Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii) pneumonia following initiation of infliximab and azathioprine therapy in a patient with Crohn's disease

COVID-19-associated opportunistic infections: a snapshot on the current reports

Treatment of the novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) remains a complicated challenge, especially among patients with severe disease. In recent studies, immunosuppressive therapy has shown promising results for control of the cytokine storm syndrome (CSS) in severe cases of COVID-19. However, it is well documented that immunosuppressive agents (e.g., corticosteroids and cytokine blockers) increase the risk of opportunistic infections. On the other hand, several opportunistic infections were reported in COVID-19 patients, including Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii), mucormycosis, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Herpes simplex virus (HSV), Strongyloides stercoralis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Toxoplasma gondii. This review is a snapshot about the main opportunistic infections that reported among COVID-19 patients. As such, we summarized information about the main immunosuppressive agents that were used in recent clinical trials for COVID-19 patients and the risk of opportunistic infections following these treatments. We also discussed about the main challenges regarding diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19-associated opportunistic infections (CAOIs).

Real-world data for golimumab treatment in patients with ulcerative colitis in Japan: interim analysis in post-marketing surveillance

Background/Aims

Golimumab (GLM) is an anti-tumor necrosis factor-α drug approved for treating moderate-to-severe active ulcerative colitis (UC). A 52-week post-marketing surveillance (PMS) was initiated to evaluate its safety and effectiveness in patients with UC in Japan. We present an interim report of the ongoing PMS.

Methods

Patients received 200 mg of subcutaneous GLM at week 0, 100 mg at week 2, and 100 mg 4 weekly thereafter. The safety analysis set included 392 patients with UC, and the effectiveness analysis set 387 patients. Safety and effectiveness were assessed at week 6.

Results

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) were reported in 8.2% (32/392) and serious ADRs in 4.6% (18/392). The most frequent ADRs were infection and infestation (3.3%), with herpes zoster being the most common. ADRs were significantly higher in patients with concomitant corticosteroid use (odds ratio [OR], 3.45; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.40–9.68). No significant difference in ADR incidence was observed between patients aged ≥65 and <65 years (OR, 1.23; 95% CI, 0.35–3.47). Six-week effectiveness of GLM was confirmed by a decrease in the partial Mayo score (–2.3; 95% CI, –2.6 to –2.1) and C-reactive protein levels (–0.64; 95% CI, –0.92 to –0.36), including in the biologics-experienced population.

Conclusions

The safety and effectiveness of GLM at week 6 in a real-world setting were demonstrated in patients with UC in Japan. ADR patterns were consistent with previous reports with no new safety signals. Concomitant corticosteroid use may be associated with increased ADR incidence. The final results of the ongoing PMS are necessary for further evaluation.

Risk Factors for Mortality in Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Background

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PJP) is highly fatal once infection is established. In this study, we investigated the risk of PJP mortality in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Methods

We conducted a retrospective observational study of case data from IBD patients who developed PJP, compiled from 17 collaborating institutions. Parameters such as age, sex, medications used, and blood test results were analyzed to identify risk factors for mortality.

Results

The mortality rate among the 28 IBD patients who developed PJP was 17.9%. A low serum albumin level at the start of IBD treatment was identified as a risk factor for mortality and showed the following association with probability of death (P): P = 1/[1 + exp(-5.5 + 2.4 × Alb). The probability of death exceeded 0.5 when serum albumin was 2.2 g/dL or lower.

Conclusion

Patients with IBD who develop PJP have a high mortality rate and often cannot continue treatment with medication alone. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to albumin levels at the start of immunosuppressive therapy when creating a treatment plan.

Clinical Manifestations and Prognostic Factors of Pneumocystis jirovecii Pneumonia without HIV

INTRODUCTION

Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) can occur in HIV patients but also in those without HIV (non-HIV PCP) but with other causes of immunodeficiency including malignancy or rheumatic diseases.

