne
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Cherie Blenkiron
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anthony Phillips
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Surgical and Translational Research Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Swift
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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18
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Hamedi Asl D, Naserpour Farivar T, Rahmani B, Hajmanoochehri F, Emami Razavi AN, Jahanbin B, Soleimani Dodaran M, Peymani A. The role of transferrin receptor in the Helicobacter pylori pathogenesis; L-ferritin as a novel marker for intestinal metaplasia. Microb Pathog 2018; 126:157-164. [PMID: 30391537 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.10.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori growth requirements is a prerequisite to invade gastric epithelium and the process of injury to gastric cells will eventually lead to gastric cancer. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of iron challenge on the expression of genes involved in iron homeostasis. The presence of Phosphoglucosamine mutase (glmM), cytotoxin-associated gene A (cagA) and vacuolating cytotoxin A (vacA) genes and mRNA expression of Iron Regulatory Protein 2 (IRP2), Transferrin Receptor (TFRC) and Ferritin Light Chain (FTL) genes in samples of 28 normal gastric mucosa, 33 chronic gastritis, 29 gastritis with intestinal metaplasia, 29 intestinal type adenocarcinoma patients were examined by real-time PCR. Immunohistochemistry was used to analyze cellular localization and protein levels. In the all H. pylori positive tissues, particularly in the basal regions of foveolar cells, TFRC was overexpressed (P < 0.05), and regardless of the H. pylori infection, FTL was overexpressed in all patient, exclusively in metaplastic glandular cells (P < 0.05). Furthermore, overexpression of IRP2 was associated with H. pylori positive chronic gastritis and intestinal metaplasia (P < 0.05). Our findings confirm the role of transferrin receptor in H. pylori attachment into the gastric mucosa to capture iron. Overexpression of FTL gene in metaplastic cells could be considered as a research background to investigate the role of this gene in the differentiation of gastric cells into intestinal metaplasia. In addition, this gene could be suggested as a diagnostic marker to be included among the other markers routinely performed by clinical diagnostic laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dariush Hamedi Asl
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran
| | | | - Babak Rahmani
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran
| | | | - Amir Nader Emami Razavi
- Iran National Tumor Bank, Cancer Institute of Iran, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnaz Jahanbin
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Amir Peymani
- Medical Microbiology Research Center, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran.
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19
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Hock BD, McKenzie JL, Keenan JI. Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles inhibit human T cell responses via induction of monocyte COX-2 expression. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:3738186. [PMID: 28430970 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The modulation of T cell responses by Helicobacter pylori is thought to potentiate both H. pylori persistence and development of gastric pathologies including cancer. Release of outer membrane vesicles (OMV) by H. pylori provides a potential vehicle for modulation of the immune system. Although OMV are thought to have T cell suppressive activity, this has not yet been demonstrated. Their suppressive activity was investigated in this study using the responses of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) to T cell stimuli as a readout. We demonstrate that addition of OMV to PBMC significantly inhibits subsequent T cell proliferation in a cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2)-dependent manner. Addition of OMV did not significantly modulate PBMC apoptosis, but induced strong expression of COX-2 by the monocytes present and significantly increased levels of PGE2 and IL-10. These effects were independent of vacuolating cytotoxin expression. Together, these findings demonstrate that OMV can suppress human T cell responses and that the predominant mechanism is not through a direct effect on the T cells but results from the induction of COX-2 expression in monocytes. This increased COX-2 activity may modulate not only H. pylori-directed immune responses but also wider immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry D Hock
- Haematology Research Group, Christchurch Hospital and Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Judith L McKenzie
- Haematology Research Group, Christchurch Hospital and Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
| | - Jacqueline I Keenan
- Department of Surgery, University of Otago Christchurch, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand
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20
