Pelvic fractures in children: an exploration of practice patterns and patient outcomes

Paediatric pelvic fractures - an updated literature review

BACKGROUND

Pelvic fractures in children are indicative of significant trauma. Patients will often have associated injuries - some of which require urgent intervention to prevent death and disability. Paediatric and adult pelvises respond to traumatic forces differently and distinct approaches are required for each population. Historically, pelvic fractures have been treated conservatively, but this trend is changing with a better understanding of the pelvis' inability to remodel significant deformity, as well as new techniques for operative fixation.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of the literature was conducted for articles published between 2000 and 2020 on paediatric pelvic fractures using medical databases including PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Library.

RESULTS

We included 143 studies in our literature review and summarized the incidence, pathophysiology, assessment, management and complications associated with paediatric pelvic fractures.

CONCLUSIONS

The rarity of paediatric pelvic fractures corresponds with a paucity of randomized clinical trials covering this topic. Trends such as the screening pelvic x-ray are derived from adult populations but are now questioned in children. Other aspects of assessment and management of these children warrant such levels of scrutiny.

Clinical characteristics, injury pattern and management of pediatric pelvic fracture: An observational retrospective study from a level I trauma center

Background

Pediatric pelvic fractures (PPF) are uncommon among children requiring hospitalization after blunt trauma. The present study explored our experience for the prevalence, patients demographics, clinical characteristics, injury pattern and management of pediatric pelvic fractures in a level I trauma center.

Methods

This is a retrospective review of prospectively collected data obtained from trauma registry database for all pediatrics trauma patients of age ≤18 years. Data were analyzed according to different aspects relevant to the clinical applications such as Torode classification for pelvic ring fracture (Type I–IV), open versus closed triradiate cartilage, and surgical versus non-surgical management.

Results

During the study period (3 and half years), a total of 119 PPF cases were admitted at the trauma center (11% of total pediatric admissions); the majority had pelvic ring fractures (91.6%) and 8.4% had an acetabular fracture. The mean age of patients was 11.5 ± 5.7, and the majority were males (78.2%). One hundred and four fractures were classified as type I (5.8%), type II (13.5%), type III (68.3%) and type IV (12.5%). Patients in the surgical group were more likely to have higher pelvis AIS (p = 0.001), type IV fractures, acetabular fractures and closed triradiate cartilage as compared to the conservative group. Type III fractures and open triradiate cartilage were significantly higher in the conservative group (p < 0.05). Patients with closed triradiate cartilage frequently sustained spine, head injuries, acetabular fracture and had higher mean ISS and pelvis AIS (p < 0.01) than the open group. However, the rate of in-hospital complications and mortality were comparable among different groups. The overall mortality rate was 2.5%.

Conclusion

PPF are uncommon and mainly caused by high-impact trauma associated with multisystem injuries. The majority of PPF are stable, despite the underlying high-energy mechanism. Management of PPF depends on the severity of fracture as patients with higher grade fractures require surgical intervention. Furthermore, larger prospective study is needed to understand the age-related pattern and management of PPF.

Pediatric Pelvic Fractures and Differences Compared With the Adult Population

INTRODUCTION

Although pelvic fractures in children are rare, because of anatomical differences between an adult's skeleton and a child's skeleton, these lesions in the pediatric population have specific characteristics that need to be borne in mind when dealing with them.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective chart review was performed on the pelvic fractures in skeletally immature patients treated in our hospital in the last 20 years.

RESULTS

Eighty-one pelvic fractures in children were treated between 1993 and 2013. The mean age was 9.98 years, with 61.7%(50/81) boys and 38.2% (31/81) girls. A traffic accident was the main injury mechanism (74%, 60/81), and height fall was in second place (16%, 13/81). Following Tile pelvic fracture classification, type A2 was the most frequent (58.04%, 47/81); and following Torode and Zieg classification, type IIIA (45.68%, 37/81).Associated injuries were present in 77.8% (63/81) of the patients; fractures of other bones and head trauma were the most frequent. An acetabular fracture was present in 13.5% (11/81) of the patients.Nonsurgical treatment was chosen for all the pelvic fractures except in 4 patients, which required surgical management for their pelvic injuries. Blood transfusion was required in 32% (26/81) of the patients, and arterial embolization was not needed in any case. Furthermore, 11.1% (9/81) required a stay in the pediatric care unit, and the death rate was 8.64% (7/81).The mean length of hospital stay was 12.4 days.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of the specific characteristics of pelvic fractures in children, fracture patterns are less severe than those of adults, but the injury mechanisms are high-energy traumas. The rate of associated injuries is very high, and a multidisciplinary management in pediatric trauma centers is needed to treat these patients.

