Findings Across Subgroups Regarding the Level of Response to Alcohol as a Risk Factor for Alcohol Use Disorders: A College Population of Women and Latinos

The life and times of endogenous opioid peptides: Updated understanding of synthesis, spatiotemporal dynamics, and the clinical impact in alcohol use disorder

The opioid G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) strongly modulate many of the central nervous system structures that contribute to neurological and psychiatric disorders including pain, major depressive disorder, and substance use disorders. To better treat these and related diseases, it is essential to understand the signaling of their endogenous ligands. In this review, we focus on what is known and unknown about the regulation of the over two dozen endogenous peptides with high affinity for one or more of the opioid receptors. We briefly describe which peptides are produced, with a particular focus on the recently proposed possible synthesis pathways for the endomorphins. Next, we describe examples of endogenous opioid peptide expression organization in several neural circuits and how they appear to be released from specific neural compartments that vary across brain regions. We discuss current knowledge regarding the strength of neural activity required to drive endogenous opioid peptide release, clues about how far peptides diffuse from release sites, and their extracellular lifetime after release. Finally, as a translational example, we discuss the mechanisms of action of naltrexone (NTX), which is used clinically to treat alcohol use disorder. NTX is a synthetic morphine analog that non-specifically antagonizes the action of most endogenous opioid peptides developed in the 1960s and FDA approved in the 1980s. We review recent studies clarifying the precise endogenous activity that NTX prevents. Together, the works described here highlight the challenges and opportunities the complex opioid system presents as a therapeutic target.

Performance of the Self-Report of the Effects of Alcohol Questionnaire Across Sexes and Generations

BACKGROUND

Low level of responses (low LRs) to alcohol established using the Self-Report of the Effects of Alcohol (SRE) questionnaire are genetically influenced phenotypes related to heavy drinking and alcohol problems. To date, most studies using SREs focused on scores for the number of drinks needed for effects across the first 5 times of drinking (SRE-5), and few evaluated scores that also included the prior 3 months and heaviest drinking periods (SRE-T). This paper evaluates characteristics of SRE-5 and SRE-T within and across generations.

METHODS

Data were extracted from 407 participants across 2 generations of 107 families in the San Diego Prospective Study (SDPS). Pearson's product-moment correlations for SRE-5 and SRE-T were determined across first-degree relatives both within and across generations and sexes, as well as correlations of each measure to maximum drinking quantities and alcohol problems.

RESULTS

Responding to 4 hypotheses, first the analyses demonstrated significant within-generation positive correlations for both SRE measures across brother-brother and sister-sister pairs as well as cross-generation correlations for fathers and sons, although correlations for mothers and daughters were not robust. Second, both SRE-5 and SRE-T correlated with maximum drinks and alcohol problems for both sexes and both generations. Third, within parental and offspring generations SRE-T correlated more robustly than SRE-5 to maximum drinks and alcohol problems. Fourth, across generations SRE values for sons were more closely related to drinking quantities and problems than for their fathers, but the mother-daughter SRE relationships to adverse alcohol characteristics were not different.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the SRE-5 and SRE-T offered useful information about propensities toward heavier drinking and alcohol problems in SDPS families. Correlations with adverse alcohol outcomes were greater for the more broad-based SRE-T, but both scores appeared to be genetically influenced and continue to operate in a robust manner in both generations of these families.