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Dauros Singorenko P, Chang V, Whitcombe A, Simonov D, Hong J, Phillips A, Swift S, Blenkiron C. Isolation of membrane vesicles from prokaryotes: a technical and biological comparison reveals heterogeneity. J Extracell Vesicles 2017; 6:1324731. [PMID: 28717421 PMCID: PMC5505020 DOI: 10.1080/20013078.2017.1324731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prokaryotes release membrane vesicles (MVs) with direct roles in disease pathogenesis. MVs are heterogeneous when isolated from bacterial cultures so Density Gradient Centrifugation (DGC) is valuable for separation of MV subgroups from contaminating material. Here we report the technical variability and natural biological heterogeneity seen between DGC preparations of MVs for Mycobacterium smegmatis and Escherichia coli and compare these DGC data with size exclusion chromatography (SEC) columns. Crude preparations of MVs, isolated from cultures by ultrafiltration and ultracentrifugation were separated by DGC with fractions manually collected as guided by visible bands. Yields of protein, RNA and endotoxin, protein banding and particle counts were analysed in these. DGC and SEC methods enabled separation of molecularly distinct MV populations from crude MVs. DGC banding profiles were unique for each of the two species of bacteria tested and further altered by changing culture conditions, for example with iron supplementation. SEC is time efficient, reproducible and cost effective method that may also allow partial LPS removal from Gram-negative bacterial MVs. In summary, both DGC and SEC are suitable for the separation of mixed populations of MVs and we advise trials of both, coupled with complete molecular and single vesicle characterisation prior to downstream experimentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Dauros Singorenko
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Vanessa Chang
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Alana Whitcombe
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Denis Simonov
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Surgery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jiwon Hong
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Surgery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Anthony Phillips
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Surgery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Swift
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Cherie Blenkiron
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Department of Surgery, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Orench-Rivera N, Kuehn MJ. Environmentally controlled bacterial vesicle-mediated export. Cell Microbiol 2017; 18:1525-1536. [PMID: 27673272 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Over the past two decades, researchers studying both microbial and host cell communities have gained an appreciation for the ability of bacteria to produce, regulate, and functionally utilize outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) as a means to survive and interact with their cellular and acellular environments. Common ground has emerged, as it appears that vesicle production is an environmentally controlled and specific secretion process; however, it has been challenging to discover the principles that govern fundamentals of vesicle-mediated transport. Namely, there does not appear to be a single mechanism modulating OMV export, nor universal "markers" for OMV cargo incorporation, nor particular host cell responses common to treatment with all OMVs. Given the diversity of species studied, their differences in envelope architecture and composition, the diversity of environmentally regulated bacterial processes, and the variety of interactions between bacteria and their abiotic and biotic environments, this is hardly surprising. Nevertheless, the ability of bacteria to control exported material in the context of a packaged insoluble particle, a vesicle, is emerging as a significant contribution to bacterial viability, biofilm communities, and bacterial-host interactions. In this review, we focus on detailing important, recent findings regarding the content and functional differences in bacterially secreted vesicles that are influenced by growth conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichole Orench-Rivera
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA
| | - Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, 27710, USA.
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Ghosh P, Sarkar A, Ganguly M, Raghwan, Alam J, De R, Mukhopadhyay AK. Helicobacter pylori strains harboring babA2 from Indian sub population are associated with increased virulence in ex vivo study. Gut Pathog 2016; 8:1. [PMID: 26759607 PMCID: PMC4709984 DOI: 10.1186/s13099-015-0083-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The babA2 gene along with the cagA and vacA of Helicobacter pylori has been considered as a risk factor for the disease outcome in certain populations. This study was aimed to understand the role of babA2 of H. pylori with the background of cagA and vacA in disease manifestations in Indian sub population. Methods A total of 114 H. pylori strains isolated from duodenal ulcer (DU) (n = 53) and non-ulcer dyspepsia (NUD) patients (n = 61) were
screened for the prevalence of these virulence markers by PCR. The comparative study of IL-8 production and apoptosis were done by co-culturing the AGS cell line with H. pylori strains with different genotypes. Adherence assay was performed with babA2 positive and negative strains. Two isogenic mutants of babA2 were constructed and the aforesaid comparative studies were carried out. Results PCR results indicated that 90.6 % (48/53), 82 % (50/61) and 73.6 % (39/53) strains from DU patients were positive for cagA, vacA, and babA2, respectively. Whereas the prevalence of these genes in NUD subjects were 70.5 % (43/61); 69.8 % (37/53), and 65.6 % (39/61), respectively. Although adherence to AGS cells was comparable among strains with babA2 positive and negative genotypes, but the triple positive strains could induce highest degree of IL-8 production and apoptosis, followed by the cagA−/vacA−/babA2+ strains and triple negative strains, respectively. The wild type strains showed significantly higher IL-8 induction as well as apoptosis in ex vivo than its isogenic mutant of babA2. Conclusion PCR study demonstrated that there was no significant association between the distribution of babA2 genotype or of triple positive strains and disease outcome in this sub population. The adherence assay showed that there was no significant difference in the extent of adherence to AGS cells among babA2 positive and negative strains. But the ex vivo study indicated that the triple positive or even the babA2 only positive strains are involved in increased virulence. The wild type strains also exhibited increased virulence compared to the babA2 mutant strains. This inconsistency demonstrated that bacterial genotype along with host genetic polymorphisms or other factors play important role in determining the clinical manifestation of H. pylori infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prachetash Ghosh