Pelvic fractures in children (pelvic ring and acetabulum)

Pelvic fractures in children are rare and often the result of high-energy trauma. The possibility of associated lesions cannot be ignored. Treatment at a specialized children's hospital is a must. The multidisciplinary care team must include a paediatric orthopaedic surgeon. In the emergency room, the surgeon contributes to haemodynamic stabilization of the child by reducing and stabilizing posterior arch fractures and restoring the skeletal cohesion to make it easier to move the child and allow other examinations to be performed. Imaging modalities are used to determine the stability of the pelvic ring fracture, the risk of epiphysiodesis of an acetabulum fracture if the triradiate cartilage is open and the joint congruency if the triradiate cartilage is closed. Internal fixation can be used if surgery is being performed for associated non-orthopaedic injuries. Most vertically stable fractures are treated non-surgically. Fractures that are unstable vertically will require surgical treatment. Treatment of acetabulum fractures depends on the status of the triradiate cartilage. In older children, it is similar to the treatments used in adults. In children with open growth plates, the goal is to make sure the acetabulum continues growing. In all cases, the patients must be instructed to start physical therapy as soon as possible. Full recovery can be expected after stable pelvic fractures. Unstable pelvic fractures can lead to sequelae, the severity of which depend on the residual pelvic displacement and involvement of the growth plates that can cause epiphysiodesis. Surgery to correct these deformities is challenging. The most serious occur when the vertical displacement of the hemipelvis must be corrected. After an acetabulum fracture, removal of the growth blocker can be done in children under 10 years of age. In older children, acetabular dysplasia requires periacetabular osteotomy.

A Dedicated Fracture Reduction Room: A Cost-Effective Alternative to the Operating Room

INTRODUCTION

Charges, procedural efficiency, return to activity, and complications after closed treatment of fractures performed in an operating room (OR) versus closed reduction in a dedicated fracture reduction room (FRR) were compared.

METHODS

Patients with closed fractures of the forearm who underwent closed reduction in the year before (OR), and after implementation of the FRR, were retrospectively reviewed. Charges, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, sex, age, length of follow-up, prior reduction, fracture location/displacement, time from injury to procedure, procedural time, time to return to activity, and complications were recorded.

RESULTS

Eighteen patients met the inclusion criteria in the FRR group (13 men, 5 women), and 22 in the OR group (18 men, 4 women). No notable differences in age, sex, follow-up, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, fracture location/displacement, incidence of prior reduction, or time to return to activity were observed. Two (9.5%) complications occurred in the FRR group versus 7 (32%) in the OR group, P > 0.05. No anesthesia complications were present. Patients treated in the FRR incurred charges of $5,299 ± $1,289 versus $10,455 ± $2,290 in the OR, P < 0.001. Total time of visit in the FRR was ∼30% less than the OR, P < 0.001. No notable delay in treatment was observed.

DISCUSSION

In the era of finite resources and value-based care, implementation of a FRR resulted in safe, cost-effective, and increased procedural efficiency.

Pelvic fracture of the sacroiliac joint region in a child - a case study and literature review

The aim of the paper is to present the case of a 3-year-old boy with an unaligned fracture of the sacroiliac joint region to propose a minimally invasive method of fracture fixation without using metal implants and to review the literature addressing this injury, which is uncommon in children. The patient was hit by a car; he suffered a fracture of the iliac ala with a complete traumatic damage to the L4-L5 nerve roots. The fracture was fixated by osteosuture and normal bone fusion was achieved. The follow-up period was 4 years. The boy manifested persistent flaccid paresis of the right foot and symptoms of a neurogenic bladder. Late radiological follow-up indicated disturbances of pelvic bone development and shortening of the lower extremity at the side of the injury.

