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Perry MA, Gowland RL. Compounding vulnerabilities: Syndemics and the social determinants of disease in the past. Int J Paleopathol 2022; 39:35-49. [PMID: 36215930 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This article explores the theory and utility of a syndemic approach for the study of disease in the past. Syndemic principles are examined alongside other theoretical developments within bioarchaeology. Two case studies are provided to illustrate the efficacy of this approach: Tuberculosis and vitamin D deficiency in 18th and 19th century England, and malaria and helminth infections in Early Medieval England. MATERIALS Public health studies of present syndemics, in addition to published bioarchaeological, clinical and social information relating to the chosen case studies. METHODS The data from these two historical examples are revisited within a syndemic framework to draw deeper conclusions about disease clustering and heterogeneity in the past. RESULTS A syndemic framework can be applied to past contexts using clinical studies of diseases in a modern context and relevant paleopathological, archaeological, and historical data. CONCLUSIONS This approach provides a means for providing a deeper, contextualised understanding ancient diseases, and integrates well with extant theoretical tools in bioarchaeology SIGNIFICANCE: Syndemics provides scholars a deep-time perspective on diseases that still impact modern populations. LIMITATIONS Many of the variables essential for a truly syndemic approach cannot be obtained from current archaeological, bioarchaeological, or historical methods. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH More detailed and in-depth analysis of specific disease clusters within the past and the present, which draws on a comprehensive analysis of the social determinants of health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan A Perry
- Department of Anthropology MS 568, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858, USA.
| | - Rebecca L Gowland
- Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK.
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Abstract
Treatment of the novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) remains a complicated challenge, especially among patients with severe disease. In recent studies, immunosuppressive therapy has shown promising results for control of the cytokine storm syndrome (CSS) in severe cases of COVID-19. However, it is well documented that immunosuppressive agents (e.g., corticosteroids and cytokine blockers) increase the risk of opportunistic infections. On the other hand, several opportunistic infections were reported in COVID-19 patients, including Aspergillus spp., Candida spp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Pneumocystis jiroveci (carinii), mucormycosis, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Herpes simplex virus (HSV), Strongyloides stercoralis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Toxoplasma gondii. This review is a snapshot about the main opportunistic infections that reported among COVID-19 patients. As such, we summarized information about the main immunosuppressive agents that were used in recent clinical trials for COVID-19 patients and the risk of opportunistic infections following these treatments. We also discussed about the main challenges regarding diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19-associated opportunistic infections (CAOIs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Abdoli
- Zoonoses Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran ,Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Ostad Motahari Ave, POBox 74148-46199, Jahrom, Iran
| | - Shahab Falahi
- Zoonotic Diseases Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
| | - Azra Kenarkoohi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
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Abstract
Neutrophils constitute the body's first line of defense against invading pathogens. Equipped with a large array of tools, these immune cells are highly efficient in eliminating bacterial and viral infections, yet their activity can at the same time be detrimental to the host itself - this is the broad consensus on these granulocytes. However, the last decade has proven that neutrophils are a much more sophisticated cell type with unexpected and underappreciated functions in health and disease. In this review, we look at the latest discoveries in neutrophil biology with a focus on their role during the hallmark setting of type 2 immunity - helminth infection. We discuss the involvement of neutrophils in various helminth infection models and summarize the latest findings regarding neutrophil regulation and effector function. We will show that neutrophils have much more to offer than previously thought and while studies of neutrophils in helminth infections are still in its infancy, recent discoveries highlight more than ever that these cells are a key cog of the immune system, even during type 2 responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesuthas Ajendra
