Patients prone for postoperative delirium: preoperative assessment, perioperative prophylaxis, postoperative treatment

Acupuncture-related techniques for postoperative cognitive complications: a systemic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Postoperative cognitive complications are major challenges for postoperative recovery. Acupuncture-related techniques have been used for treating neurocognitive dysfunctions. However, whether they help to prevent postoperative cognitive complicationss remains unclear. We intend to evaluate the effect of acupuncture-related techniques on the incidence of postoperative cognitive complications (PCC) in patients undergoing surgery under general anesthesia.

METHODS

Based on PRISMA guidelines, a search of PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and ClinicalTrials.gov was performed to identify eligible trials published from inception to June 6, 2021. The search was performed in June 2021. The inclusion criteria were prospective, randomized, controlled clinical trials that compared acupuncture-related techniques with other techniques or non-acupuncture treatment in patients undergoing surgery under general anesthesia. Pooled odds ratios (ORs), 95% CIs, and P values were estimated for end points using fixed and random effects statistical models.

RESULTS

The analysis included 12 studies with 1058 patients. Compared with patients not receiving acupuncture, patients treated with acupuncture-related techniques had a lower incidence of PCCs (OR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.33 to 0.59; P < 0.001; n = 968) and lower levels of biomarkers, including IL-6, TNF-α, and S100β. Acupuncture with needles and without needles showed similar effects on the prevention of PCCs. The effects of acupuncture-related techniques on PCCs were observed in both English and non-English articles. Subgroup analyses showed that both agitation and/or delirium (OR, 0.51; 95% CI, 0.34 to 0.76; P < 0.001; n = 490) and delayed cognitive recovery (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.21 to 0.51; P < 0.001; n = 478) were reduced after treatment with acupuncture-related techniques. In adult studies evaluating MMSE scores, the scores were not different between groups (SMD, - 0.71; 95% CI, - 1.72 to 0.3; P = 0.17; n = 441).

CONCLUSIONS

Acupuncture-related techniques, including needle techniques and electrical techniques, are associated with fewer postoperative cognitive complications, suggesting that acupuncture could be considered a potential option in the perioperative setting. Additional research is needed to develop higher-quality evidence and optimal regimens.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO (CRD42021258378).

Investigation of Risk Factors for Postoperative Delirium after Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation: A Retrospective Study

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI) is an effective treatment for severe aortic stenosis (AS); however, postoperative delirium (POD) can worsen patient outcomes. This study aimed to examine the risk factors for POD after TAVI, including possible intervening factors. We included 87 patients (mean age: 83) who underwent TAVI between May 2014 and September 2018. POD was defined by the presence or absence of delirium on ICU admission, assessed using the Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU. Factors that showed significant differences in the univariate analysis were analyzed using a multiple logistic regression analysis. In total, 31 patients (36%) had POD after ICU admission, and 56 (64%) did not. The preoperative frailty score and aortic valve opening area (AVA) were significant risk factors for POD. The multivariate analysis also showed that both factors were independent risk factors for POD (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve: 0.805). There were no significant differences in the number of ICU days. However, postoperative hospitalization was significantly longer in the POD group (19 (17–31) days vs. 16 (13–22) days; p = 0.002). POD was associated with a narrow AVA and frailty; this suggests that frailty prevention interventions according to the AVA may be important.

Anticholinergic Drug Exposure Increases the Risk of Delirium in Older Patients Undergoing Elective Surgery

Introduction

Postoperative delirium (POD) is a common and serious adverse event of surgery in older people. Because of its great impact on patients' safety and quality of life, identification of modifiable risk factors could be useful. Although preoperative medication intake is assumed to be an important modifiable risk factor, the impact of anticholinergic drugs on the occurrence of POD seems underestimated in elective surgery. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between preoperative anticholinergic burden and POD. We hypothesized that a high preoperative anticholinergic burden is an independent, potentially modifiable predisposing and precipitating factor of POD in older people.

Methods

Between November 2017 and April 2019, 1,470 patients of 70 years and older undergoing elective orthopedic, general, cardiac, or vascular surgery were recruited in the randomized, prospective, multicenter PAWEL trial. Anticholinergic burden of a sub-cohort of 899 patients, who did not receive a multimodal intervention for preventing POD, was assessed by two different tools at hospital admission: The established Anticholinergic Risk Scale (ARS) and the recently developed Anticholinergic Burden Score (ABS). POD was detected by confusion assessment method (CAM) and a validated post discharge medical record review. Logistic regression analyses were performed to evaluate the association between anticholinergic burden and POD.

Results

POD was observed in 210 of 899 patients (23.4%). Both ARS and ABS were independently associated with POD. The association persisted after adjustment for relevant confounding factors such as age, sex, comorbidities, preoperative cognitive and physical status, number of prescribed drugs, surgery time, type of surgery and anesthesia, usage of heart-lung-machine, and treatment in intensive care unit. If a patient was taking one of the 56 drugs listed in the ABS, risk for POD was 2.7-fold higher (OR = 2.74, 95% CI = 1.55–4.94) and 1.5-fold higher per additional point on the ARS (OR = 1.54, 95% CI = 1.15–2.02).