Age-Based Normative Measurements of the Pediatric Pelvis

OBJECTIVES

Pediatric pelvic trauma is associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality. Current classifications do not take into account age-dependent quantitative differences of the pediatric pelvis making accurate diagnosis of pathologic diastasis of the pubic symphysis, sacroiliac (SI) joints, and triradiate cartilage difficult. The purpose of this study was to establish age-based normative values for the width of the pubic symphysis, SI joints, and the triradiate cartilage of the pediatric pelvis.

METHODS

All computed tomographic (CT) scans of the abdomen and pelvis from patients between the ages 2 and 16 years over a 3-year period at a single institution were evaluated. Patients were excluded if the CT was performed as part of a trauma evaluation or for a history of neuromuscular disease or spinopelvic instrumentation. A total of 821 CT were included. The width of pubic symphysis, right and left SI joints, and each limb of the triradiate cartilages was measured using the PACS digital measurement tool. Left and right measurements of the SI joints and triradiate cartilage were combined and reported together.

RESULTS

From age 2 to 16 years, the average widths of the SI joint and pubic symphysis decreased from 3.11 to 1.80 mm and 5.55 to 3.69 mm, respectively. The average widths of the 3 limbs of the triradiate cartilage also slightly decreased from age 2 until closure: ilioischial, iliopubic, and ischiopubic cartilages decreasing from 3.72 to 2.74 mm, 4.42 to 3.52 mm, and 3.08 to 2.97 mm, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates an age-dependent decrease in width of the pubic symphysis and left and right SI joints. By contrast, the widths of the triradiate cartilage remain relatively stable until closure. We believe that these age-based normative values will aid in future diagnosis of pathologic diastasis of these areas of the pediatric pelvis.

Paediatric pelvic fractures: how do they differ from adults?

BACKGROUND

The aim of this article was to review the incidence, presentation, treatment and complications of paediatric pelvic fractures of children who were admitted to our level 1 trauma centre and to compare them with our data from adult pelvic fracture patients.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective chart review of all children with pelvic fractures who were managed at our institution between January 1993 and December 2013 and compared the data with our database on pelvic fractures in adults during the period 2007 to 2012.

RESULTS

We identified 51 children and 268 adults with pelvic fractures. The median age of the paediatric patients was 11 years. Children were significantly more involved in traffic accidents than adults (p < 0.001). Adults had a significantly higher Injury Severity Score (ISS) (31 vs 24.5; p < 0.03) and were significantly more often haemodynamically unstable (p < 0.01). Adults had a type C fracture more often, while children had a type B fracture (p < 0.001). Associated injuries were seen in both groups; however, thoracic injuries were significantly higher in adults (p < 0.01) and injuries to the extremities were higher in children (p < 0.01). Adults were significantly more often treated with open reduction and internal fixation (p < 0.001). Mortality in both groups, however, did not differ (6% vs 8%).

CONCLUSION

Paediatric pelvic fractures are rare. They differ from adult pelvic fractures in presentation, associated injuries and management. Mortality, however, is substantial and does not differ from the adult population. Mortality is often due to concomitant injuries and not to exsanguination from the pelvic fracture.

Pelvic Fractures in Children Results from the German Pelvic Trauma Registry: A Cohort Study

As pelvic fractures in children and adolescents are very rare, the surgical management is not well delineated nor are the postoperative complications. The aim of this study using the prospective data from German Pelvic Trauma Registry study was to evaluate the various treatment approaches compared to adults and delineated the differences in postoperative complications after pelvic injuries.Using the prospective pelvic trauma registry established by the German Society of Traumatology and the German Section of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen (AO), International in 1991, patients with pelvic fractures over a 12-year time frame submitted by any 1 of the 23 member level I trauma centers were reviewed.We identified a total of 13,525 patients including pelvic fractures in 13,317 adults and 208 children aged ≤14 years and compared these 2 groups. The 2 groups' Injury Severitiy Score (ISS) did not differ statistically. Lethality in the pediatric group was 6.3%, not statistically different from the adults' 4.6%. In all, 18.3% of the pediatric pelvic fractures were treated surgically as compared to 22.7% in the adult group. No child suffered any thrombosis/embolism, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multiorgan failure (MOF), or neurologic deficit, nor was any septic MOF detected. The differences between adults and children were statistically significant in that the children suffered less frequently from thrombosis/embolism (P = 0.041) and ARDS and MOF (P = 0.006).This prospective multicenter study addressing patients with pelvic fractures reveals that the risk for a thrombosis/embolism, ARDS, and MOF is significant lower in pediatric patients than in adults. No statistical differences could be found in the ratios of operative therapy of the pelvic fractures in children compared to adults.