Comparison of subjective response to alcohol in Caucasian and Hispanic/Latino samples

Individual differences in subjective response (SR) to alcohol (e.g., stimulation, sedation) are a significant predictor of negative alcohol outcomes. Previous studies have reported ethnic differences in SR (e.g., between some Asian populations and Caucasians), but very few studies have examined SR among Hispanic/Latino individuals. To address this gap in the literature, the present study utilized data from a large-scale, placebo-controlled alcohol administration study to examine differences in SR between Hispanic/Latino and Caucasian individuals. Social drinkers (N = 447) aged 21 to 25 years were randomized to receive either a dose of alcohol targeting a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of .08 g% or placebo. Only non-Hispanic Caucasian participants (n = 234) and Hispanic/Latino participants (n = 87) were utilized in analyses. SR was assessed at baseline, on the ascending limb of the blood alcohol curve, at peak BAC, and on the descending limb. Repeated measures ANCOVA was utilized to examine interactions between beverage condition, ethnicity, and time predicting SR. The interaction between beverage condition, ethnicity, and time was significant only for low-arousal negative SR (negative sedative effects), such that Hispanic/Latino individuals experienced stronger sedative effects under alcohol (vs. placebo) compared with Caucasian individuals. Caucasians and Hispanic/Latinos showed a similar profile of response with respect to positive aspects of SR (e.g., stimulation). In summary, Hispanic/Latino individuals reported stronger negative SR to alcohol compared with Caucasian individuals, which may be protective against alcohol-related problems. However, future studies are needed to investigate why Hispanic/Latino males remain at relatively high risk for alcohol problems despite stronger negative SR relative to Caucasians. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

Short-term selection for high and low ethanol intake yields differential sensitivity to ethanol's motivational effects and anxiety-like responses in adolescent Wistar rats

Alcohol use disorders are modulated by genetic factors, but the identification of specific genes and their concomitant biological changes that are associated with a higher risk for these disorders has proven difficult. Alterations in the sensitivity to the motivational effects of ethanol may be one way by which genes modulate the initiation and escalation of ethanol intake. Rats and mice have been selectively bred for high and low ethanol consumption during adulthood. However, selective breeding programs for ethanol intake have not focused on adolescence. This phase of development is associated with the initiation and escalation of ethanol intake and characterized by an increase in the sensitivity to ethanol's appetitive effects and a decrease in the sensitivity to ethanol's aversive effects compared with adulthood. The present study performed short-term behavioral selection to select rat lines that diverge in the expression of ethanol drinking during adolescence. A progenitor nucleus of Wistar rats (F₀) and filial generation 1 (F₁), F₂, and F₃ adolescent rats were derived from parents that were selected for high (STDRHI) and low (STDRLO) ethanol consumption during adolescence and were tested for ethanol intake and responsivity to ethanol's motivational effects. STDRHI rats exhibited significantly greater ethanol intake and preference than STDRLO rats. Compared with STDRLO rats, STDRHI F₂ and F₃ rats exhibited a blunted response to ethanol in the conditioned taste aversion test. F₂ and F₃ STDRHI rats but not STDRLO rats exhibited ethanol-induced motor stimulation. STDRHI rats exhibited avoidance of the white compartment of the light-dark box, a reduction of locomotion, and a reduction of saccharin consumption, suggesting an anxiety-prone phenotype. The results suggest that the genetic risk for enhanced ethanol intake during adolescence is associated with lower sensitivity to the aversive effects of ethanol, heightened reactivity to ethanol's stimulating effects, and enhanced innate anxiety.

I Believe I Can Fly!: Use of Drosophila as a Model Organism in Neuropsychopharmacology Research

Neuropsychiatric disorders are of complex etiology, often including a large genetic component. In order to help identify and study the molecular and physiological mechanisms that such genes participate in, numerous animal models have been established in a variety of species. Over the past decade, this has increasingly included the vinegar fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Here, we outline why we study an invertebrate organism in the context of neuropsychiatric disorders, and we discuss how we can gain insight from studies in Drosophila. We focus on a few disorders and findings to make the larger point that modeling these diseases in flies can have both mechanistic and predictive validity. Highlighting some translational examples, we underline the fact that their brains works more like ours than one would have anticipated.