Conclusion

Preoperative anticholinergic drug exposure measured by ARS or ABS was independently associated with POD in older patients undergoing elective surgery. Therefore, identification, discontinuation or substitution of anticholinergic medication prior to surgery may be a promising approach to reduce the risk of POD in older patients.

Outcomes of a Delirium Prevention Program in Older Persons After Elective Surgery: A Stepped-Wedge Cluster Randomized Clinical Trial

Importance

Delirium significantly worsens elective surgery outcomes and costs. Delirium risk is highest in elderly populations, whose surgical health care resource consumption (50%) exceeds their demographic proportion (15% to 18%) in high-resource countries. Effective nonpharmacologic delirium prevention could safely improve care in these vulnerable patients, but data from procedure-specific studies are insufficiently compelling to drive changes in practice. Delirium prevention approaches applicable to different surgical settings remain unexplored.

Objective

To examine whether a multifaceted prevention intervention is effective in reducing postoperative delirium incidence and prevalence after various major surgical procedures.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial recruited 1470 patients 70 years and older undergoing elective orthopedic, general, or cardiac surgery from November 2017 to April 2019 from 5 German tertiary medical centers. Data were analyzed from December 2019 to July 2021.

Interventions

First, structured delirium education was provided to clinical caregivers at each site. Then, the study delirium prevention team assessed patient delirium risk factors and symptoms daily. Prevention was tailored to individual patient needs and could include: cognitive, motor, and sensory stimulation; meal companionship; accompaniment during diagnostic procedures; stress relaxation; and sleep promotion.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Postoperative delirium incidence and duration.

Results

Of 1470 included patients, 763 (51.9%) were male, and the median (IQR) age was 77 (74-81) years. Overall, the intervention reduced postoperative delirium incidence (odds ratio, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.77-0.98; P = .02) and percentage of days with delirium (intervention, 5.3%; control, 6.9%; P = .03). The effect was significant in patients undergoing orthopedic or abdominal surgery (odds ratio, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.35-0.99; P = .047) but not cardiac surgery (odds ratio, 1.18; 95% CI, 0.70-1.99; P = .54).

Conclusions and Relevance

This multifaceted multidisciplinary prevention intervention reduced postoperative delirium occurrence and days with delirium in older patients undergoing different elective surgical procedures but not cardiac procedures. These results suggest implementing this delirium prevention program will improve care and outcomes in older patients undergoing elective general and orthopedic procedures.

Geriatric Implications of Surgical Oncology

Surgical oncology is cancer care that focuses on using surgery to diagnose, stage, and treat cancer and is one of the main treatments for malignancy. Patients older than 65 years are generally considered geriatric. The incidence of cancer in geriatric patients is increasing annually. Candidacy for surgical intervention depends on factors such as cancer type, size, location, grade and stage of the tumor, and the patient's overall health status and age. Despite increasing agreement that age should not limit treatment options, geriatric patients tend to be undertreated. Cancer in geriatric patients has different features than in younger patients. As such, treatment options may be dissimilar in these 2 cohorts. Here, care of the geriatric patient undergoing surgical oncology interventions is discussed.

Related Factors and Treatment of Postoperative Delirium in Old Adult Patients: An Integrative Review

“Postoperative delirium” is defined as delirium occurring in the hospital up to one week after a procedure or before discharge (whichever occurs first) that meets the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. Objectives: To describe the risk factors related to this pathology and identify effective non-pharmacological forms of treatment. An integrative review of the available literature was performed. The search results considered included all quantitative studies published between 2011 and 2019 in both English and Spanish. A total of 117 studies were selected. Advanced age was identified as the principal risk factor for postoperative delirium. Nursing interventions appear to be the key to preventing or reducing the seriousness of delirium after an anaesthetic episode. The aetiology of postoperative delirium remains unknown, and no treatment exists to eliminate this pathology. The role of nursing staff is fundamental in the prevention, diagnosis, and management of the pathology.

Urinary albumin creatinine ratio associated with postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective non-cardiac surgery: A prospective observational study

Introduction

The blood‐brain barrier (BBB) disruption contributes to postoperative delirium, but cost‐effective and non‐invasive assessment of its permeability is not practicable in the clinical settings. Urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR), reflecting systemic vascular endothelial dysfunction, may be a prognostic and predictive factor associated with postoperative delirium. The aim was to analyze the relationship between UACR and postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective non‐cardiac surgery.

Materials and methods

Through stratified random sampling, a cohort of 408 individuals aged 60 years and older scheduled for elective non‐cardiac surgery were included between February and August 2019 in the single‐center, prospective, observational study. The presence of delirium was assessed using the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) or Confusion Assessment Method for the ICU (CAM‐ICU) on the day of surgery, at 2 h after the surgery ending time and on the first 3 consecutive days with repeated twice‐daily, with at least 6‐h intervals between assessments. Urine samples were collected on one day before surgery, and 1st day and 3rd day after surgery. The primary outcome was the presence of postoperative delirium, and association of the level of UACR with postoperative delirium was evaluated with unadjusted/adjusted analyses and multivariable logistic regression.