OBJECTIVE AND METHODS

To evaluate the clinical presentation and prognostic factors of non-HIV PCP, we retrospectively reviewed all patients diagnosed as having PCP without HIV at Kameda Medical Center, Chiba, Japan, from January 2005 until June 2012. For the purpose of examining a prognostic factor for non-HIV PCP with 30-day mortality, we compared the characteristics of patients, clinical symptoms, radiological images, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status (PS), and the time from the onset of respiratory symptoms to the start of therapy, in both survival and fatality groups.

RESULTS

A total of 38 patients were eligible in this study. Twenty-five survived and 13 had died. The non-HIV PCP patients in the survivor group had a better PS and received anti-PCP therapy earlier than those in the nonsurvivor group. Rales upon auscultation and respiratory failure at initial visits were seen more frequently in the nonsurvivor group than in the survivor group. Lactate dehydrogenase and C-reactive protein values tended to be higher in the nonsurvivor group, but this was not statistically significant. Multivariate analyses using 5 variables showed that a poor PS of 2-4 was an independent risk factor for non-HIV PCP patients and resulted in death (odds ratio 15.24; 95% confidence interval 1.72-135.21).

CONCLUSION

We suggest that poor PS is an independent risk factor in non-HIV PCP, and a patient's PS and disease activity may correlate with outcome.

Low Risk of Pneumonia From Pneumocystis jirovecii Infection in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease Receiving Immune Suppression

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Use of immunosuppressants and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) may increase the risk of pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii (PJP). We assessed the risk of PJP in a population-based cohort of patients with IBD treated with corticosteroids, immune-suppressive medications, and biologics.

METHODS

We performed a population-based cohort study of residents of Olmsted County, Minnesota, diagnosed with Crohn's disease (n = 427) or ulcerative colitis (n = 510) from 1970 through 2011. Records of patients were reviewed to identify all episodes of immunosuppressive therapies and concomitant PJP prophylaxis through February 2016. We reviewed charts to identify cases of PJP, cross-referenced with the Rochester Epidemiology Project database (using diagnostic codes for PJP) and the Mayo Clinic and Olmsted Medical Center databases. The primary outcome was risk of PJP associated with the use of corticosteroids, immune-suppressive medications, and biologics by patients with IBD.

RESULTS

Our analysis included 937 patients and 6066 patient-years of follow-up evaluation (median, 14.8 y per patient). Medications used included corticosteroids (520 patients; 55.5%; 555.4 patient-years of exposure), immunosuppressants (304 patients; 32.4%; 1555.7 patient-years of exposure), and biologics (193 patients; 20.5%; 670 patient-years of exposure). Double therapy (corticosteroids and either immunosuppressants and biologics) was used by 236 patients (25.2%), with 173 patient-years of exposure. Triple therapy (corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics) was used by 70 patients (7.5%) with 18.9 patient-years of exposure. There were 3 cases of PJP, conferring a risk of 0.2 (95% CI, 0.01-1.0) to corticosteroids, 0.1 (95% CI, 0.02-0.5) cases per 100 patient-years of exposure to immunosuppressants, 0.3 (95% CI, 0.04-1.1) cases per 100 patient-years of exposure to biologics, 0.6 (95% CI, 0.01-3.2) cases per 100 patient-years of exposure to double therapy, and 0 (95% CI, 0.0-19.5) cases per 100 patient-years of exposure to triple therapy. Primary prophylaxis for PJP was prescribed to 37 patients, for a total of 24.9 patient-years of exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

In a population-based cohort of patients with IBD treated with corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and biologics, there were only 3 cases of PJP, despite the uncommon use of PJP prophylaxis. Routine administration of PJP prophylaxis in these patients may not be warranted, although it should be considered for high-risk groups, such as patients receiving triple therapy.

Pneumocystis pneumonia complicating immunosuppressive therapy in Crohns disease: A preventable problem?