Pelvic Fractures in Paediatric Polytrauma Patients: Classification, Concomitant Injuries and Early Mortality

Purpose of this Study :

To review the characteristics, concomitant injuries and mortality in children with polytrauma and associated pelvic fractures treated in a Level-I Trauma Centre.

Materials and Methods :

Between December 2003 and November 2013, 49 children with an Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 16 or greater and a pelvic fracture met the inclusion criteria and were evaluated. The mortality, transfusion requirements and length of intensive care unit stay were correlated with the ISS, Abbreviated Injury Scale, concomitant limb and spine fractures, and type of pelvic ring injury (AO/OTA classification).

Results :

The mean ISS at presentation was 31.4 (range 16 to 57). 19 (38.7%) patients sustained a Type A, 27 (55.1%) a Type B and 3 (6.2%) a Type C injury. Head and face trauma was present in 33 (67.3%) cases. Blood transfusion during the resuscitation process was necessitated in six (12.2%) patients. Thirty-eight (77.5%) patients were managed non-operatively for their pelvic injuries. The mean duration of hospital stay was 23.9 days (range 1 to 146 days). In this cohort of polytrauma paediatric patients there were five (10.2%) mortalities (all suffered an associated head trauma ) within 30 days from the initial injury.

Conclusion:

Severe head injury and a high ISS are significantly associated with mortality in children with pelvic fractures. These patients have a high incidence of concomitant spine and chest injuries Hemorrhage due to pelvic injuries is rare. Severe head injuries predict a longer ICU stay in this population.

Short-term pelvic fracture outcomes in adolescents differ from children and adults in the National Trauma Data Bank

BACKGROUND

Pediatric pelvic fractures are associated with high-energy trauma and injury to other systems, leading to an increased incidence of complication and mortality. Previous studies analyzed the pediatric population as a whole, including both children and adolescents. The purpose of this study was to examine whether adolescents with pelvic fracture have different complication and mortality rates compared to younger children and adults.

METHODS

Using the National Trauma Data Bank, 37,784 patients below the age of 55 years with pelvic fractures were identified and divided into children (age <13 years), adolescents (age 13-17 years), and adults (age >17 years). Descriptive statistics and bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Children had an increased odds of death [odds ratio (OR) 2.29, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.96-2.67] and complications (OR 1.36, 95 % CI 1.20-1.55), whereas adolescents had a decrease in odds of death (OR 0.89, 95 % CI 0.74-1.06) and complications (OR 0.70, 95 % CI 0.61-0.81) compared to the adult population.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents with pelvic fractures exhibit a different physiologic response to the children and adult populations. This emphasizes the need to distinguish these subpopulations in future epidemiological research and treatment planning.

Surgical treatment for unstable pelvic fractures in skeletally immature patients

OBJECTIVE

To present the results and conclusions of our study on surgical treatment for unstable pelvic fractures in children subjected to surgical reduction and stabilisation.

METHODS

We analysed the cases of fourteen skeletally immature patients with unstable pelvic fractures who underwent surgery for this condition between March 2004 and January 2011. The surgical technique used was based on the principle of surgical reduction and stabilisation of anterior and posterior lesions of the pelvic ring. This was a retrospective study, based on clinical assessment and X-ray analyses.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients at the time of the condition was 9.4 years (range 2-13 years). Eight patients were female and six were male. The cause of the trauma was being hit by a car in ten cases, falls in three cases and an accident involving a motorcycle in one case. Five patients presented with other associated injuries, including fracture of the clavicle, femur shaft, proximal humerus, tibial shaft or olecranon, and bladder damage. All the patients assessed showed excellent clinical progress. Pelvic asymmetry prior to surgery varied from 1.1 to 2.9 cm (mean 1.5 cm) and dropped to a range of 0.2 to 0.9 cm (mean 0.4 cm) after reduction. In none of the cases was there a change between the pelvic asymmetry measured immediately after surgery and at the end of the follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

Pelvic fracture in skeletally immature patients is rare and surgery is not normally indicated. Various authors have questioned this conservative type of treatment due to complications encountered. Bone remodelling does not seem to be sufficient to ensure an improvement in pelvic asymmetry, which justifies opting for surgery to reduce and correct deformities in the pelvic ring.