Results

Postoperative delirium was observed in 26.75% (107 of 400) of patients within 3 days post‐surgery. UACR‐Pre (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 1.14–1.49, p < 0.001), UACR‐POD1 (OR, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.13–1.27, p < 0.001), and UACR‐POD3 (OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.08–1.20, p < 0.001) between the delirium and non‐delirium groups show a significant difference, even after adjusting for age, education levels, and other factors.

Conclusion

As the marker of endothelial dysfunction, the high perioperative UACR value may be linked to the postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective non‐cardiac surgery.

Impaired cognitive performance on MoCA testing at discharge in elderly patients following day endoscopy and its relationship to preoperative mild cognitive impairment

In patients admitted to hospital, preoperative mild cognitive impairment predicts postoperative complications. The effect of mild cognitive impairment on discharge readiness among the day stay surgery population is unknown. Our aims were to determine the incidence of impaired cognitive performance at discharge after day stay endoscopy and whether pre-existing mild cognitive impairment was associated with its development. A single-centre cohort study of elective day stay endoscopy patients was undertaken. Over a three-month period, data were collected from 69 patients aged 65 years and over. Patients were cognitively assessed on admission and discharge using the Montreal cognitive assessment tool and the three-minute diagnostic confusion assessment method. At baseline, patients who scored 1.5 or more standard deviations below age-adjusted levels on the Montreal cognitive assessment tool in conjunction with a subjective memory complaint were classified as having mild cognitive impairment. At discharge, patients were classified as having impaired cognitive performance if there was a reduction in the Montreal cognitive assessment tool score by at least two points. We also assessed delirium and subsyndromal delirium at discharge using the three-minute diagnostic confusion assessment method. We identified mild cognitive impairment in 23 patients (33.3%) on admission, and impaired performance on the Montreal cognitive assessment tool test at discharge in 35 (50.7%) patients. There was no association between mild cognitive impairment on admission and impaired cognitive performance at discharge (50.0% versus 51.1%, P = 0.94). This study demonstrates that evidence of impaired cognitive performance on the Montreal cognitive assessment tool testing is present after day stay endoscopy in over 50% of elderly patients, but this is not associated with preoperative cognitive status.

Presurgical Screening Improves Risk Prediction for Delirium in Elective Surgery of Older Patients: The PAWEL RISK Study

Introduction: The number of elective surgeries for patients who are over 70 years of age is continuously growing. At the same time, postoperative delirium (POD) is common in older patients (5–60%) depending on predisposing risk factors, such as multimorbidity, cognitive impairment, neurodegenerative disorders and other dementing disorders, and precipitating factors, such as duration of surgery. Knowledge of individual risk profiles prior to elective surgery may help to identify patients at increased risk for development of POD. In this study, clinical and cognitive risk factors for POD were investigated in patients undergoing various elective cardiac and non-cardiac surgeries.

Methods: The PAWEL study is a prospective, interventional trial on delirium prevention. At baseline, 880 inpatients at five surgical centers were recruited for sub-sample PAWEL-R. Multimodal assessments included clinical renal function, medication, American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) Physical Status Classification System, geriatric and cognitive assessments, which comprised the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA), Trail-making Test, and Digit Span backward. Delirium incidence was monitored postoperatively by the Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) and a chart review for up to a week or until discharge. Multivariate regression models and Chi-square Automatic Interaction Detectors (CHAID) analyses were performed using delirium incidence as the primary outcome.

Results: Eighteen risk factors were investigated in elective cardiovascular and orthopedic or general surgery. A total of 208 out of 880 patients (24%) developed POD. A global regression model that included all risk variables predicted delirium incidence with high accuracy (AUC = 0.81; 95% CI 0.77, 0.85). A simpler model (clinical and cognitive variables; model CLIN-COG) of 10 factors that only included surgery type, multimorbidity, renal failure, polypharmacy, ASA, cut-to-suture time, and cognition (MoCA, Digit Span backward, and preexisting dementia), however, exhibited similar predictive accuracy (AUC = 0.80; 95% CI 0.76, 0.84).

Conclusion: The risk of developing POD can be estimated by preoperative assessments, such as ASA classification, expected cut-to-suture time, and short cognitive screenings. This rather efficient approach predicted POD risk over all types of surgery. Thus, a basic risk assessment including a cognitive screen can help to stratify patients at low, medium, or high POD risk to provide targeted prevention and/or management strategies for patients at risk.

Frailty is associated with a higher risk of developing delirium and cognitive impairment among patients with diabetic kidney disease: A longitudinal population-based cohort study

AIMS

Delirium, a form of acute brain failure, exhibits a high incidence among older adults. Recent studies have implicated frailty as an under-recognized complication of diabetes mellitus. Whether the presence of frailty increases the risk of delirium/cognitive impairment among patients with diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remains unclear.