We report the case of a 76-year-old man who presented with moderate active Crohn's colitis that was refractory to high-dose corticosteroids, mesalazine and 6-mercaptopurine. He subsequently received a trial of infliximab with poor response and was diagnosed with cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis, improving on antiviral therapy. Three weeks into treatment he developed acute respiratory distress with hypoxaemia and diffuse pulmonary interstitial infiltrates. This was confirmed as Pneumocystis jirovecii on bronchoalveolar lavage. He responded well to treatment with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX) and was subsequently discharged home. Despite the favourable outcome, our case raises the question of whether chemoprophylaxis against opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is appropriate. There are currently no recommendations on providing chemoprophylaxis against CMV colitis and so we focus on pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) where wide debate surrounds the use of prophylactic TMP-SMX in HIV-negative patients. Contrasting approaches to chemoprophylaxis against PCP in IBD likely relates to a lack of clear parameters for defining risk of PCP among patient groups. This must be addressed in order to develop universal guidelines that take into account patient-dependent risk factors. Awareness of the severity of PCP among HIV-negative individuals and the current consensus on PCP prophylaxis in IBD must be raised in order to minimise the risk of PCP and drive research in this controversial area.

Cost-effectiveness of Prophylaxis Against Pneumocystis jiroveci Pneumonia in Patients with Crohn's Disease

BACKGROUND

Emerging evidence suggests that Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia is occurring more frequently in Crohn's disease patients on immunosuppressive medications, especially corticosteroids. Considering its excess mortality and the efficacy of chemoprophylaxis in reducing P. jiroveci pneumonia in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, there is debate without consensus on the need for chemoprophylaxis in Crohn's disease patients on corticosteroids.

AIMS

We sought to address this debate using insights from simulation modeling.

METHODS

We used a Markov microsimulation model to simulate the natural history of Crohn's disease in 1 million virtual patients receiving appropriate care and who faced P. jiroveci pneumonia risks that varied with corticosteroid use. We examined several chemoprophylaxis strategies and compared their population-level economic and clinical impact using various indices including costs, quality-adjusted life expectancy, and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios. We also performed several nested probabilistic sensitivity analyses to estimate the health and economic impact of chemoprophylaxis in patients on triple immunosuppressive therapy.

RESULTS

At the current PJP incidence, no PJP chemoprophylaxis was the preferred strategy from a population perspective. Considered chemoprophylactic strategies led to higher average costs and fewer P. jiroveci pneumonia cases. However, they also led to lower average quality-adjusted life expectancy and were thus dominated. Nevertheless, these alternative strategies became preferred with progressively higher risks of P. jiroveci pneumonia. Our results also suggest that PJP chemoprophylaxis may be cost-effective in patients on triple immunosuppressive therapy.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support a case-by-case consideration of P. jiroveci pneumonia chemoprophylaxis in Crohn's disease patients receiving corticosteroids.

Prophylaxis for Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with rheumatoid arthritis treated with biologics, based on risk factors found in a retrospective study

Introduction

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) is one of the most prevalent opportunistic infections in patients undergoing immunosuppressive therapy. In this article, we discuss risk factors for PCP development in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) during the course of biologic therapy and describe a prophylactic treatment for PCP with trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX). We also evaluate the effectiveness and safety of the treatment.

Methods

We retrospectively analyzed 702 RA patients who received biologic therapy and compared the characteristics of patients with vs. without PCP to identify the risk factors for PCP. Accordingly, we analyzed 214 patients who received the TMP/SMX biologic agents as prophylaxis against PCP at the start of treatment to evaluate their effectiveness and safety.

Results

We identified the following as risk factors for PCP: age at least 65 years (hazard ratio (HR) = 4.37, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.04 to 18.2), coexisting pulmonary disease (HR = 8.13, 95% CI = 1.63 to 40.0), and use of glucocorticoids (HR = 11.4, 95% CI = 1.38 to 90.9). We employed a protocol whereby patients with two or three risk factors for PCP would receive prophylactic treatment. In the study with 214 patients, there were no cases of PCP, and the incidence of PCP was reduced to 0.00 per 100 person-years compared with that before the procedure (0.93 per 100 person-years). There were no severe adverse events induced by the TMP/SMX treatment.

Conclusions

RA patients with two or three risk factors for PCP who are receiving biologic therapy can benefit from safe primary prophylaxis.