- Lydia Becker Institute for Immunology & Infection, Faculty of Biology, Medicine & Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK; Wellcome Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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Abdoli A, Ardakani HM. Helminth infections and immunosenescence: The friend of my enemy. Exp Gerontol 2020; 133:110852. [PMID: 32007545 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2020.110852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Age-associated alterations of the immune system, which known as "immunosenescence", is characterized by a decline in innate and adaptive immunity, which leading to increased susceptibility to age-associated diseases, such as infectious diseases, rheumatic disease and malignancies. On the other hand, helminth infections are among the most prevalent infections in older individuals, especially in the nursing homes. Most of helminth infections have minor clinical symptoms and usually causing chronic infections without treatment. Nevertheless, chronic helminthiasis alters immune responses somewhat similar to the immunosenescence. Some similarities also exist between helminth infections and immunosenescence: 1) both of them led to declining the immune responses; 2) undernutrition is a consequence of immunosenescence and helminthiasis; 3) vaccine efficacy declines in aging and individuals with helminth infections; 4) increase incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases in the elder individuals and patients with helminth infections; and 5) both of them promote tumorigenesis. Hence, it is probable that helminth infections in the elderly population can intensify the immunosenescence outcomes due to the synergistic immunoregulatory effects of each of them. It would be suggested that, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of helminth infections should be more considered in older individuals. Also, it would be suggested that helminths or their antigens can be used for investigation of immunosenescence because both of them possess some similarities in immune alterations. Taken together, this review offers new insights into the immunology of aging and helminth infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Abdoli
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, School of Medicine, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran; Zoonoses Research Center, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran; Research Center for Noncommunicable Diseases, School of Medicine, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran.
| | - Hoda Mirzaian Ardakani
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
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Kaneshiro Y, Sourinphoumy K, Imaizumi N, Rasaphon M, Kuba-Miyara M, Sakihama S, Guerrero CLH, Nhativong K, Nonaka D, Pongvongsa T, Kobayashi J, Kounnavong S, Fukushima T. Intestinal helminth infections in HIV-infected patients in Savannakhet after establishment of an HIV registration network in Lao People's Democratic Republic. Trop Med Health 2019; 47:14. [PMID: 30804703 PMCID: PMC6371529 DOI: 10.1186/s41182-019-0142-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 01/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR), which borders China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar, the number of HIV-infected patients has increased in recent years. HIV-infected patients diagnosed in Lao PDR are enrolled in a registration network and receive antiretroviral therapy (ART) covered by governmental financial support. Based on the registration network, we investigated intestinal helminth infections and coinfection with HTLV-1 in HIV-infected patients treated with an early intervention using ART in Lao PDR. Methods This cross-sectional study of all 252 HIV-infected patients at Savannakhet Provincial Hospital, located in the southern part of Lao PDR, was conducted between February and March 2018. Socioepidemiological information and clinical information were collected from a registration network database and by questionnaire administered to participants. Microscopic examination of intestinal helminth infections in stool samples and particle agglutination for anti-HTLV-1 antibody in plasma were performed. Results The median age of all 252 participants was 39 years old (range, 18–59). Based on the registration network database, there were 156 (61.9%) HIV-infected patients with a CD4-positive cell count ≥ 200 cells/μL and 146 (57.9%) with an HIV viral load < 250 copies/mL. Among 212 stool samples, 75 (35.4%) were found to contain one or more intestinal helminth species, including Opisthorchis viverrini (16.5%), Strongyloides stercoralis (10.8%), hookworm (10.4%), and Taenia saginata (3.3%). This rate of intestinal helminth infections was lower than that of a previous report conducted before the establishment of the registration network for HIV-infected patients in Lao PDR. There was no significant association between intestinal helminth infections and a lower CD4-positive T cell count or higher HIV viral load. HIV-infected patients with anti-HTLV-1 antibody positivity were not found in this cohort. Conclusion The registration network and an early intervention using ART may provide good medical care and improve the clinical course of HIV-infected patients in Lao PDR. However, the incidence of intestinal helminth infections remains high at 35.4%. The development of a specific medical care system for helminth infection for HIV-infected patients is necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukako Kaneshiro