METHODS

From the longitudinal cohort of diabetes patients (LCDP) (n = 840,000) in Taiwan, we identified adults with DKD, dividing them into those without and with different severities of frailty based on a modified FRAIL scale. Cox proportional hazard regression was utilized to examine the frailty-associated risk of delirium/cognitive impairment, identified using approaches validated by others.

RESULTS

Totally 149,145 patients with DKD (mean 61.0 years, 44.2% female) were identified, among whom 31.0%, 51.7%, 16.0% and 1.3% did not have or had 1, 2 and >2 FRAIL items at baseline. After 3.68 years, 6613 (4.4%) developed episodes of delirium/cognitive impairment. After accounting for demographic/lifestyle factors, co-morbidities, medications and interventions, patients with DKD and 1, 2 and >2 FRAIL items had a progressively higher risk of developing delirium/cognitive impairment than those without (for those with 1, 2 and >2 items, hazard ratio 1.18, 1.26 and 1.30, 95% confidence interval 1.08-1.28, 1.14-1.39 and 1.10-1.55, respectively). For every FRAIL item increase, the associated risk rose by 9%.

CONCLUSIONS

Frailty significantly increased the risk of delirium/cognitive impairment among patients with DKD. Frailty screening in these patients may assist in delirium risk stratification.

Impaired Executive Function and Depression as Independent Risk Factors for Reported Delirium Symptoms: An Observational Cohort Study Over 8 Years

BACKGROUND

Acute medical illnesses, surgical interventions, or admissions to hospital in older individuals are frequently associated with a delirium. In this cohort study, we investigated the impact of specific cognitive domains and depression before the occurrence of delirium symptoms in an 8-year observation of older non-hospitalized individuals.

METHODS

In total, we included 807 participants (48-83 years). Deficits in specific cognitive domains were measured using the CERAD test battery, and depressive symptoms were measured using Beck Depression Inventory and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) before the onset of a delirium. Delirium symptoms were retrospectively assessed by a questionnaire based on the established Nursing Delirium Screening Scale.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight of eight hundred seven participants (7.2%) reported delirium symptoms over the 8-year course of the study. Sixty-nine percent (n = 40) of reported delirium symptoms were related to surgeries. In multivariate regression analysis, impaired executive function was an independent risk factor (p = 0.034) for the occurrence of delirium symptoms. Furthermore, age (p = 0.014), comorbidities [captured by the Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI)] (p < 0.001), and depression (p = 0.012) were significantly associated with reported delirium symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Especially prior to elective surgery or medical interventions, screening for impaired executive function and depression could be helpful to identify patients who are at risk to develop delirium symptoms.

Metabolic disturbance affects postoperative cognitive function in patients undergoing cardiopulmonary bypass

OBJECTIVES

Postoperative delirium is a common neuropsychiatric syndrome after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). We aimed to assess and compare clinical outcomes of CABG patients with delirium with a specific focus on the blood biochemical parameters.

METHODS

This investigation was carried out on the 90 eligible patients undergoing CABG. Delirium was measured using the Neecham confusion scale and assessed patients were divided into two groups of delirium (n = 43) and non-delirium (n = 47). Preoperative variables and intraoperative and postoperative outcomes were compared.

RESULTS

Delirium patients were older (p = 0.003) and had longer intubation time (p = 0.003). Non-delirium patients obtained a significantly higher Neecham confusion score (p = 0.001), and delirium patients experienced a hyperglycemic state at intraoperative (p = 0.004), intubation (p = 0.03), and extubation time (p = 0.02). Lower value of pH was seen at intubation (p = 0.03) and extubation periods (p = 0.001) in delirium group. A significant difference in base excess was observed between two groups at intubation (p = 0.04) and extubation periods (p = 0.004). Potassium level showed a significant decrease in delirium group at intubation (p = 0.01) and extubation periods (p = 0.001). Multivariate regression indicated that aging (OR = 1.08, p = 0.01), narcotic consumption (OR = 3.27, p = 0.05), DM (OR = 3.03, p=0.03), and prolonged intubation (OR = 1.18, p = 0.03) are predictors of delirium. Postoperative hyperglycemia (OR = 1.01, p = 0.002), low pH value (OR = 2.62, p = 0.02), and low potassium level (OR = 3.25, p = 0.03) are associated with development of delirium.

CONCLUSIONS

Postoperative metabolic disturbance and electrolyte imbalances are closely related to the development of delirium after CABG and need to be considered more carefully. Aging, DM, and preoperative use of narcotics are strong predictors of delirium following CABG.

Effect of deep neuromuscular blockade on serum cytokines and postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing total hip replacement: A prospective single-blind randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Deep neuromuscular blockade (NMB) may reduce muscle injury and related inflammation. The inflammation is one of the pathophysiological processes of peri-operative complications.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the degree of inflammation and related postoperative complications including postoperative delirium (POD) and peri-operative bleeding according to the degree of NMB during general anaesthesia for total hip replacement.

