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Tan JS, Hu S, Guo TT, Hua L, Wang XJ. Text Mining-Based Drug Discovery for Connective Tissue Disease–Associated Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:743210. [PMID: 35370713 PMCID: PMC8971927 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.743210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The current medical treatments for connective tissue disease–associated pulmonary arterial hypertension (CTD-PAH) do not show favorable efficiency for all patients, and identification of novel drugs is desired. Methods: Text mining was performed to obtain CTD- and PAH-related gene sets, and the intersection of the two gene sets was analyzed for functional enrichment through DAVID. The protein–protein interaction network of the overlapping genes and the significant gene modules were determined using STRING. The enriched candidate genes were further analyzed by Drug Gene Interaction database to identify drugs with potential therapeutic effects on CTD-PAH. Results: Based on text mining analysis, 179 genes related to CTD and PAH were identified. Through enrichment analysis of the genes, 20 genes representing six pathways were obtained. To further narrow the scope of potential existing drugs, we selected targeted drugs with a Query Score ≥5 and Interaction Score ≥1. Finally, 13 drugs targeting the six genes were selected as candidate drugs, which were divided into four drug–gene interaction types, and 12 of them had initial drug indications approved by the FDA. The potential gene targets of the drugs on this list are IL-6 (one drug) and IL-1β (two drugs), MMP9 (one drug), VEGFA (three drugs), TGFB1 (one drug), and EGFR (five drugs). These drugs might be used to treat CTD-PAH. Conclusion: We identified 13 drugs targeting six genes that may have potential therapeutic effects on CTD-PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang-Shan Tan
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Vascular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Center for Respiratory and Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, National Clinical Research Center of Cardiovascular Diseases, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Song Hu
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Vascular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Center for Respiratory and Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, National Clinical Research Center of Cardiovascular Diseases, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ting-Ting Guo
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Vascular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Center for Respiratory and Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, National Clinical Research Center of Cardiovascular Diseases, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Hua
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Vascular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Center for Respiratory and Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, National Clinical Research Center of Cardiovascular Diseases, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Department of Cardiology, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Lu Hua, ; Xiao-Jian Wang,
| | - Xiao-Jian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Vascular Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Center for Respiratory and Pulmonary Vascular Diseases, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Fuwai Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Lu Hua, ; Xiao-Jian Wang,
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2
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Zolty R. Novel Experimental Therapies for Treatment of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. J Exp Pharmacol 2021; 13:817-857. [PMID: 34429666 PMCID: PMC8380049 DOI: 10.2147/jep.s236743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a progressive and devastating disease characterized by pulmonary artery vasoconstriction and vascular remodeling leading to vascular rarefaction with elevation of pulmonary arterial pressures and pulmonary vascular resistance. Often PAH will cause death from right heart failure. Current PAH-targeted therapies improve functional capacity, pulmonary hemodynamics and reduce hospitalization. Nevertheless, today PAH still remains incurable and is often refractory to medical therapy, underscoring the need for further research. Over the last three decades, PAH has evolved from a disease of unknown pathogenesis devoid of effective therapy to a condition whose cellular, genetic and molecular underpinnings are unfolding. This article provides an update on current knowledge and summarizes the progression in recent advances in pharmacological therapy in PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Zolty
- Pulmonary Hypertension Program, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Lied Transplant Center, Omaha, NE, USA
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3
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Mukherjee D, Konduri GG. Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension: Definitions, Mechanisms, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Compr Physiol 2021; 11:2135-2190. [PMID: 34190343 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c200023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric pulmonary hypertension (PPH) is a multifactorial disease with diverse etiologies and presenting features. Pulmonary hypertension (PH), defined as elevated pulmonary artery pressure, is the presenting feature for several pulmonary vascular diseases. It is often a hidden component of other lung diseases, such as cystic fibrosis and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Alterations in lung development and genetic conditions are an important contributor to pediatric pulmonary hypertensive disease, which is a distinct entity from adult PH. Many of the causes of pediatric PH have prenatal onset with altered lung development due to maternal and fetal conditions. Since lung growth is altered in several conditions that lead to PPH, therapy for PPH includes both pulmonary vasodilators and strategies to restore lung growth. These strategies include optimal alveolar recruitment, maintaining physiologic blood gas tension, nutritional support, and addressing contributing factors, such as airway disease and gastroesophageal reflux. The outcome for infants and children with PH is highly variable and largely dependent on the underlying cause. The best outcomes are for neonates with persistent pulmonary hypertension (PPHN) and reversible lung diseases, while some genetic conditions such as alveolar capillary dysplasia are lethal. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:2135-2190, 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devashis Mukherjee
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Children's Research Institute, Children's Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 53226, USA
| | - Girija G Konduri
- Division of Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Children's Research Institute, Children's Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 53226, USA
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4
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Redox and Inflammatory Signaling, the Unfolded Protein Response, and the Pathogenesis of Pulmonary Hypertension. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1304:333-373. [PMID: 34019276 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-68748-9_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Protein folding overload and oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis, generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activating the unfolded protein response (UPR). The altered ER redox state induces further ROS production through UPR signaling that balances the cell fates of survival and apoptosis, contributing to pulmonary microvascular inflammation and dysfunction and driving the development of pulmonary hypertension (PH). UPR-induced ROS production through ER calcium release along with NADPH oxidase activity results in endothelial injury and smooth muscle cell (SMC) proliferation. ROS and calcium signaling also promote endothelial nitric oxide (NO) synthase (eNOS) uncoupling, decreasing NO production and increasing vascular resistance through persistent vasoconstriction and SMC proliferation. C/EBP-homologous protein further inhibits eNOS, interfering with endothelial function. UPR-induced NF-κB activity regulates inflammatory processes in lung tissue and contributes to pulmonary vascular remodeling. Conversely, UPR-activated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2-mediated antioxidant signaling through heme oxygenase 1 attenuates inflammatory cytokine levels and protects against vascular SMC proliferation. A mutation in the bone morphogenic protein type 2 receptor (BMPR2) gene causes misfolded BMPR2 protein accumulation in the ER, implicating the UPR in familial pulmonary arterial hypertension pathogenesis. Altogether, there is substantial evidence that redox and inflammatory signaling associated with UPR activation is critical in PH pathogenesis.
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5
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Rai N, Shihan M, Seeger W, Schermuly RT, Novoyatleva T. Genetic Delivery and Gene Therapy in Pulmonary Hypertension. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22031179. [PMID: 33503992 PMCID: PMC7865388 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22031179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a progressive complex fatal disease of multiple etiologies. Hyperproliferation and resistance to apoptosis of vascular cells of intimal, medial, and adventitial layers of pulmonary vessels trigger excessive pulmonary vascular remodeling and vasoconstriction in the course of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a subgroup of PH. Multiple gene mutation/s or dysregulated gene expression contribute to the pathogenesis of PAH by endorsing the proliferation and promoting the resistance to apoptosis of pulmonary vascular cells. Given the vital role of these cells in PAH progression, the development of safe and efficient-gene therapeutic approaches that lead to restoration or down-regulation of gene expression, generally involved in the etiology of the disease is the need of the hour. Currently, none of the FDA-approved drugs provides a cure against PH, hence innovative tools may offer a novel treatment paradigm for this progressive and lethal disorder by silencing pathological genes, expressing therapeutic proteins, or through gene-editing applications. Here, we review the effectiveness and limitations of the presently available gene therapy approaches for PH. We provide a brief survey of commonly existing and currently applicable gene transfer methods for pulmonary vascular cells in vitro and describe some more recent developments for gene delivery existing in the field of PH in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabham Rai
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (N.R.); (M.S.); (W.S.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Mazen Shihan
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (N.R.); (M.S.); (W.S.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Werner Seeger
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (N.R.); (M.S.); (W.S.); (R.T.S.)
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, 61231 Bad Nauheim, Germany
- Institute for Lung Health (ILH), 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Ralph T. Schermuly
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (N.R.); (M.S.); (W.S.); (R.T.S.)
| | - Tatyana Novoyatleva
- Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus Liebig University of Giessen, Aulweg 130, 35392 Giessen, Germany; (N.R.); (M.S.); (W.S.); (R.T.S.)