Surgical treatment for pelvic ring fractures in pediatric and adolescence age

BACKGROUND

Fractures of the pelvis in pediatric population are extremely rare. Children with complex pelvic fractures are most often pedestrians who have been struck by a motor vehicle. Head injuries are the main cause of death, unlike the adult, where severe hemorrhages are common and contribute to mortality. Long-term follow-up studies have reported significant residual morbidity in children's pelvic fractures treated non-operatively. The aim of this study is to analyze our cases in order to evaluate the final outcome and to suggest the surgical indications for the management of this kind of injuries.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From January 2000 to July 2011, eight pediatric patients were surgically treated for pelvic ring fractures in our department. The functional result at follow-up was evaluated using the functional independence measure (FIM).

RESULTS

In most cases the clinical outcome was good with functional recovery of the hip and complete resumption of physical activity. The mean FIM score was 125.3. One patient underwent permanent colostomy for perineal lacerations, one case showed a slight scoliosis at follow-up, and one patient showed the early fusion of the triradiate cartilage. One patient presented a deep thrombosis of the common femoral vein.

CONCLUSIONS

Fractures of the pelvic ring should be carefully assessed by radiographs and CT scan. The centralization of these young patients is important to get the experience and ensure the proper treatment. A correct indication for surgery may prevent or limit the consequences of these complex fractures.

National access to care for children with fractures

BACKGROUND

Access to health care for many pediatric orthopaedic patients is becoming more difficult. In some communities, children with fractures have limited access to care regardless of insurance status. The purpose of this study was to determine the level of difficulty in obtaining access to care for children with fractures nationally and compare our results to the published results of a national survey in 2006.

METHODS

Five orthopaedic offices were identified in each state using an internet search with Google maps by typing "general orthopedics" under the search heading for each state. Each office was contacted with a scripted phone call describing a fracture in a 10-year-old boy that does not involve the growth plate. The office was then told the patient has Medicaid insurance. If no appointment was given, the reason was recorded and the office was asked to refer us to another orthopaedic surgeon. A second phone call was made to the same office a few days later using the same script but the office was told the patient has a private preferred-provider organization insurance. If no appointment was given, the reason was recorded.

RESULTS

Of the 250 (23.6%) offices across the country, 59 would see a pediatric fracture patient with Medicaid. 41.3% (79/191) of the offices refusing the patient stated that they do not accept Medicaid patients. Of the 250, 205 (82%) of the offices across the country would see a pediatric fracture patient with a private preferred-provider organization insurance. The 10 states with lowest Medicaid reimbursement offered an appointment 6% of the time, whereas the 10 best reimbursing states offered an appointment 44% of the time.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The access to care for children with fractures is becoming more difficult across the country. Compared with the published data in 2006, the number of offices willing to see a child with private insurance has decreased from 92% to 82%. The number of offices willing to see a child with a fracture and Medicaid insurance has decreased from 62% to 23% over the same time span.

Fractures of the pelvis in children: a review of the literature

Trauma is the leading cause of death in children. Pelvic ring injuries account for 0.3-4% of all paediatric injuries. The pattern of fractures differs to that seen in adults as it is more ductile. Pelvic ring injuries tend to be more stable as the relatively thick periosteum restricts bony displacement. Intrapelvic viscera are not well protected and can sustain injury in the absence of pelvic fractures. These injuries have traditionally been treated non-operatively. In this paper, we comprehensively review the literature and propose a protocol for treatment taking into consideration associated organ injuries, hemodynamic status of the patient, patient's age, type of fracture and the stability of the pelvic ring.

Pediatric pelvic fracture: a modification of a preexisting classification

BACKGROUND

The classic pediatric pelvic fracture (PPF) classification was developed by Torode and Zeig in 1985 and is based exclusively on plain radiographs. The purpose of this study was to propose a modification to a previously accepted PPF classification scheme and discuss the significance of this modification with respect to treatment and management of PPF over an 8-year period at a large pediatric hospital.