DESIGN

A prospective, single-blind, randomised controlled trial.

SETTING

Tertiary, university hospital, single centre.

PATIENTS

Eighty-two patients undergoing total hip replacement surgery were included in the final analysis.

INTERVENTIONS

Moderate (Mod) and deep (Deep) NMB groups.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The changes in inflammatory cytokines were measured. The incidence of POD was evaluated by using confusion assessment method (CAM). The differences of postoperative bleeding and peri-operative oxygenation in both groups were also measured.

RESULTS

The NMB reversal duration was significantly longer in the Mod NMB group than in the Deep NMB group. Changes in interleukin-6 were significantly smaller in the Deep NMB group than in the Mod NMB group (P < 0.001). The incidence of POD was not significantly different between groups (34 versus 17% in Mod and Deep NMB groups, respectively; P = 0.129). The amount of postoperative bleeding until postoperative day 2 was significantly greater in the Mod NMB group than in the Deep NMB group (P = 0.027).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that inflammation related to peri-operative complications could be associated with the depth of NMB during total hip replacement. However, the incidence of POD might not be associated to the depth of NMB.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

National Library of Medicine (NLM) at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) of United States. (Identifier: NCT02507609). Online address: http://clinicaltrials.gov.

Modifiable factors associated with postoperative delirium after hip fracture repair: An age-stratified retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Postoperative delirium in hip fracture patients is common and is associated with substantial morbidity and consumption of resources.

OBJECTIVE

Using data from the USA, we aimed to examine the relationship between postoperative delirium and (modifiable) peri-operative factors mentioned in the American Geriatrics Society Best Practice Statement on Postoperative Delirium in Older Adults, stratified by 'young old' (<80 years) and 'old-old' (≥80 years) categories.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study from 2006 to 2016.

SETTING

Population-based claims data from the USA.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients undergoing 505 152 hip fracture repairs between 2006 and 2016 as recorded in the Premier Healthcare Database.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The main outcome was postoperative delirium; modifiable factors of interest were peri-operative opioid use (high, medium or low; <25th, 25 to 75th or >75th percentile of oral morphine equivalents), anaesthesia type (general, neuraxial, both), use of benzodiazepines (long acting, short acting, both), pethidine, nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics, ketamine, corticosteroids and gabapentinoids. Multilevel models assessed associations between these factors and postoperative delirium, in the full cohort, and separately in those aged less than 80 and at least 80 years. Odds ratios (ORs) and Bonferroni-adjusted 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) are reported.

RESULTS

Overall, postoperative delirium incidence was 15.7% (n = 79 547). After adjustment for relevant covariates, the use of long-acting (OR 1.82, CI 1.74 to 1.89) and combined short and long-acting benzodiazepines (OR 1.56, CI 1.48 to 1.63) and ketamine (OR 1.09, CI 1.03 to 1.15), in particular, was associated with increased odds for postoperative delirium, while neuraxial anaesthesia (OR 0.91 CI 0.85 to 0.98) and opioid use (OR 0.95, CI 0.92 to 0.98 and OR 0.88, CI 0.84 to 0.92 for medium and high dose compared with low dose) were associated with lower odds; all P < 0.05. When analysing data separately by age group, effects of benzodiazepines persisted, while opioid use was only relevant in those aged less than 80 years.

CONCLUSION

We identified modifiable factors associated with postoperative delirium incidence among patients undergoing hip fracture repair surgery.

Risk factors associated with treatment of hyperactive postoperative delirium in elderly patients following hip fracture surgery under regional anesthesia: a nationwide population-based study

Background and objectives

Delirium is common but is frequently undetected by clinicians, despite the fact that it can be life-threatening. This study aimed to identify the incidence of delirium and the preoperative factors associated with perioperative use of drugs to treat hyperactive delirium in elderly patients who underwent hip fracture surgery under regional anesthesia.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed records of all patients ≥ 65 years of age who had undergone hip-fracture surgery under regional anesthesia, covered by the Korean National Health Insurance, between January 1, 2009 and December 31, 2015. A univariate and stepwise logistic regression model with the occurrence of hyperactive delirium as the dependent variable was used to identify the perioperative factors for this sample of patients.

Results

Among the 70,696 patients who underwent hip fracture surgery, 58,972 patients who received regional anesthesia were included in our study; of these, perioperative use of drugs to treat hyperactive delirium was diagnosed in 8,680 (14.7%) patients. Performing stepwise logistic regression, preoperative variables found to be associated with delirium were: male sex, age ≥ 85 years, hospital type (medical center), ICU and ventilator care, the presence of a neurodegenerative disorder, uncomplicated diabetes mellitus, peptic ulcer disease, and previously diagnosed psychoses and/or depression (OR = 1.49 [1.42–1.58], 4.7 [4.15–5.37], 13.3 [7.57–23.8], 1.52 [1.43–1.60], 1.19 [1.01–1.40], 1.20 [1.14–1.27], 1.09 [1.04–1.14], 0.87 [0.96–0.00], 2.23 [1.48–3.37], and 1.38 [1.32–1.46], respectively).