Management ofPneumocystispneumonia in patients with inflammatory disorders

Pneumocystis jirovecii is an atypical fungus that causes Pneumocystis pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Underlying diseases associated with Pneumocystis pneumonia mainly consist of hematologic malignancies, solid tumors, organ transplant recipients and inflammatory disorders. Currently, inflammatory disorders represent 20% of underlying diseases. Corticosteroids are considered as a major risk factor. Recently introduced immunosuppressive drugs, such as antitumor necrosis factor monoclonal antibodies, could enhance the risk of Pneumocystis pneumonia. In patients with inflammatory disorders, lymphopenia is probably a determining factor but CD4+ T-cell count associated with the risk of Pneumocystis pneumonia remains unassessed. The diagnosis is based upon clinical, radiologic and biologic data. The identification of P. jirovecii usually requires a lower respiratory tract specimen, even if oral washes samples seem to be promising. According to recent data, immunofluorescent stains should be considered as the new gold standard, and specialized techniques such as PCR should be applied for sputum samples or oral washes. Recommendations on prophylaxis remains controversial except in patients with Wegener's granulomatosis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Cotrimoxazole is the preferred agent for prophylaxis as well as for treatment. An adjunctive corticosteroid therapy is usually prescribed despite the lack of evidence for utility in patients with inflammatory disorders. As person-to-person transmission is the most likely mode of acquiring P. jirovecii, isolation precautions should be advised.

B cell production of tumor necrosis factor in response to Pneumocystis murina infection in mice

Pneumocystis species are opportunistic fungal pathogens that induce tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production by alveolar macrophages. Here we report that B cells from the draining lymph nodes as well as lung CD4(+) T cells are important producers of TNF upon Pneumocystis murina infection. To determine the importance of B cell-derived TNF in the primary response to P. murina, we generated bone marrow chimeras whose B cells were unable to produce TNF. The lung P. murina burden at 10 days postinfection in TNF knockout (TNFKO) chimeras was significantly higher than that in wild-type (WT) chimeras, which corresponded to reduced numbers of activated CD4(+) T cells in the lungs at this early time point. Furthermore, CD4(+) T cells isolated from P. murina-infected TNFKO chimeras were unable to stimulate clearance of P. murina upon adoptive transfer to recombinase-deficient (RAG1KO) hosts. Together, these data indicate that B cell-derived TNF plays an important function in promoting CD4(+) T cell expansion and production of TNF and facilitating protection against P. murina infection.

Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: a survey of prophylaxis patterns among gastroenterology providers

BACKGROUND

The use of combination immunosuppressive agents is associated with reports of pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PJP). The aim of this study was to determine practice patterns among gastroenterology providers for PJP prophylaxis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) on immunosuppressive therapy.

METHODS

An internet-based survey of 14 questions was sent through e-mail to a random sampling of 4000 gastroenterologists, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants between November 2011 and February 2012. Three reminder e-mails were sent to providers who had not completed the survey.

RESULTS

The invitation e-mail that contained the link to the survey was clicked by 504 providers and the completed surveys were returned by 123 of them (78% physicians, 11% nurse practitioners, 11% physician assistants). The response rate was 24.4%. Seventy-nine percent of the respondents had managed >25 patients with IBD in the past year, with as much as one-third of all respondents managing >100 patients. Eight percent of the respondents reported patients who had developed PJP on immunosuppressive therapy, 11% reported initiating PJP prophylaxis, mostly for patients on triple immunosuppressive therapy. Prescription of PJP prophylaxis was not significantly associated with the number of years in practice or the number of IBD patients treated. However, providers with patients that had developed PJP were 7.4 times more likely to prescribe prophylaxis (P = 0.01). In addition, providers in academic centers were 4 times more likely to initiate PJP prophylaxis than those in nonacademic centers (P = 0.03). The most common reasons for not prescribing PJP prophylaxis included the absence of guidelines on the benefits of prophylaxis, lack of personal experience with PJP, and the lack of knowledge on the need for prophylaxis in patients with IBD on combination immunosuppressive therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The lack of guidelines seems to influence the decision on not to prescribe PJP prophylaxis in patients with IBD. Additional studies are needed to determine PJP risk factors and risks and benefits of prophylaxis.