Emergence of sex differences in the development of substance use and abuse during adolescence

Substance use and abuse begin during adolescence. Male and female adolescent humans initiate use at comparable rates, but males increase use faster. In adulthood, more men than women use and abuse addictive drugs. However, some women progress more rapidly from initiation of use to entry into treatment. In animal models, adolescent males and females consume addictive drugs similarly. However, reproductively mature females acquire self-administration faster, and in some models, escalate use more. Sex/gender differences exist in neurobiologic factors mediating both reinforcement (dopamine, opioids) and aversiveness (CRF, dynorphin), as well as intrinsic factors (personality, psychiatric co-morbidities) and extrinsic factors (history of abuse, environment especially peers and family) which influence the progression from initial use to abuse. Many of these important differences emerge during adolescence, and are moderated by sexual differentiation of the brain. Estradiol effects which enhance both dopaminergic and CRF-mediated processes contribute to the female vulnerability to substance use and abuse. Testosterone enhances impulsivity and sensation seeking in both males and females. Several protective factors in females also influence initiation and progression of substance use including hormonal changes of pregnancy as well as greater capacity for self-regulation and lower peak levels of impulsivity/sensation seeking. Same sex peers represent a risk factor more for males than females during adolescence, while romantic partners increase risk for women during this developmental epoch. In summary, biologic factors, psychiatric co-morbidities as well as personality and environment present sex/gender-specific risks as adolescents begin to initiate substance use.

mGluR1 within the nucleus accumbens regulates alcohol intake in mice under limited-access conditions

Idiopathic or alcohol-induced increases in the expression and function of the Group1 metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 1 (mGluR1) within the extended amygdala are theorized to contribute to an individual's propensity to consume excessive amounts of alcohol. In the past, the detailed study of the functional relevance of mGluR1 for alcoholism-related behaviors in animal models was hampered by the poor solubility and non-specific side effects of available inhibitors; however, the advent of the highly potent and soluble mGluR1 negative allosteric modulator JNJ-16259685 [(3,4-Dihydro-2H-pyrano[2,3-b]quinolin-7-yl)-(cis-4-methoxycyclohexyl)-methanone] has instigated a re-examination of the role for this mGluR subtype in mediating the behavioral effects of alcohol. In this regard, systemic pretreatment with JNJ-16259685 was proven effective at reducing alcohol reinforcement and motivation for the drug. mGluR1 is a Gαq/o-coupled receptor, the stimulation of which activates phospholipase C (PLC). Thus, the present study investigated potential neuroanatomical substrates and intracellular molecules involved in the ability of JNJ-16259685 to reduce alcohol intake. JNJ-16259685 (0-30 pg/side) was infused into the shell subregion of the nucleus accumbens (NAC) of C57BL/6J and Homer2 knock-out (KO) mice, either alone or in combination with the PLC inhibitor U-73122 (5.8 fg/side). Alcohol intake was then assessed under Drinking-in-the-Dark (DID) procedures. Intra-NAC JNJ-16259685 infusion dose-dependently reduced alcohol consumption by C57BL/6J mice; this effect was not additive with that produced by U-73122, nor was it present in Homer2 KO animals. These data provide novel evidence in support of a critical role for mGluR1-PLC signaling, scaffolded by Homer2, within the NAC shell, in maintaining alcohol consumption under limited access procedures. Such findings have relevance for both the pharmacotherapeutics and pharmacogenetics of risky alcohol drinking and alcoholism.

Acute alcohol response phenotype in heavy social drinkers is robust and reproducible

BACKGROUND

In 3 previously published works (Brumback et al., 2007, Drug Alcohol Depend 91:10-17; King et al., 2011a, Arch Gen Psychiatry 68:389-399; Roche and King, 2010, Psychopharmacology (Berl) 212:33-44), our group characterized acute alcohol responses in a large group of young, heavy binge drinkers (n = 104) across a variety of subjective, eye-tracking, and psychometric performance measures.