Conclusions

Postoperative hyperactive delirium may affect approximately 15% of elderly patients submitted to hip fracture repair under regional anesthesia. This study has identified multiple preoperative risk factors associated with postoperative hyperactive delirium and its pharmacological management strategies.

A Narrative Review About Prehabilitation in Surgery: Current Situation and Future Perspectives

Prehabilitation has a multimodal conception based on three fundamental pillars: improvement of the patient's physical condition, nutritional optimization and cognitive intervention to reduce stress and anxiety, as well as other measures such as smoking cessation and correction of anemia. The aim of prehabilitation programs is to optimize the patient from the moment of diagnosis until the surgical intervention in order to reduce postoperative complications. As in the case of multimodal rehabilitation protocols, the actions of prehabilitation programs have synergistic effects, that is, small changes that, by themselves, do not have clinical significance but when added up, they produce a significant improvement in the postoperative evolution of patients. Although more studies are required to evaluate the impact of these programs on patients groups with different pathologies, interventions and risk factors, their progressive implementation is necessary in the daily clinical practice of our patients. The objective of this narrative review is to evaluate the available evidence about prehabilitation in surgery, focusing on current established strategies, knowledge gaps and future research.

Establishing a patient centered, outpatient total joint home recovery program within an integrated healthcare system

Outpatient total joint home recovery (HR) is a rapidly growing initiative being developed and employed at high volume orthopedic centers. Minimally invasive surgery, improved pain control and home health services have made HR possible. Multidisciplinary teams with members ranging from surgeons and anesthesiologists to hospital administrators, physical therapists, nurses and research analysts are necessary for success. Eligibility criteria for outpatient total joint arthroplasty will vary between medical centers. Surgeon preference in addition to medical comorbidities, social support, preoperative patient mobility and safety of the HR location are all factors to consider when selecting patients for outpatient total joint HR. As additional knowledge is gained, the next steps will be to establish 'best practices' and speciality society-endorsed guidelines for patients undergoing outpatient total joint arthroplasty.

Influence of oral premedication and prewarming on core temperature of cardiac surgical patients: a prospective, randomized, controlled trial

Background

Perioperative hypothermia is still very common and associated with numerous adverse effects. The effects of benzodiazepines, administered as premedication, on thermoregulation have been studied with conflicting results. We investigated the hypotheses that premedication with flunitrazepam would lower the preoperative core temperature and that prewarming could attenuate this effect.

Methods

After approval by the local research ethics committee 50 adult cardiac surgical patients were included in this prospective, randomized, controlled, single-centre study with two parallel groups in a university hospital setting. Core temperature was measured using a continuous, non-invasive zero-heat flux thermometer from 30 min before administration of the oral premedication until beginning of surgery. An equal number of patients was randomly allocated via a computer-generated list assigning them to either prewarming or control group using the sealed envelope method for blinding. The intervention itself could not be blinded. In the prewarming group patients received active prewarming using an underbody forced-air warming blanket. The data were analysed using Student’s t-test, Mann-Whitney U-test and Fisher’s exact test.

Results

Of the randomized 25 patients per group 24 patients per group could be analysed. Initial core temperature was 36.7 ± 0.2 °C and dropped significantly after oral premedication to 36.5 ± 0.3 °C when the patients were leaving the ward and to 36.4 ± 0.3 °C before induction of anaesthesia. The patients of the prewarming group had a significantly higher core temperature at the beginning of surgery (35.8 ± 0.4 °C vs. 35.5 ± 0.5 °C, p = 0.027), although core temperature at induction of anaesthesia was comparable. Despite prewarming, core temperature did not reach baseline level prior to premedication (36.7 ± 0.2 °C).

Conclusions

Oral premedication with benzodiazepines on the ward lowered core temperature significantly at arrival in the operating room. This drop in core temperature cannot be offset by a short period of active prewarming.

Trial registration

This trial was prospectively registered with the German registry of clinical trials under the trial number DRKS00005790 on 20th February 2014.

Patient safety, cost-effectiveness, and quality of life: reduction of delirium risk and postoperative cognitive dysfunction after elective procedures in older adults-study protocol for a stepped-wedge cluster randomized trial (PAWEL Study)

Background

Postoperative delirium is a common disorder in older adults that is associated with higher morbidity and mortality, prolonged cognitive impairment, development of dementia, higher institutionalization rates, and rising healthcare costs. The probability of delirium after surgery increases with patients’ age, with pre-existing cognitive impairment, and with comorbidities, and its diagnosis and treatment is dependent on the knowledge of diagnostic criteria, risk factors, and treatment options of the medical staff. In this study, we will investigate whether a cross-sectoral and multimodal intervention for preventing delirium can reduce the prevalence of delirium and postoperative cognitive decline (POCD) in patients older than 70 years undergoing elective surgery. Additionally, we will analyze whether the intervention is cost-effective.