METHODS

PPFs were recorded on a prospectively identified hospital registry of all trauma admissions. Pelvic x-rays and computerized tomography scans were reviewed and classified according to a modified classification scheme. Correlation was made with age, sex, mechanism, associated injuries, intensive care unit stay, operations, and discharge outcome. Blood product usage was obtained from a hematology database.

RESULTS

A total of 124 children were identified with PPF, comprising 1.6% of trauma admissions between July 2000 and June 2008. Radiology was available for 115 children (58 boys, and 57 girls, mean age 11.5 y). According to the modified classification, 71% (82/115) had type III-A or III-B injuries (type I=5 children, type II=17 children, type IV=11 children). There was a mortality of 5% (6/115 children) during the study. Eighty-one percent (93/115) of PPF resulted from being involved in a motor vehicle accident (occupant or pedestrian). Trend testing showed relationships between increasing fracture type and length of stay (P<0.001), as well as the need for blood transfusion (P=0.009) or pelvic operation (P<0.001). A total of 34 (30%, 34/115) children required blood products. Type III-B injuries were more likely to receive blood products than type III-A injuries (odds ratio 3.58; 95% confidence interval, 1.28-10.03).

CONCLUSIONS

: The modified Torode PPV classification is predictive for significant morbidity and death in the setting of multitrauma. Stable type III-B fractures are indicative of increased blood product use, intensive care unit requirement, and overall hospital stay. This modified classification scheme will aid health care providers at all levels in managing PPF more efficiently during their initial resuscitation and treatment period.

LEVELS OF EVIDENCE

Level III-retrospective case control study.

[Fracture stabilization in polytraumatized children]

Polytrauma is a rare diagnosis in childhood. Even after high-energy accidents isolated injuries of the skull and brain or extremities are more common. Injury is still the most frequent cause of death in childhood in industrialized countries. The lethality of polytraumatized children is about 19%. Injuries of the extremities do not play such an important role for the survival of polytraumatized children but for the definitive outcome. The diagnostic algorithm for polytraumatized children is related to adults and includes spiral computed tomography in the emergency room. Plain radiographs are still the gold standard for the diagnostic workup of fractures. Generally therapeutic approaches in the treatment of fractures in children are often conservative. Because of the special situation in polytrauma with ICU care and the need for venous catheters, fast mobilization and positioning in bed, indications for operative treatment and definitive stabilization of fractures are required for polytraumatized children.

Surgical treatment of unstable pelvic fracture in children: long term results

Paediatric pelvic fractures are rare lesions. In the literature still controversy exists regarding the management of these injuries. The sequelae of these types of lesions has been described. We report the management and long term outcome of 8 patients with paediatric pelvic fractures treated in our institution. Associated injuries to the Risser's growth nuclei are described that has not been previously reported. Anatomical reduction of the displaced fracture should be considered to minimise the risk of long term functional impairment.

Access to care for children with fractures

BACKGROUND

Earlier studies have found that children with fractures and PPO insurance have no access problems to orthopaedic care, but children with Medicaid have problems with access to orthopaedic care.

METHODS

Fifty randomly selected orthopaedic offices in each of the 2 counties served by a children's hospital were telephoned to seek an appointment for a fictitious 10-year-old boy with a forearm fracture. Each office was called twice, 1 time reporting that the child had PPO insurance and 1 time that he was having Medicaid. In the second arm of the study, data including insurance status were prospectively collected on all patients with fractures seen in the emergency department of children's hospital.

RESULTS

Of the 100 offices telephoned, 8 offices gave an appointment within 1 week to the child with Medicaid insurance. Thirty-six of the 100 offices gave an appointment within 1 week to the child with PPO insurance. For the 2210 pediatric fractures seen in the emergency department, the payer mix for patients presenting initially to our facility (1326 patients) was 41% Medicaid, 9% selfpay, and 50% commercial. For the patients presenting to our emergency department after being seen at an outside facility first (884 patients), the payer mix was 47% Medicaid, 13% self-pay, and 40% commercial. The percentages between these two groups were similar but did have a statistically significant difference (P=0.021).