METHODS

The primary goal of the current study was to directly replicate prior findings of alcohol response in heavy social drinkers (HD) in a second independent cohort (n = 104) using identical methodology. A secondary goal was to examine the effects of family history (FH) of alcohol use disorders (AUD) on acute alcohol response in both samples. Participants attended 2 randomized laboratory sessions in which they consumed 0.8 g/kg alcohol or a taste-masked placebo. At pre- and post-drink time points, participants completed subjective scales, psychomotor performance and eye-movement tasks, and provided salivary samples for cortisol determination.

RESULTS

Results showed that the second cohort of heavy drinkers exhibited a nearly identical pattern of alcohol responses to the original cohort, including sensitivity to alcohol's stimulating and hedonically rewarding effects during the rising breath alcohol content (BrAC) limb, increases in sedation during the declining BrAC limb, a lack of cortisol response, and psychomotor and eye-tracking impairment that was most evident at peak BrAC. The magnitude and temporal pattern of these acute effects of alcohol in the second cohort were similar to the first cohort across all measures, with the exception of 3 eye-movement measures: pro- and antisaccade accuracy and antisaccade velocity. FH of AUD did not affect alcohol response in the first cohort, and this was replicated in the second cohort.

CONCLUSIONS

In sum, in 2 independent samples, we have demonstrated that HD display a consistent and reliable sensitivity to alcohol's subjective effects and impairment of eye-tracking and psychomotor performance, which is not affected by FH status. This acute alcohol response phenotype in heavy, frequent binge drinkers appears to be robust and reproducible.

Differences in acute response to alcohol between African Americans and European Americans

BACKGROUND

Response to alcohol is a widely studied risk factor and potential endophenotype for alcohol use disorders. Research on African American response to alcohol has been limited despite large differences in alcohol use between African Americans and European Americans. Extending our previous work on the African American portion of this sample, the current study examined differences in acute subjective response to alcohol between African Americans and European Americans. Additionally, we tested whether the association between response to alcohol and past month drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems differed across race.

METHODS

One hundred and seventy-eight participants (mean age = 21.87, SD = 1.23; 57% African American) who were moderate to heavy social drinkers completed an alcohol administration study in a laboratory setting, receiving a moderate dose of alcohol (0.72 g/kg alcohol for men, 0.65 g/kg for women). Acute alcohol response was measured at 8 time points (i.e., baseline, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, and 150 minutes).

RESULTS

Latent growth curve models showed that African Americans experienced sharper increases in stimulation on the ascending limb compared to European Americans. African American women experienced sharper increases in sedation on the ascending limb compared to European American women. Change in sedation on the ascending limb was associated with past month drinking behavior. Stimulation on the ascending limb was related to alcohol problems for African Americans but not European Americans.

CONCLUSIONS

We found differences in response to alcohol across racial groups: African Americans showed a stronger response to alcohol. Future studies are needed to incorporate response to alcohol into a larger model of African American alcohol use.

Chronic voluntary alcohol consumption results in tolerance to sedative/hypnotic and hypothermic effects of alcohol in hybrid mice

The continuous two-bottle choice test is the most common measure of alcohol consumption but there is remarkably little information about the development of tolerance or dependence with this procedure. We showed that C57BL/6J × FVB/NJ and FVB/NJ×C57BL/6JF1 hybrid mice demonstrate greater preference for and consumption of alcohol than either parental strain. In order to test the ability of this genetic model of high alcohol consumption to produce neuroadaptation, we examined development of alcohol tolerance and dependence after chronic self-administration using a continuous access two-bottle choice paradigm. Ethanol-experienced mice stably consumed about 16-18 g/kg/day of ethanol. Ethanol-induced withdrawal severity was assessed (after 59 days of drinking) by scoring handling-induced convulsions; withdrawal severity was minimal and did not differ between ethanol-experienced and -naïve mice. After 71 days of drinking, the rate of ethanol clearance was similar for ethanol-experienced and -naïve mice. After 77 days of drinking, ethanol-induced loss of righting reflex (LORR) was tested daily for 5 days. Ethanol-experienced mice had a shorter duration of LORR. For both ethanol-experienced and -naïve mice, blood ethanol concentrations taken at gain of righting reflex were greater on day 5 than on day 1, indicative of tolerance. After 98 days of drinking, ethanol-induced hypothermia was assessed daily for 3 days. Both ethanol-experienced and -naïve mice developed rapid and chronic tolerance to ethanol-induced hypothermia, with significant group differences on the first day of testing. In summary, chronic, high levels of alcohol consumption in F1 hybrid mice produced rapid and chronic tolerance to both the sedative/hypnotic and hypothermic effects of ethanol; additionally, a small degree of metabolic tolerance developed. The development of tolerance supports the validity of using this model of high alcohol consumption in genetic studies of alcoholism.