Methods

The study will be conducted at five medical centers (with two or three surgical departments each) in the southwest of Germany. The study employs a stepped-wedge design with cluster randomization of the medical centers. Measurements are performed at six consecutive points: preadmission, preoperative, and postoperative with daily delirium screening up to day 7 and POCD evaluations at 2, 6, and 12 months after surgery. Recruitment goals are to enroll 1500 patients older than 70 years undergoing elective operative procedures (cardiac, thoracic, vascular, proximal big joints and spine, genitourinary, gastrointestinal, and general elective surgery procedures).

Discussion

Results of the trial should form the basis of future standards for preventing delirium and POCD in surgical wards. Key aims are the improvement of patient safety and quality of life, as well as the reduction of the long-term risk of conversion to dementia. Furthermore, from an economic perspective, we expect benefits and decreased costs for hospitals, patients, and healthcare insurances.

Trial registration

German Clinical Trials Register, DRKS00013311. Registered on 10 November 2017.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13063-018-3148-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Postoperative delirium in elderly patients with critical limb ischemia undergoing major leg amputation: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Critical limb ischemia has been identified as a risk factor for the incidence of postoperative delirium in elderly patients. Limb amputation is the last option in critical limb ischemia treatments. We investigated the incidence and predisposing factors of postoperative delirium in patients undergoing major leg amputation.

METHODS

From January 2012 to December 2016, 121 patients aged over 60 years who had undergone major leg amputation were enrolled in this study. Various factors related to the patients' outcomes were assessed, including demographic, preoperative laboratory, anesthetic, surgical, and postoperative indicators.

RESULTS

Twenty two patients were excluded and 99 patients were assigned to either the delirium group or no delirium group. Forty of them (40%) developed a delirium during 30 days postoperatively. Univariate analysis implied that end-stage renal disease on hemodialysis, alcohol consumption, C-reactive protein, staying in an intensive care unit (ICU), duration of an ICU stay, occurrence of complications, and mortality during six months, were the factors that accounted for significant differences between the two groups. In multivariate analysis, three factors were significantly related to the development of delirium: mortality during six months (odds ratio [OR] = 13.86, 95% CI [2.10-31.90]), alcohol (OR = 8.18, 95% CI [1.13-16.60]), and hemodialysis (OR = 4.34, 95% CI [2.06-93.08]).

CONCLUSIONS

Approximately 40% of the elderly patients suffered from postoperative delirium in major leg amputation. Identifying those with risk factors for postoperative delirium and intervening at the early stage will be of great benefit in major leg amputations for the elderly population.

Postoperative delirium in patients with history of alcohol abuse

INTRODUCTION

Postoperative delirium (POD) is an acute confusional state characterized by changes in consciousness and cognition, which may be fluctuating, developing in a small period of time. The aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between alcohol abuse and the development of POD.

METHODS

We prospectively evaluated consecutively all postoperative patients admitted in the Post-anesthesia Care Unit over a 1-month period for delirium, using the Portuguese versions of the the Nursing Delirium Screening Scale. Before surgery, alcohol consumption was inquired and alcohol abuse was assessed by the CAGE (Cutting Down, Annoyance, Guilt and Eye-opener) questionnaire; a score ≥2 defined alcohol abuse. Fischer exact test or chi-square was applied for comparisons. Risk factors were analyzed in a multivariate analysis using a logistic regression with odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95%CI).

RESULTS

Two hundred twenty-one patients were enrolled. Delirium was seen in 11% patients. The incidence of alcohol abuse was 10%. Patients with alcohol abuse were more frequently men (P<.001) and had a higher ASA physical status III/IV (P=.021). POD was more frequent in patients with alcohol abuse (30% vs. 9%; P=.002). Age (OR: 5.9; 95%CI: 2.2-15.9; P<.001 for patients ≥65years), ASA physical statusIII/IV (OR: 4.2; 95%CI: 1.7-10.7; P=.002) and alcohol abuse (OR: 4.2; 95%CI: 1.4-12.9; P=.013) were found to be independent predictors for POD.

CONCLUSIONS

Older patients, higher ASA physical status and alcohol abuse were more frequent in patients with POD. Alcohol abuse was considered an independent risk factor for POD.

Virtual reality distraction decreases routine intravenous sedation and procedure-related pain during preoperative adductor canal catheter insertion: a retrospective study

Background

Virtual reality (VR) distraction is a nonpharmacological method to prevent acute pain that has not yet been thoroughly explored for anesthesiology. We present our experience using VR distraction to decrease routine intravenous sedation for patients undergoing preoperative perineural catheter insertion.

Methods

This 1-month quality improvement project involved all elective unilateral primary total knee arthroplasty patients who received a preoperative adductor canal catheter. Clinical data were analyzed retrospectively. For the first half of the month, all patients received usual care; intravenous sedation was administered at the discretion of the regional anesthesiologist. For the second half of the month, patients were offered VR distraction with intravenous sedation upon request. The primary outcome was fentanyl dosage; other outcomes included midazolam dosage, procedure-related pain, procedural time, and blood pressure changes.