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Avijit Sarkar
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Mou Ganguly
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Raghwan
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Jawed Alam
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Ronita De
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
| | - Asish K Mukhopadhyay
- Division of Bacteriology, National Institute of Cholera & Enteric Diseases, P 33, CIT Road, Scheme XM, Beliaghata, Kolkata, 700010 India
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Lusta KA. Bacterial outer membrane nanovesicles: Structure, biogenesis, functions, and application in biotechnology and medicine (Review). APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2015. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683815040092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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24
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Methods of isolation and purification of outer membrane vesicles from gram-negative bacteria. Microbiol Res 2015; 170:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2014.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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25
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Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis releases membrane vesicles packed with molecules that can modulate the immune response. Because environmental conditions often influence the production and content of bacterial vesicles, this study examined M. tuberculosis microvesicles released under iron limitation, a common condition faced by pathogens inside the host. The findings indicate that M. tuberculosis increases microvesicle production in response to iron restriction and that these microvesicles contain mycobactin, which can serve as an iron donor and supports replication of iron-starved mycobacteria. Consequently, the results revealed a role of microvesicles in iron acquisition in M. tuberculosis, which can be critical for survival in the host.
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26
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Mann EE, Wozniak DJ. Pseudomonas biofilm matrix composition and niche biology. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 36:893-916. [PMID: 22212072 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00322.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 12/18/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms are a predominant form of growth for bacteria in the environment and in the clinic. Critical for biofilm development are adherence, proliferation, and dispersion phases. Each of these stages includes reinforcement by, or modulation of, the extracellular matrix. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been a model organism for the study of biofilm formation. Additionally, other Pseudomonas species utilize biofilm formation during plant colonization and environmental persistence. Pseudomonads produce several biofilm matrix molecules, including polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and proteins. Accessory matrix components shown to aid biofilm formation and adaptability under varying conditions are also produced by pseudomonads. Adaptation facilitated by biofilm formation allows for selection of genetic variants with unique and distinguishable colony morphology. Examples include rugose small-colony variants and wrinkly spreaders (WS), which over produce Psl/Pel or cellulose, respectively, and mucoid bacteria that over produce alginate. The well-documented emergence of these variants suggests that pseudomonads take advantage of matrix-building subpopulations conferring specific benefits for the entire population. This review will focus on various polysaccharides as well as additional Pseudomonas biofilm matrix components. Discussions will center on structure-function relationships, regulation, and the role of individual matrix molecules in niche biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan E Mann
- Department of Microbial Infection and Immunity, Department of Microbiology, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University Medical Center, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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Parker H, Keenan JI. Composition and function of Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles. Microbes Infect 2011; 14:9-16. [PMID: 21911076 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2011.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2011] [Revised: 08/07/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori sheds outer membrane vesicles (OMV) that possess many of the surface elements of the bacterium. Here we review current knowledge on the composition of H. pylori OMV and discuss evidence for their potential roles in bacterial survival and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Parker