A decade of infliximab: The Austrian evidence based consensus on the safe use of infliximab in inflammatory bowel disease

Infliximab (IFX) has tremendously enriched the therapy of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and other immune mediated diseases. Although the efficacy of IFX was undoubtedly proven during the last decade numerous publications have also caused various safety concerns. To summarize the immense information concerning adverse events and safety issues the Austrian Society of Gastroenterology and Hepatology launched this evidence based consensus on the safe use of IFX which covers the following topics: infusion reactions and immunogenicity, skin reactions, opportunistic infections (including tuberculosis), non-opportunistic infections (bacterial and viral), vaccination, neurological complications, hepatotoxicity, congestive heart failure, haematological side effects, intestinal strictures, stenosis and bowel obstruction (SSO), concomitant medication, malignancy and lymphoma, IFX in the elderly and the young, mortality, fertility, pregnancy and breast feeding. To make the vast amount of information practicable for routine application the consensus was finally condensed into a checklist for a safe use of IFX which consists of two parts: issues to be addressed prior to anti-TNF therapy and issues to be addressed during maintenance. Both parts are further divided into obligatory and facultative items.

Impact of concomitant immunomodulator use on long-term outcomes in patients receiving scheduled maintenance infliximab

The long-term benefits of combining scheduled infliximab with concomitant immunomodulators [azathioprine or 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP)] in patients with Crohn's disease are unclear. Historical cohort followed for 5 years after initiation of infliximab for active Crohn's disease. Data were available on 123 patients who received scheduled maintenance infliximab infusions, for up to 5 years after initiation of infliximab. Clinical remission rates in the entire cohort were 73% (82/113) at 1 year, 65% (65/100) at 2 years, and 58% (21/36) at 5 years. Remission rates with maintenance infliximab were significantly improved in those receiving concomitant immunomodulators at 1 year (86% versus 68%, P = 0.03), but not at 2 years (80% versus 72%, P = 0.4). In a multivariate logistic regression model, concomitant immunomodulator use was not associated with a significantly improved odds ratio of remission in patients on maintenance infliximab [odds ratio (OR) 1.1, 95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.9-1.2, P = 0.9]. The risk of surgery was significantly reduced in those receiving immunomodulators at the commencement of maintenance infliximab (OR 0.3, 95% CI 0.1-0.7, P = 0.01), but not in patients who continued maintenance concomitant therapy (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.1-1.5, P = 0.1). The combination of maintenance infliximab and an immunomodulator produced modest improvements in outcomes beyond maintenance infliximab alone in this cohort.

Safety profile of IBD therapeutics: infectious risks

Over the last decade, the medical treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been revolutionized, with increasing use of both immunomodulatory and biologic medications. Corticosteroids have increasingly been shown to increase the risk of serious and opportunistic infections, both independently and in combination with immunomodulator and biologic agents. There are limited data on the infectious risk of immunomodulators. It is unclear if anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha agents increase overall infectious risk in patients with IBD, but the available literature has demonstrated an increased risk of opportunistic infections, particularly in terms of tuberculosis and histoplasmosis. Combination therapy likely increases the risk of opportunistic infections in patients with IBD but this has not yet been conclusively proved.

Anti-TNFα antibody infliximab treatment for an infant with fistulising Crohn's disease

A female infant presented at the age of 4 weeks with dyschezia and bloody streaking of stools which did not improve on elemental formula for proposed cow's milk protein allergy. At 6 months of age perianal ulceration appeared which evolved into multiple fistulas opening into the perineum. A diagnosis of infantile Crohn's disease was made after colonoscopy and histopathology examination and exclusion of other conditions. An 8 week trial of total parenteral nutrition, in addition to corticosteroids, salazopyrine, metronidazole, and azathioprine failed to arrest deterioration of the perianal fistulas. Treatment with the anti-TNFα antibody infliximab was started at 5 mg/kg/dose at 9 months of age. She was given three doses at 0, 2, and 6 weeks, respectively. This resulted in significant healing of her fistulas and cessation of fistula output. This improvement was sustained at the time of last follow-up 10 months after treatment.