Results

Seven patients received usual care and seven used VR. In the VR group, 1/7 received intravenous sedation versus 6/7 who received usual care (P = 0.029). The fentanyl dose was lower (median [10th–90th percentiles]) in the VR group (0 [0–20] µg) versus the non-VR group (50 [30–100] µg; P = 0.008). Midazolam use was lower in the VR group (0 [0–0] mg) than in the non-VR group (1 [0–1] mg; P = 0.024). Procedure-related pain was lower in the VR group (1 [1–4] NRS) versus the non-VR group (3 [2–6] NRS; P = 0.032). There was no difference in other outcomes.

Conclusions

VR distraction may provide an effective nonpharmacological alternative to intravenous sedation for the ultrasound-guided placement of certain perineural catheters.

Impact of dexmedetomidine on the incidence of delirium in elderly patients after cardiac surgery: A randomized controlled trial

Background

Delirium is a frequent complication after cardiac surgery and its occurrence is associated with poor outcomes. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of perioperative dexmedetomidine administration on the incidence of delirium in elderly patients after cardiac surgery.

Methods

This randomized, double-blinded, and placebo-controlled trial was conducted in two tertiary hospitals in Beijing between December 1, 2014 and July 19, 2015. Eligible patients were randomized into two groups. Dexmedetomidine (DEX) was administered during anesthesia and early postoperative period for patients in the DEX group, whereas normal saline was administered in the same rate for the same duration for patients in the control (CTRL) group. The primary endpoint was the incidence of delirium during the first five days after surgery. Secondary endpoints included the cognitive function assessed on postoperative days 6 and 30, the overall incidence of non-delirium complications within 30 days after surgery, and the all-cause 30-day mortality.

Results

Two hundred eighty-five patients were enrolled and randomized. Dexmedetomidine did not decrease the incidence of delirium (4.9% [7/142] in the DEX group vs 7.7% [11/143] in the CTRL group; OR 0.62, 95% CI 0.23 to 1.65, p = 0.341). Secondary endpoints were similar between the two groups; however, the incidence of pulmonary complications was slightly decreased (OR 0.51, 95% CI 0.26 to 1.00, p = 0.050) and the percentage of early extubation was significantly increased (OR 3.32, 95% CI 1.36 to 8.08, p = 0.008) in the DEX group. Dexmedetomidine decreased the required treatment for intraoperative tachycardia (21.1% [30/142] in the DEX group vs 33.6% [48/143] in the CTRL group, p = 0.019), but increased the required treatment for postoperative hypotension (84.5% [120/142] in the DEX group vs 69.9% [100/143] in the CTRL group, p = 0.003).

Conclusions

Dexmedetomidine administered during anesthesia and early postoperative period did not decrease the incidence of postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing elective cardiac surgery. However, considering the low delirium incidence, the trial might have been underpowered.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02267538

Incidence, risk factors, and phenomenological characteristics of postoperative delirium in patients receiving intravenous patient-controlled analgesia: a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IVPCA) is a common method of relieving pain which is a risk factor of postoperative delirium (POD). However, research concerning POD in IVPCA patients is limited.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to determine the incidence, risk factors, and phenomenological characteristics of POD in patients receiving IVPCA.

METHODS

A prospective, cohort study was conducted in post-general anesthesia IVPCA patients aged ≥60 years. POD was measured by the Nursing Delirium Screening Scale (NuDESC; 0-10). Delirium, pain severity at rest and/or on movement, and side effects of IVPCA during 3 postoperative days were examined twice-daily by the acute pain service team. Pain severity is measured by an 11-point verbal numerical rating scale (11-point VNRS) (0-10). An 11-point VNRS >3 was considered inadequate pain relief. If POD (detected by NuDESC ≥1) is suspected, consulting a neurologist or a psychiatrist to confirm suspected POD is required.

RESULTS

In total, 1,608 patients were included. The incidence rate of POD was 2.2%. Age ≥70 years and American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status >III were the risk factors of POD in IVPCA patients. Approximately three-quarters of all POD cases occurred within the first 2 postoperative days. For pain at rest, patients with inadequate pain relief had significantly greater rates of POD than patients with adequate pain relief (day 1, 8.4% vs 1.5%, P<0.001; day 2, 9.6% vs 2.0%, P=0.028; day 3, 4.1% vs 2.1%, P=0.412). However, the incidence of POD was not associated with movement-evoked pain relief. Most (79.9%) POD cases in IVPCA patients showed either one or two symptoms. The symptoms of POD were ranked from high to low as disorientation (65.7%), illusions/hallucinations (37.1%), inappropriate communication (31.4%), inappropriate behavior (25.7%), and psychomotor retardation (14.2%).

CONCLUSION

The incidence rate of POD in IVPCA patients was low. Further research is warranted concerning POD and IVPCA pain management.