- Department of Pathology, University of Otago, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Parker H, Chitcholtan K, Hampton MB, Keenan JI. Uptake of Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles by gastric epithelial cells. Infect Immun 2010; 78:5054-61. [PMID: 20876296 PMCID: PMC2981328 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00299-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Revised: 05/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori bacteria colonize the human stomach where they stimulate a persistent inflammatory response. H. pylori is considered noninvasive; however, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-enriched outer membrane vesicles (OMV), continuously shed from the surface of this bacterium, are observed within gastric epithelial cells. The mechanism of vesicle uptake is poorly understood, and this study was undertaken to examine the roles of bacterial VacA cytotoxin and LPS in OMV binding and cholesterol and clathrin-mediated endocytosis in vesicle uptake by gastric epithelial cells. OMV association was examined using a fluorescent membrane dye to label OMV, and a comparison was made between the associations of vesicles from a VacA(+) strain and OMV from a VacA(-) isogenic mutant strain. Within 20 min, essentially all associated OMV were intracellular, and vesicle binding appeared to be facilitated by the presence of VacA cytotoxin. Uptake of vesicles from the VacA(+) strain was inhibited by H. pylori LPS (58% inhibition with 50 μg/ml LPS), while uptake of OMV from the VacA(-) mutant strain was less affected (25% inhibition with 50 μg/ml LPS). Vesicle uptake did not require cholesterol. However, uptake of OMV from the VacA(-) mutant strain was inhibited by a reduction in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (42% with 15 μg/ml chlorpromazine), while uptake of OMV from the VacA(+) strain was less affected (25% inhibition with 15 μg/ml chlorpromazine). We conclude that VacA toxin enhances the association of H. pylori OMV with cells and that the presence of the toxin may allow vesicles to exploit more than one pathway of internalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Parker
- Departments of Surgery, Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Kenny Chitcholtan
- Departments of Surgery, Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Mark B. Hampton
- Departments of Surgery, Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Jacqueline I. Keenan
- Departments of Surgery, Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Virulence and immunomodulatory roles of bacterial outer membrane vesicles. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2010; 74:81-94. [PMID: 20197500 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00031-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 641] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane (OM) vesicles are ubiquitously produced by Gram-negative bacteria during all stages of bacterial growth. OM vesicles are naturally secreted by both pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria. Strong experimental evidence exists to categorize OM vesicle production as a type of Gram-negative bacterial virulence factor. A growing body of data demonstrates an association of active virulence factors and toxins with vesicles, suggesting that they play a role in pathogenesis. One of the most popular and best-studied pathogenic functions for membrane vesicles is to serve as natural vehicles for the intercellular transport of virulence factors and other materials directly into host cells. The production of OM vesicles has been identified as an independent bacterial stress response pathway that is activated when bacteria encounter environmental stress, such as what might be experienced during the colonization of host tissues. Their detection in infected human tissues reinforces this theory. Various other virulence factors are also associated with OM vesicles, including adhesins and degradative enzymes. As a result, OM vesicles are heavily laden with pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), virulence factors, and other OM components that can impact the course of infection by having toxigenic effects or by the activation of the innate immune response. However, infected hosts can also benefit from OM vesicle production by stimulating their ability to mount an effective defense. Vesicles display antigens and can elicit potent inflammatory and immune responses. In sum, OM vesicles are likely to play a significant role in the virulence of Gram-negative bacterial pathogens.
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Keenan JI, Davis KA, Beaugie CR, McGovern JJ, Moran AP. Alterations in Helicobacter pylori outer membrane and outer membrane vesicle-associated lipopolysaccharides under iron-limiting growth conditions. Innate Immun 2009; 14:279-90. [PMID: 18809652 DOI: 10.1177/1753425908096857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) shed from the gastroduodenal pathogen Helicobacter pylori have measurable effects on epithelial cell responses. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of iron availability, and its basis, on the extent and nature of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) produced on H. pylori OMVs and their parental bacterial cells. Electrophoretic, immunoblotting and structural analyses revealed that LPSs of bacterial cells grown under iron-limited conditions were notably shorter than those of bacteria and OMVs obtained from iron-replete conditions. Structural analysis and serological probing showed that LPSs of iron-replete cells and OMVs expressed O-chains of Lewis(x) with a terminal Lewis(y) unit, whereas Lewis(y) expression was notably reduced on bacteria and OMVs from iron-limiting conditions. Unlike the O-chain, the core oligosaccharide and lipid A moieties of iron-replete and iron-limited bacteria and their OMVs were similar. Quantitatively, shed OMVs from iron-replete bacteria were found to be LPSenriched, whereas shed OMVs from iron-limited bacteria had a significantly reduced content of LPS. These differences were linked to bacterial ATP levels. Since iron availability affects the extent and nature of LPS expressed by H. pylori, host iron status may contribute to H. pylori pathogenesis.