- 1Laboratory of Hematoimmunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | | | - Naoki Imaizumi
- 3Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Mangkhalar Rasaphon
- Savannakhet Provincial Hospital, Savannakhet, Lao People's Democratic Republic
| | - Megumi Kuba-Miyara
- 1Laboratory of Hematoimmunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Shugo Sakihama
- 4Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Carmina Louise Hugo Guerrero
- 1Laboratory of Hematoimmunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Ketsaphone Nhativong
- Savannakhet Provincial Health Department, Savannakhet, Lao People's Democratic Republic
| | - Daisuke Nonaka
- 6Department of Global Health, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Tiengkham Pongvongsa
- Savannakhet Provincial Health Department, Savannakhet, Lao People's Democratic Republic
| | - Jun Kobayashi
- 6Department of Global Health, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
| | - Sengchanh Kounnavong
- 7National Institute of Public Health, Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic
| | - Takuya Fukushima
- 1Laboratory of Hematoimmunology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa Japan
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Oliveira SMD, Gomides APM, Mota LMHD, Lima CMBL, Rocha FAC. Intestinal parasites infection: protective effect in rheumatoid arthritis? Rev Bras Reumatol Engl Ed 2017; 57:461-465. [PMID: 29037316 DOI: 10.1016/j.rbre.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune inflammatory disease, with a progressive course, characterized by chronic synovitis that may evolve with deformities and functional disability, and whose early treatment minimizes joint damage. Its etiopathogenesis is not fully elucidated but comprises immunologic responses mediated by T helper cells (Th1). An apparent minor severity of RA in patients from regions with lower income could be associated with a higher prevalence of gut parasites, especially helminths. Strictly, a shift in the immune response toward the predominance of T helper cells (Th2), due to the chronic exposure to helminths, could modulate negatively the inflammation in RA patients, resulting in lower severity/joint injury. The interaction between the immunological responses of parasitic helminths in rheumatoid arthritis patients is the purpose of this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lícia Maria Henrique da Mota
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Faculdade de Medicina, Brasília, DF, Brazil; Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Programa de Pós-Graduação, Faculdade de Medicina, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Caliandra Maria Bezerra Luna Lima
- Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), João Pessoa, PB, Brazil; Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), Programa de Pós-Graduação Interdisciplinar em Modelos de Decisão e Saúde, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
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Orjales I, Mezo M, Miranda M, González-Warleta M, Rey-Crespo F, Vaarst M, Thamsborg S, Diéguez FJ, Castro-Hermida JA, López-Alonso M. Helminth infections on organic dairy farms in Spain. Vet Parasitol 2017; 243:115-8. [PMID: 28807278 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence of the major helminth infections affecting organic dairy cattle in northern Spain. Milk and faecal samples were obtained from 443 milking cows. Ostertagia ostertargi and Fasciola hepatica exposure was assessed by detection of specific antibodies in milk samples and F. hepatica infection was diagnosed by the detection of coproantigens in faecal samples. Dictyocaulus viviparus and Calicophoron daubneyi infections were diagnosed by conventional coprological techniques. The prevalence of infections caused by F. hepatica was considerable low, but similar to data reported from conventional farming in the same area. The prevalence rate of C. daubneyi infection was higher than previous data mirroring an increase of the prevalence that was also reported in other European countries in recent years. Specific antibodies against O. ostertargi were detected in all herds and the median levels of antibodies, determined by ELISA, exceeded the thresholds indicating milk production losses. The prevalence of D. viviparus was almost negligible. For each parasite, an ordinal logistic-regression analysis was used to assess the risk of infection by taking into account the administration of effective anthelmintics and the number of lactations. Treatment of cows with fasciolicides decreased the risk of F. hepatica infection in multiparous cows, whereas treatment with oxiclozanide or albendazol did not decrease the risk of C. daubneyi infection or O. ostertargi exposure, respectively. The study findings demonstrate that helminth infection in organic dairy farming is similar or even lower than previous data reported from conventional farming. Special attention should be paid to the impact of these infections on milk production.