Safety profile of IBD therapeutics: infectious risks

Over the last decade, the medical treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has been revolutionized, with increasing use of both immunomodulatory and biologic medications. Corticosteroids have increasingly been associated with an elevated risk of serious and opportunistic infections, both independently and in combination with immunomodulator and biologic agents. There are limited data on the infectious risk of immunomodulators. It is unclear if anti-tumor necrosis factor agents increase overall infectious risk in patients with IBD, but the available literature has demonstrated an increased risk of opportunistic infections, particularly in terms of tuberculosis and histoplasmosis. Combination therapy likely increases the risk of opportunistic infections in patients with IBD but this has not yet been conclusively proved.

Pneumocystis pneumonia in children

Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) is a life-threatening infection in immunocompromised children with quantitative and qualitative defects in T lymphocytes. At risk are children with lymphoid malignancies, HIV infection, corticosteroid therapy, transplantation and primary immunodeficiency states. Diagnosis is established through direct examination or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from respiratory secretions. Trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole is used for initial therapy in most patients, while pentamidine, atovaquone, clindamycin plus primaquine, and dapsone plus trimethoprim are alternatives. Prophylaxis of high-risk patients reduces but does not eliminate the risk of PCP. Improved understanding of the pathogenesis of PCP is important for future advances against this life-threatening infection.

Prophylaxis against Pneumocystis pneumonia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: toward a standard of care

Patients with Crohn's Disease and ulcerative colitis are increasingly treated with a host of immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive medications, including thiopurines and antibody-based biologic agents. Despite the known infectious complications associated with these therapies from the HIV and solid organ transplant literature, there are currently no well-defined concise guidelines to assist gastroenterologists and other physicians in the utility and indication for prophylaxis against Pneumocystis pneumonia and other infections in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients. In this article, we discuss the evidence of various infections associated with immunocompromise in HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, and in other immunocompromised states, and discuss the evidence for the efficacy and safety of various infectious prophylaxis protocols. In addition, we discuss the evidence for Pneumocystis and other infections in IBD patients treated with corticosteroids, azathioprine/6-MP, biologic agents and other therapies, and we present the case for various antibiotic (and antiviral) regimens to prevent such infections. Based on the review of the literature, this discussion represents a true call for guidelines for infection prophylaxis, to help guide gastroenterologists and all practitioners who care for the challenging population of IBD patients.

Humoral and cellular monitoring to predict the development of infection in Crohn's disease patients beginning treatment with infliximab

Although severe infectious complications are rare, it is important to properly screen patients for predisposing conditions before beginning treatment with infliximab. We assessed immunity markers that might provide prognostic value for the development of infection in Crohn's disease patients after treatment with infliximab. In a prospective study, 34 fistulizing Crohn's disease patients (mean age 37 years) were studied. Patients were scheduled to receive three infusions of infliximab (5 mg/kg) at weeks 0, 2, and 6. Immunologic studies: Serum immunoglobulin (IgG, IgA, IgM), IgG-subclasses, and complement (C3, C4, factor B) determined by nephelometry; CD3+, CD3+CD4+, CD3+CD8+, CD19+, and CD56+CD3- lymphocyte subsets performed by flow cytometry. During a mean follow-up of 56 months, 1 patient had disseminated tuberculosis and 2 patients had severe bacterial infections. The presence of infection was associated with significantly higher IgM (246 vs. 121 mg/dL; Mann-Whitney test, P = 0.01), lower C3 (64 vs. 118, P = 0.02), lower C4 concentrations (12 vs. 25, P = 0.02), and with decreased levels of CD19 B cells (47 vs. 290, P = 0.03) in the baseline study. Further prospective studies in a larger number of patients are suggested to examine whether early monitoring of immunocompetence might help to identify the risk of infection in patients treated with infliximab.