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31
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Mullaney E, Brown PA, Smith SM, Botting CH, Yamaoka YY, Terres AM, Kelleher DP, Windle HJ. Proteomic and functional characterization of the outer membrane vesicles from the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori. Proteomics Clin Appl 2009; 3:785-96. [DOI: 10.1002/prca.200800192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2008] [Revised: 01/14/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Abstract
The biofilm matrix contributes to the chemistry, structure, and function of biofilms. Biofilm-derived membrane vesicles (MVs) and DNA, both matrix components, demonstrated concentration-, pH-, and cation-dependent interactions. Furthermore, MV-DNA association influenced MV surface properties. This bears consequences for the reactivity and availability for interaction of matrix polymers and other constituents.
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Chitcholtan K, Hampton MB, Keenan JI. Outer membrane vesicles enhance the carcinogenic potential of Helicobacter pylori. Carcinogenesis 2008; 29:2400-5. [PMID: 18784355 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgn218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chronic Helicobacter pylori infection is associated with an increased risk of gastric carcinogenesis. These non-invasive bacteria colonize the gastric mucosa and constitutively shed small outer membrane vesicles (OMV). In this study, we investigated the direct effect of H.pylori OMV on cellular events associated with carcinogenesis. We observed increased micronuclei formation in AGS human gastric epithelial cells treated with OMV isolated from a toxigenic H.pylori strain (60190). This effect was absent in OMV from strain 60190v:1 that has a mutant vacA, indicating VacA-dependent micronuclei formation. VacA induces intracellular vacuolation, and reduced acridine orange staining indicated disruption in the integrity of these vacuoles. This was accompanied by an alteration in iron metabolism and glutathione (GSH) loss, suggesting a role for oxidative stress in genomic damage. Increasing intracellular GSH levels with a GSH ester abrogated the VacA-mediated increase in micronuclei formation. In conclusion, OMV-mediated delivery of VacA to the gastric epithelium may constitute a new mechanism for H.pylori-induced gastric carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny Chitcholtan
- Department of Surgery, University of Otago Christchurch, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Gorby Y, McLean J, Korenevsky A, Rosso K, El-Naggar MY, Beveridge TJ. Redox-reactive membrane vesicles produced by Shewanella. GEOBIOLOGY 2008; 6:232-41. [PMID: 18498526 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-4669.2008.00158.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This manuscript is dedicated to our friend, mentor, and coauthor Dr Terry Beveridge, who devoted his scientific career to advancing fundamental aspects of microbial ultrastructure using innovative electron microscopic approaches. During his graduate studies with Professor Robert Murray, Terry provided some of the first glimpses and structural evaluations of the regular surface arrays (S-layers) of Gram-negative bacteria (Beveridge & Murray, 1974, 1975, 1976a). Beginning with his early electron microscopic assessments of metal binding by cell walls from Gram-positive bacteria (Beveridge & Murray, 1976b, 1980) and continuing with more than 30 years of pioneering research on microbe-mineral interactions (Hoyle & Beveridge, 1983, 1984; Ferris et al., 1986; Gorby et al., 1988; Beveridge, 1989; Mullen et al., 1989; Urrutia Mera et al., 1992; Mera & Beveridge, 1993; Brown et al., 1994; Konhauser et al., 1994; Beveridge et al., 1997; Newman et al., 1997; Lower et al., 2001; Glasauer et al., 2002; Baesman et al., 2007), Terry helped to shape the developing field of biogeochemistry. Terry and his associates are also widely regarded for their research defining the structure and function of outer membrane vesicles from Gram-negative bacteria that facilitate processes ranging from the delivery of pathogenic enzymes to the possible exchange of genetic information. The current report represents the confluence of two of Terry's thematic research streams by demonstrating that membrane vesicles produced by dissimilatory metal-reducing bacteria from the genus Shewanella catalyze the enzymatic transformation and precipitation of heavy metals and radionuclides. Under low-shear conditions, membrane vesicles are commonly tethered to intact cells by electrically conductive filaments known as bacterial nanowires. The functional role of membrane vesicles and associated nanowires is not known, but the potential for mineralized vesicles that morphologically resemble nanofossils to serve as palaeontological indicators of early life on Earth and as biosignatures of life on other planets is recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gorby
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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35