Chronic self-administration of alcohol results in elevated ΔFosB: comparison of hybrid mice with distinct drinking patterns

Background

The inability to reduce or regulate alcohol intake is a hallmark symptom for alcohol use disorders. Research on novel behavioral and genetic models of experience-induced changes in drinking will further our knowledge on alcohol use disorders. Distinct alcohol self-administration behaviors were previously observed when comparing two F1 hybrid strains of mice: C57BL/6J x NZB/B1NJ (BxN) show reduced alcohol preference after experience with high concentrations of alcohol and periods of abstinence while C57BL/6J x FVB/NJ (BxF) show sustained alcohol preference. These phenotypes are interesting because these hybrids demonstrate the occurrence of genetic additivity (BxN) and overdominance (BxF) in ethanol intake in an experience dependent manner. Specifically, BxF exhibit sustained alcohol preference and BxN exhibit reduced alcohol preference after experience with high ethanol concentrations; however, experience with low ethanol concentrations produce sustained alcohol preference for both hybrids. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that these phenotypes are represented by differential production of the inducible transcription factor, ΔFosB, in reward, aversion, and stress related brain regions.

Results

Changes in neuronal plasticity (as measured by ΔFosB levels) were experience dependent, as well as brain region and genotype specific, further supporting that neuronal circuitry underlies motivational aspects of ethanol consumption. BxN mice exhibiting reduced alcohol preference had lower ΔFosB levels in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus than mice exhibiting sustained alcohol preference, and increased ΔFosB levels in central medial amygdala as compared with control mice. BxN mice showing sustained alcohol preference exhibited higher ΔFosB levels in the ventral tegmental area, Edinger-Westphal nucleus, and amygdala (central and lateral divisions). Moreover, in BxN mice ΔFosB levels in the Edinger-Westphal nucleus and ventral tegmental regions significantly positively correlated with ethanol preference and intake. Additionally, hierarchical clustering analysis revealed that many ethanol-naïve mice with overall low ΔFosB levels are in a cluster, whereas many mice displaying sustained alcohol preference with overall high ΔFosB levels are in a cluster together.

Conclusions

By comparing and contrasting two alcohol phenotypes, this study demonstrates that the reward- and stress-related circuits (including the Edinger-Westphal nucleus, ventral tegmental area, amygdala) undergo significant plasticity that manifests as reduced alcohol preference.

Early environmental factors differentially affect voluntary ethanol consumption in adolescent and adult male rats

BACKGROUND

Previous studies using the maternal separation (MS) model have shown that environmental factors early in life affect adult ethanol consumption. Prolonged MS is related to enhanced propensity for high adult ethanol intake when compared to short MS. Less is known about the environmental impact on adolescent ethanol intake. In this study, the aim was to compare establishment of voluntary ethanol consumption in adolescent and adult rats subjected to different rearing conditions.

METHODS

Wistar rat pups were separated from their mother 0 minutes (MS0), 15 minutes (MS15), or 360 minutes (MS360) daily during postnatal days (PNDs) 1 to 20. After weaning, the male rats were divided into two groups; rats were given free access to water, 5 and 20% ethanol at either PND 26 or 68. Ethanol was provided in 24-hour sessions three times per week for 5 weeks.