Safety of infliximab and other biologic agents in the inflammatory bowel diseases

In many ways, infliximab has drastically altered expectations for medical therapy in IBD, and it is expected that adalimumab and certolizumab pegol with ultimately have a similar role. Patients initiating such therapy should be made cognizant of the potential risks of serious infection including opportunistic ones, such as TB and histoplasmosis; demyelinating disorders; CHF; and lymphoma. Proper selection of candidates for anti-TNF-alpha therapy is critical in maintaining a proper benefit-to-risk ratio.

Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis as a complication of treatment with infliximab, anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha neutralizing antibody

We report that a-63-year-old woman developed Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia (PCP) as a complication from treatment with infliximab for rheumatoid arthritis. Although there was neither symptoms of dyspnea nor typical observations on a chest X-ray examination, low levels of oxygen saturation and findings of high-resolution chest computed tomographic scanning suggested a possibility of interstitial pneumonia. A polymerase chain reaction-based detection of Pneumocystis jiroveci in induced sputum allowed an early diagnosis of PCP and subsequent effective treatment.

Pulmonary infectious complications associated with anti-TNFalpha therapy (infliximab) for rheumatoid arthritis

Two patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) that developed serious infectious complications following anti-TNFalpha therapy (infliximab) are reported. Patient 1 developed tuberculosis with high fever, refractory diarrhea and mediastinal lymphadenopathy. Trans-bronchial needle biopsy was useful to confirm the diagnosis. Patient 2 showed sudden onset of dyspnea with diffuse bilateral lung infiltration caused by pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia and the diagnosis was confirmed by broncho-alveolar lavage. Physicians should be alerted to infectious complications with atypical presentation and rapid progression in infliximab-treated patients. Invasive diagnostic procedures including fiber-optic bronchoscopy may be necessary early in the course for such cases.

Infections associated with tumor necrosis factor-alpha antagonists

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is a proinflammatory cytokine involved in a wide range of important physiologic processes. This cytokine has a pathologic role in some diseases, and TNF-alpha antagonists are effective in treating inflammatory conditions. Given the putative role of TNF-alpha in host defense against tuberculosis and other infections, the risk of infection with TNF-alpha antagonists is a concern. Therefore, we searched the literature for reports of tuberculosis and other infections associated with TNF-alpha-antagonist therapy. Although tuberculosis was rarely reported in randomized clinical comparisons of these antagonists, case reports and submissions to the MedWatch program of the United States Food and Drug Administration have been numerous. Most instances were associated with infliximab, but etanercept and adalimumab may also be associated with an increased risk of tuberculosis. Histoplasmosis, listeriosis, aspergillosis, coccidioidomycosis, and candidiasis have been associated with TNF-alpha antagonists, but the causative relationship is not clear. Potential recipients of these drugs should be rigorously screened with skin testing, detailed questioning about recent travel and potential tuberculosis exposure, assessment for symptoms such as cough and weight loss, and chest radiography to minimize their risk of acquiring or reactivating tuberculosis. As with other immunosuppressant drugs, TNF-alpha antagonists should not be given to patients with active infection.

Mycobacterium abscessus infection after use of tumor necrosis factor α inhibitor therapy: case report and review of infectious complications associated with tumor necrosis factor α inhibitor use

Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) inhibitors, such as infliximab and etanercept, are now frequently used in the treatment of inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and Crohn's disease. As an apparent result of their immune modulating activity, there has been an observed association between the use of these agents and the development of a wide range of infections, most notably Mycobacterium tuberculosis. We describe a case of infection with Mycobacterium abscessus in a 67-year-old woman receiving infliximab as a component of her therapy for RA. This case, along with extensive reports in the medical literature, illustrate how treatment with inhibitors of TNF-alpha has the potential to result in a wide range of infectious complications, including rapid growing Mycobacterium.

Methods to avoid infections in patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Infections have been reported in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), especially in association with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory medications used to treat IBD. Unfortunately, there is a dearth of information on infectious complication risk in patients with IBD. This review describes infectious complications reported in patients with IBD and provides a framework for future studies to assess potential risk factors and incidence for infection. Recommendations are also provided for prevention of infection.