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that reports a majority (64/100) of orthopaedic offices in the region would not care for a child with a fracture regardless of insurance status. Consistent with earlier studies, children with Medicaid have less access to care. The similar insurance status of children sent to the emergency department from other facilities compared with those presenting directly suggests that children in this study are sent to a children's hospital for specialized care rather than for economic reasons.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

The anterior dislocation of the sacroiliac joint: a report of four cases and review of the literature and treatment algorism

Pelvic fractures are an uncommon injury in pediatric trauma patients, but the morbidity and mortality associated with these injuries can be profound. Of the posterior pelvic ring disruptions, the posterior dislocation of sacroiliac joint, which is the traditional dislocation of the sacroiliac joint, occurs in most incidences of pediatric trauma patients. There are few reports, however, on the "anterior" dislocation of sacroiliac joint, in which the ilium dislocates anterior to the sacrum and often combines with symphyseal diastasis and fractures of pubic rami and ilia. The distinct fracture-dislocation of sacroiliac joint is a subtype of completed posterior pelvic fracture. Literature review contains little information about such type of dislocation. We present four cases of pediatric trauma patients with the "anterior" dislocation of sacroiliac joint. After a thorough literature review of existing classification of pelvic fractures, we name it as the anterior dislocation of sacroiliac joint.

Paediatric pelvic fractures: 10 years experience in a trauma centre

Fractures of the skeletally immature pelvis are relatively rare. We performed a retrospective analysis of 10 years experience of paediatric pelvic fractures in patients admitted a Level 1 Trauma Centre in London. All patients evacuated to the Royal London Hospital by the Helicopter Emergency Medical Service (HEMS) were entered on a comprehensive trauma database. This contains data about the time, date and mechanism of injury; nature of the injuries sustained; Injury Severity Score (ISS), Revised Trauma Score (RTS) and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS). Patients were studied to obtain the following information in addition to that available from the trauma database: management of the pelvic fracture, length of stay in the intensive care unit and on the ward, and clinical outcome. Pelvic fractures were classified as open type or closed type and stable or unstable type in the database. 44 patients with pelvic fracture were admitted via HEMS in 10 years and seven patients died in that group. The mean age was 11.4 (range 6-16) and 28 male and 16 female patients. Commonest mechanism of injury was pedestrian hit by the car and predominantly stable type of injury was found in skeletally immature pelvis. Commonest associated injury was long bone fracture followed by head injury. ISS, GCS and RTS were significantly (p<0.05) altered in the non-survivors compared to the surviving group. All patients save one were treated conservatively allowing gradual mobilisation. In conclusion, pelvic fractures in children may themselves have a good long term outcome with conservative management, but they are an indicator of serious other bodily injuries which carry a high mortality.

Outcomes in pediatric trauma care

Variation in clinical practice patterns has attracted the attention of specialty organizations, payers, government health agencies, and the public. Such variation raises concerns about efficacy and cost relative to the care provided. Consequently, the establishment of national benchmarks has become an increasing priority in trauma care as well as elsewhere in the health sector. Comparing treatment of pediatric injury by hospital type or physician expertise has often created more controversy than conformity. Three key components that help define quality of care include infrastructure, process, and outcome. This report will highlight outcomes studies in pediatric trauma care, often comparing outcomes by physician and hospital expertise. We will discuss pediatric trauma mortality and outcomes in abdominal, closed head, and orthopedic injuries with an emphasis on functional outcomes. Much of the data are derived from large regional and national databases, which are increasingly available and useful in the analysis of specific aspects of our health care delivery system.

Comparing processes of pediatric trauma care at children's hospitals versus adult hospitals

Comparing treatment of pediatric injury by hospital type or physician expertise has often created more controversy than conformity. Three key components that help define quality of care include infrastructure, process, and outcome. This report highlights studies that compared processes of care by physician and hospital expertise with regard to injured children. During the past 15 years, numerous studies have compared both hospital and physician expertise in the processes of pediatric trauma care. From these studies, it is clear that evaluation of processes of care is equally important as evaluating outcome, especially when mortality is the outcome variable. Future studies should examine other aspects of care in addition to surgical processes that might impact either rates of complications or long-term outcomes.