RESULTS

MS resulted in altered ethanol consumption patterns around the pubertal period but otherwise the rearing conditions had little impact on ethanol consumption in adolescents. In adults, the establishment of ethanol consumption was dependent on the rearing condition. The adult MS0 and MS15 rats had a stable ethanol intake, whereas the MS360 rats increased both their ethanol intake and preference over time.

CONCLUSIONS

With the use of intermittent access to ethanol, new data were provided, which confirm the notion that MS360 represents a risk environment related to higher ethanol intake compared to MS15. The adolescent rats had higher ethanol intake than adult rats but the consumption was independent of rearing condition. Experiences during the first three postnatal weeks thus affect the establishment of voluntary ethanol consumption differently in adolescent and adult rats. Further studies are now warranted to examine the consequences of a combination of early environmental influence and high adolescent ethanol intake.

An examination of subjective response to alcohol in African Americans

OBJECTIVE

Alcohol response is a widely studied risk factor for heavy drinking behavior and alcohol-use disorders. This study examined acute subjective response to alcohol as a predictor of drinking behavior, alcohol-related problems, and family history of alcoholism in African Americans. The convergent validity of self-reported response to alcohol (Self-Rating of the Effects of Alcohol scale [SRE]) in an African-American sample was also examined.

METHOD

One hundred and three African-American young adults participated in an alcohol-challenge study, receiving a moderate dose of alcohol (0.72 g/kg alcohol for men, 0.65 g/kg for women). Breath alcohol concentration and subjective response to alcohol were assessed before beverage consumption, in 15-minute intervals for the first hour following consumption, and in 30-minute intervals thereafter.

RESULTS

Latent variable growth models indicated that experiencing increased acute stimulation from alcohol was related to past-month drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems. Regression analyses indicated that the SRE was related to drinking behavior, alcohol-related problems, having an alcohol-use disorder, and a family history of alcoholism. The SRE was not related to either sedation or stimulation following alcohol administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Results support alcohol response as a marker of risk for increased drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems in African Americans. Further research is required to directly compare African-American and white response to alcohol within an alcohol-challenge paradigm.

Puberty, hormones, and sex differences in alcohol abuse and dependence

Sex differences in patterns of drinking and rates of alcohol abuse and dependence begin to emerge during the transition from late puberty to young adulthood. Increases in pubertal hormones, including gonadal and stress hormones, are a prominent developmental feature of adolescence and could contribute to the progression of sex differences in alcohol drinking patterns during puberty. This paper reviews experimental and correlational studies of gonadal and stress-related hormone changes and their effects on alcohol drinking and other associated actions of alcohol. Mechanisms are suggested by which reproductive hormones and stress-related hormones may modulate neural circuits within the brain reward system to produce sex differences in alcohol drinking patterns and vulnerability to alcohol abuse and dependence which become apparent during the late pubertal period.

Autosomal linkage analysis for the level of response to alcohol

BACKGROUND

The level of response (LR) to alcohol is a genetically-influenced phenotype related to the alcoholism risk. Usually measured by evaluating psychological and physiological changes that follow the administration of alcohol, the heritability of LR is estimated to be between 0.4 and 0.6, and efforts are being made to find genes related to this phenotype. This paper presents data from a family-based genome with linkage analysis focusing on alcohol challenge determinants of LR.

METHODS

The subjects were 18-to-29-year-old sibling pairs with at least one parent who was alcohol-dependent and who had experience with alcohol but were not yet alcohol-dependent themselves. Both members of the sibling pairs were given oral alcohol challenges (0.75-0.90 ml/kg of ethanol for females and males, respectively), with LR established using the Subjective High Assessment Scale (SHAS) and changes in body sway (BS) repeatedly over a 3.5-hr. period. Blood samples from siblings and at least one parent were genotyped using 811 microsatellite markers, with results evaluated using several related variance component approaches as implemented in SOLAR for continuous traits. In addition, association was tested using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the KCNMA1, HTR7 and SLC18A2 genes that may relate to a finding on chromosome 10.