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Abstract
Introduction: Helminth infection has a profound effect on the immune system. However, the precise nature of the immune changes that are elicited by helminth infection have not been sufficiently characterized. Furthermore, the reversibility of these changes after treatment has not been documented sufficiently. We studied the immune profiles of Ethiopian immigrants to Israel at baseline, that is on arrival and at one-year follow-up and compared individuals who received antihelminth treatment during the study period with those who missed the treatment. Methods: A longitudinal follow up study involving different groups of subjects was conducted. Baseline data was recorded from the newly arrived Ethiopian immigrants for a series of peripheral blood tests, including: IgE and Eosinophil levels, T-cell populations, T-cell receptor phenotypes, and cytokine measurement. These tests were all repeated after a 1-year interval. Results were compared between the newly arrived Ethiopian immigrants (NEW-Eth-Il), long term Ethiopian immigrants (LT-Eth-Il), and non Ethiopian Israeli controls (NON-Imm-Il). Results: Of the 184 individuals, 111 were NEW-Eth-Il, who had a high prevalence of helminth infection, the immunological changes were elevated IgE levels and eosinophil counts, decreased CD4/CD8 ratio, increased proportion of HLA-DR+CD3+, HLA-DR+CD4+ and HLA-DR+CD8+ cells, decreased proportion of CD45RA+CD4+ (naive) and CD28+CD8+ cells, increased proportion of CD45RO+CD4+ (memory) cells, and increased secretion of IL-4 and IL-5 (Th2 type cytokines). In the 42 LT-Eth-Il participants, who all had negative tests for helminth infection, we did not observe these immune changes and their immune profile did not differ markedly from that of the NON-Imm-Il controls. The follow-up immune profiles of 33 NEW-Eth-Il who received succesful antihelminth treatment, showed a significant normalization in the above-mentioned variables that was not observed in the 19 NEW-Eth-Il who missed and did not receive the antihelminth treatment. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that helminth infection is associated with profound immune changes that are normalized within a short time after helminth eradication. They also strengthen the hypothesis that effective antihelminth interventions, in areas endemic for intestinal helminths, may have an impact on AIDS and tuberculosis epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziva Weisman
- Kaplan Medical Center, Ben-Ari Institute of Clinical Immunology and AIDS Center, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Alexander Kalinkovich
- Hebrew University Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel.,Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Miguel Stein
- Hebrew University Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Zalman Greenberg
- Hebrew University Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel.,Public Health Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Gad Borkow
- Kaplan Medical Center, Ben-Ari Institute of Clinical Immunology and AIDS Center, Rehovot, Israel
| | - David Adlerstein
- Kaplan Medical Center, Ben-Ari Institute of Clinical Immunology and AIDS Center, Rehovot, Israel.,Department of Microbiology Immunology and Genetics, Center for Emerging and Tropical Diseases and AIDS, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheba, Israel
| | - Jemal Ali Mahdi
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia.,Department of Microbiology Immunology and Genetics, Center for Emerging and Tropical Diseases and AIDS, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheba, Israel
| | - Zvi Bentwich
- Kaplan Medical Center, Ben-Ari Institute of Clinical Immunology and AIDS Center, Rehovot, Israel.,Department of Microbiology Immunology and Genetics, Center for Emerging and Tropical Diseases and AIDS, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheba, Israel
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Abstract
Today, the nation of Brazil leads the Western Hemisphere in terms of the number of its citizens living with neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). These diseases continue to trap Brazil's "bottom 20 million" in extreme poverty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Hotez
- Sabin Vaccine Institute and Texas Children's Hospital Center for Vaccine Development, Departments of Pediatrics and Molecular Virology and Microbiology, National School of Tropical Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States; Department of Biology, Baylor University, Waco, TX, United States; James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University, Houston, TX, United States.