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Schooling SR, Beveridge TJ. Membrane vesicles: an overlooked component of the matrices of biofilms. J Bacteriol 2006; 188:5945-57. [PMID: 16885463 PMCID: PMC1540058 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00257-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 386] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The matrix helps define the architecture and infrastructure of biofilms and also contributes to their resilient nature. Although many studies continue to define the properties of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacterial biofilms, there is still much to learn, especially about how structural characteristics help bridge the gap between the chemistry and physical aspects of the matrix. Here, we show that membrane vesicles (MVs), structures derived from the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, are a common particulate feature of the matrix of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Biofilms grown using different model systems and growth conditions were shown to contain MVs when thin sectioned for transmission electron microscopy, and mechanically disrupted biofilms revealed MVs in association with intercellular material. MVs were also isolated from biofilms by employing techniques for matrix isolation and a modified MV isolation protocol. Together these observations verified the presence and frequency of MVs and indicated that MVs were a definite component of the matrix. Characterization of planktonic and biofilm-derived MVs revealed quantitative and qualitative differences between the two and indicated functional roles, such as proteolytic activity and binding of antibiotics. The ubiquity of MVs was supported by observations of biofilms from a variety of natural environments outside the laboratory and established MVs as common biofilm constituents. MVs appear to be important and relatively unacknowledged particulate components of the matrix of gram-negative or mixed bacterial biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Schooling
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology and AFMnet-NCE, College of Biological Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada.
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Abstract
Extracellular secretion of products is the major mechanism by which Gram-negative pathogens communicate with and intoxicate host cells. Vesicles released from the envelope of growing bacteria serve as secretory vehicles for proteins and lipids of Gram-negative bacteria. Vesicle production occurs in infected tissues and is influenced by environmental factors. Vesicles play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells, and modulating host defense and response. Vesicle-mediated toxin delivery is a potent virulence mechanism exhibited by diverse Gram-negative pathogens. The biochemical and functional properties of pathogen-derived vesicles reveal their potential to critically impact disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina 27710, USA.
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37
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Kesty NC, Mason KM, Reedy M, Miller SE, Kuehn MJ. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli vesicles target toxin delivery into mammalian cells. EMBO J 2004; 23:4538-49. [PMID: 15549136 PMCID: PMC533055 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7600471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 272] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2004] [Accepted: 10/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a prevalent cause of traveler's diarrhea and infant mortality in third-world countries. Heat-labile enterotoxin (LT) is secreted from ETEC via vesicles composed of outer membrane and periplasm. We investigated the role of ETEC vesicles in pathogenesis by analyzing vesicle association and entry into eukaryotic cells. Fluorescently labeled vesicles from LT-producing and LT-nonproducing strains were compared in their ability to bind adrenal and intestinal epithelial cells. ETEC-derived vesicles, but not control nonpathogen-derived vesicles, associated with cells in a time-, temperature-, and receptor-dependent manner. Vesicles were visualized on the cell surface at 4 degrees C and detected intracellularly at 37 degrees C. ETEC vesicle endocytosis depended on cholesterol-rich lipid rafts. Entering vesicles partially colocalized with caveolin, and the internalized vesicles accumulated in a nonacidified compartment. We conclude that ETEC vesicles serve as specifically targeted transport vehicles that mediate entry of active enterotoxin and other bacterial envelope components into host cells. These data demonstrate a role in virulence for ETEC vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole C Kesty
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Kevin M Mason
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Mary Reedy
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Sara E Miller
- Department of Pathology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Meta J Kuehn
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, Duke University Medical Center, 132 Nanaline Duke, Box 3711, Durham, NC 27710, USA. Tel.: +1 919 684 2545; Fax: +1 919 684 8885; E-mail:
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Bland MV, Ismail S, Heinemann JA, Keenan JI. The action of bismuth against Helicobacter pylori mimics but is not caused by intracellular iron deprivation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48:1983-8. [PMID: 15155188 PMCID: PMC415606 DOI: 10.1128/aac.48.6.1983-1988.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is highly susceptible to bismuth, a heavy metal with antimicrobial activity linked to its effect on bacterial iron uptake. Three strains of H. pylori were analyzed for indicators of iron limitation following exposure to the MIC of colloidal bismuth subcitrate (MIC(CBS)). Similar morphologic and outer membrane changes were observed following growth in iron-limiting medium and at the MIC(CBS) that inhibited the growth of all three strains. These changes, which were also observed for iron-limited bacteria, were alleviated by the addition of iron to the cultures. H. pylori ATP levels, reduced in iron-limiting medium, were below the limits of detection in two of the three strains following exposure to bismuth. The addition of iron partially restored bacterial ATP levels in these two strains, although not to normal concentrations. In contrast, exposure of the same strains to the MIC(CBS) failed to deplete intracellular levels of iron, which were significantly reduced by culturing in iron-limiting medium. Thus, the antimicrobial effect of bismuth and of iron limitation on H. pylori may be similar. However, the respective mechanisms of intracellular action would appear to be mediated by different pathways within the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Bland
- School of Biological Scienes, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Ismail S, Hampton MB, Keenan JI. Helicobacter pylori outer membrane vesicles modulate proliferation and interleukin-8 production by gastric epithelial cells. Infect Immun 2003; 71:5670-5. [PMID: 14500487 PMCID: PMC201067 DOI: 10.1128/iai.71.10.5670-5675.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori infection, which is always associated with gastritis, can progress to ulceration or malignancy. The diversity in clinical outcomes is partly attributed to the expression of virulence factors and adhesins by H. pylori. However, H. pylori may not have to adhere to the epithelium to cause gastritis. We hypothesize that outer membrane vesicles (OMV), which are constantly shed from the surface of H. pylori, play a role as independent activators of host cell responses. In this study, we found that low doses of OMV from cag PAI+ toxigenic and cag PAI- nontoxigenic strains increased proliferation of AGS gastric epithelial cells. At higher doses, we detected growth arrest, increased toxicity, and interleukin-8 (IL-8) production. The only strain differences detected were vacuolation with the toxigenic strain and higher levels of IL-8 production with OMV from the cag PAI- nontoxigenic strain. In summary, we suggest that constitutively shed OMV play a role in promoting the low-grade gastritis associated with H. pylori infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salim Ismail
- Department of Surgery, Christchurch School of Medicine & Health Sciences, PO Box 4345, Christchurch, New Zealand
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van Vliet AHM, Stoof J, Poppelaars SW, Bereswill S, Homuth G, Kist M, Kuipers EJ, Kusters JG. Differential regulation of amidase- and formamidase-mediated ammonia production by the Helicobacter pylori fur repressor. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:9052-7. [PMID: 12499381 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m207542200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The production of high levels of ammonia allows the human gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori to survive the acidic conditions in the human stomach. H. pylori produces ammonia through urease-mediated degradation of urea, but it is also able to convert a range of amide substrates into ammonia via its AmiE amidase and AmiF formamidase enzymes. Here data are provided that demonstrate that the iron-responsive regulatory protein Fur directly and indirectly regulates the activity of the two H. pylori amidases. In contrast to other amidase-positive bacteria, amidase and formamidase enzyme activities were not induced by medium supplementation with their respective substrates, acrylamide and formamide. AmiE protein expression and amidase enzyme activity were iron-repressed in H. pylori 26695 but constitutive in the isogenic fur mutant. This regulation was mediated at the transcriptional level via the binding of Fur to the amiE promoter region. In contrast, formamidase enzyme activity was not iron-repressed but was significantly higher in the fur mutant. This effect was not mediated at the transcriptional level, and Fur did not bind to the amiF promoter region. These roles of Fur in regulation of the H. pylori amidases suggest that the H. pylori Fur regulator may have acquired extra functions to compensate for the absence of other regulatory systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnoud H M van Vliet
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Erasmus MC University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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