RESULTS

Data were generated from 238 sib-pairs representing 365 individuals (41.6% were males) from 165 families. The most consistent results across methods and samples were observed for SHAS on chromosome 10 between 120 and 140 cM (with a maximum LOD score of 2.6 at 122 cM), and a second region of possible interest at 173 cM (LOD = 1.2). Statistical analysis with the KCNMA1, HTR7 and SLC18A2 genes, which lie in the support region of interest revealed no evidence for association after correction for multiple comparisons.

CONCLUSIONS

These evaluations from the largest known alcohol challenge-based genetic study to date highlight the potential importance of genes on chromosome 10 as possible contributors to the low LR to alcohol as a risk factor for alcoholism.

The level of response to alcohol in daughters of alcoholics and controls

BACKGROUND

The low level of response (LR) to alcohol is a genetically influenced characteristic related to the development of alcohol use disorders (AUDs). This phenotype is found in men with a family history (FH) of alcoholism, predicts future AUDs, and has heritabilities as high as 60%. However, despite evidence of genetic influences for AUDs in both sexes, the majority of studies evaluating differences in LR across high- and low-risk groups have been conducted on males, and it is unclear how generalizable these results are to women.

METHODS

Twenty-five women who are family history positive (FHP) for alcohol dependence were matched with 25 women with no FH of alcoholism (FHN) on factors that may impact LR. Using an alcohol challenge paradigm, data on the reaction to a moderate dose of alcohol were gathered over a period of 3.5 h. Assessments included breath alcohol concentrations (BrACs), the Subjective High Assessment Scale (SHAS), as well as body sway or static ataxia.

RESULTS

Family history positives reported lower subjective intoxication than FHNs. In addition, when body sway scores were corrected for skewness, FHPs had significantly lower scores on alcohol-related changes in lateral sway. These differences remained after considering the effects of drinking history and BrAC values.

CONCLUSIONS

This study evaluated the LR to alcohol in the largest sample of alcohol challenges in matched FHP and FHN women to date. Overall, the findings are consistent with most data from earlier investigations of smaller sized samples of FHP women. The results suggest that, similar to sons of alcoholics, a low LR to alcohol might also be characteristic of daughters of alcoholics.

CHANGES OVER TIME IN THE SELF-REPORTED LEVEL OF RESPONSE TO ALCOHOL

AIMS

A low level of response to alcohol, or the need for a higher number of drinks for an effect, is a risk factor for alcohol use disorders. The response to alcohol is usually measured in young subjects, and changes in this phenomenon over time have rarely been evaluated. Reports that, overall, individuals are likely to become more reactive to alcohol with advancing age led to the current evaluation to determine whether the number of drinks needed for an effect decreased between the teens and age 40 in a group of men.

METHODS

Data were available from the 20-year follow-up of 202 men who had originally been chosen at age 20 as nonalcoholic subjects from families at high and low risk for alcoholism. The number of drinks required for effects was determined through the Self-Report of the Effects of Alcohol questionnaire (SRE) regarding their recollection of their intensity of reaction early in their drinking careers, as well as reports regarding the recent (e.g. prior 3 month) response to alcohol at the 15- and 20-year follow-ups.

RESULTS

Overall, there was a slight decrease in the drinks required for effects (SRE scores) across the three time points which became significant when recent drinking and depressant medication use were evaluated as covariates. When nonalcoholic or light-drinking subjects were evaluated separately, the decrease in the number of drinks needed for effects was more prominent. Among heavier drinkers, there was an increase in the number of drinks required for effects over time. The findings were generally similar for men with and without alcoholic relatives.

CONCLUSIONS

The development of a more intense reaction to alcohol, or the need for fewer drinks for an effect, with advancing age may only be relevant to lighter drinkers. Among heavier drinkers, the finding that a higher number of drinks are required for effects may be relatively stable over time.