| | - Ricardo T Fujiwara
- Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Amarasekera M, Gunawardena NK, de Silva NR, Douglass JA, O'Hehir RE, Weerasinghe A. Impact of helminth infection on childhood allergic diseases in an area in transition from high to low infection burden. Asia Pac Allergy 2012; 2:122-8. [PMID: 22701862 PMCID: PMC3345325 DOI: 10.5415/apallergy.2012.2.2.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The effect of helminth infections on allergic diseases is still inconclusive. Furthermore, the effect of helminth infections on childhood allergic diseases in a tropical area where prevalence of helminth infections has undergone dramatic changes is not well documented. Objective To investigate the relationship between allergic diseases and helminth infection in a cohort of schoolchildren in an area that has undergone dramatic changes in intensity of helminth infections. Methods Children attending grade 5 were recruited from 17 schools in Western Province of Sri Lanka. They were assessed for allergic diseases using the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood questionnaire. Their serum total IgE (tIgE) and allergen-specific IgE (sIgE) for five common aeroallergens were measured by ImmunoCAP® method and stools were examined for the presence of helminth infections. Results A total of 640 children (mean age 10 years) were recruited to the study. Of them, 33.7% had evidence of allergic disease and 15.5% had helminth infections. Majority of infections (68.9%) were of low intensity. A significant relationship between allergic disease and helminth infections was not observed, however, a trend toward protective role of helminth infections against allergic diseases was noted. Multivariate analysis showed helminth infections to be an independent predictor of high tIgE levels whereas allergic disease was not. Allergic sensitization (atopy) was a significant risk factor for allergic disease only among non-infected children (odds ratio 3.025, p = 0.022) but not in infected children. The ratio of sIgE to tIgE was higher in non-infected children. Conclusion Though not significant, a reduced risk of allergy in helminth-infected children was observed in this population. A Decrease in intensity of helminth infections may have contributed to the reduced capacity of immune-modulation by helminths in this paediatric population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manori Amarasekera
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Ragama 11010, Sri Lanka
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Eslami A, Ranjbar-Bahadori S, Meshgi B, Dehghan M, Bokaie S. Helminth infections of stray dogs from garmsar, semnan province, central iran. Iran J Parasitol 2010; 5:37-41. [PMID: 22347264 PMCID: PMC3279852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim was to study the gastro-intestinal helminths of stray dogs of Garmsar, Semnan Province, Central Iran, and its impacts on human health and animal production. METHODS During 2006, the alimentary tracts of 50 stray dogs at necropsy, selected from villages around Garmsar, were removed, and examined for helminth infections. Subsequently helminths were collected from the contents of each part and scraped sample of small intestines of washed materials in a 100-mesh sieve. To identify the species of helminths, the nematodes were cleared in lactophenol and cestodes were stained using carmine acid. RESULTS Mixed infection was the rule and 40 dogs (80%) harbored more than one species of helminth. Taenia hydatigena was the most prevalent species (80%) followed by Echinococcus granulosus (64%), Toxocara canis (22%), Mesocestoides lineatus (12%), Taenia multiceps (10%) and Dipylidium caninum (4%). The mean intensity of worm infection was low (1-3) except for that of E. granulosus (645). No significant difference was noticed between sex, age and most helminth infections except for that of sex and T. hydatigena (P=0.001) as well as age and T. canis (P=0.001). CONCLUSION Although human infection with T. hydatigena is unlikely, but other helminths reported in this study are of zoonotic importance, and may pose a threat to community health, and reduce the productions of ruminants harboring taeniid metacestodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Eslami
- Department of Parasitology, School of Specialized Sciences of Veterinary Medicine, Researches and Sciences Unit, Islamic Azad University, Hessarak, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sh Ranjbar-Bahadori
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Garmsar Branch, Garmsar, Iran
| | - B Meshgi
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - M Dehghan
- Department of Parasitology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Garmsar Branch, Garmsar, Iran
| | - S Bokaie
- Department of Epidemiology, Tehran Veterinary Faculty, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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