- Correspondence:
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6
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Zhang H, Huang W, Liu H, Zheng Y, Liao L. Mechanical stretching of pulmonary vein stimulates matrix metalloproteinase-9 and transforming growth factor-β1 through stretch-activated channel/MAPK pathways in pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease model rats. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0235824. [PMID: 32881898 PMCID: PMC7470280 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension due to left heart disease (PH-LHD) is a momentous pulmonary hypertension disease, and left heart disease is the most familiar cause. Mechanical stretching may be a crucial cause of vascular remodeling. While, the underlining mechanism of mechanical stretching-induced in remodeling of pulmonary vein in the early stage of PH-LHD has not been completely elucidated. In our study, the PH-LHD model rats were successfully constructed. After 25 days, doppler echocardiography and hemodynamic examination were performed. In addition, after treatment, the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) were determined by ELISA, immunohistochemistry and western blot assays in the pulmonary veins. Moreover, the pathological change of pulmonary tissues was evaluated by H&E staining. Our results uncovered that left ventricular insufficiency and interventricular septal shift could be observed in PH-LHD model rats, and the right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) and mean left atrial pressure (mLAP) were also elevated in PH-LHD model rats. Meanwhile, we found that MMP-9 and TGF-β1 could be highly expressed in PH-LHD model rats. Besides, we revealed that stretch-activated channel (SAC)/mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) signaling pathway could be involved in the upregulations of MMP-9 and TGF-β1 mediated by mechanical stretching in pulmonary vein. Therefore, current research revealed that mechanical stretching induced the increasing expressions of MMP-9 and TGF-β1 in pulmonary vein, which could be mediated by activation of SAC/MAPKs signaling pathway in the early stage of PH-LHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhang
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, P.R. China
- * E-mail:
| | - Wenhui Huang
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, P.R. China
| | - Hongjin Liu
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, P.R. China
| | - Yihan Zheng
- Department of Cardiac Surgery, Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, P.R. China
| | - Lianming Liao
- Department of Medical Laboratory, Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian Province, P.R. China
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7
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Xiao G, Zhuang W, Wang T, Lian G, Luo L, Ye C, Wang H, Xie L. Transcriptomic analysis identifies Toll-like and Nod-like pathways and necroptosis in pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:11409-11421. [PMID: 32860486 PMCID: PMC7576255 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammation and immunity play a causal role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary vascular remodelling and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). However, the pathways and mechanisms by which inflammation and immunity contribute to pulmonary vascular remodelling remain unknown. RNA sequencing was used to analyse the transcriptome in control and rats injected with monocrotaline (MCT) for various weeks. Using the transcriptional profiling of MCT‐induced PAH coupled with bioinformatics analysis, we clustered the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and chose the increased expression patterns associated with inflammatory and immune response. We found the enrichment of Toll‐like receptor (TLR) and Nod‐like receptor (NLR) pathways and identified NF‐κB‐mediated inflammatory and immune profiling in MCT‐induced PAH. Pathway‐based data integration and visualization showed the dysregulated TLR and NLR pathways, including increased expression of TLR2 and NLRP3, and their downstream molecules. Further analysis revealed that the activation of TLR and NLR pathways was associated with up‐regulation of damage‐associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and RIPK3‐mediated necroptosis was involved in the generation of DAMPs in MCT‐induced PAH. Collectively, we identify RIPK3‐mediated necroptosis and its triggered TLR and NLR pathways in the progression of pulmonary vascular remodelling, thus providing novel insights into the mechanisms underlying inflammation and immunity in the pathogenesis of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genfa Xiao
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China.,Department of General Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China.,Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Wei Zhuang
- Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingjun Wang
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China.,Department of General Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China.,Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Guili Lian
- Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Li Luo
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China.,Department of General Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China.,Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaoyi Ye
- Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Huajun Wang
- Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
| | - Liangdi Xie
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, People's Republic of China.,Department of General Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, People's Republic of China.,Fujian Hypertension Research Institute, The First Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University, People's Republic of China
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8
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Wang X, Lin L, Chai X, Wu Y, Li Y, Liu X. Hypoxic mast cells accelerate the proliferation, collagen accumulation and phenotypic alteration of human lung fibroblasts. Int J Mol Med 2020; 45:175-185. [PMID: 31746371 PMCID: PMC6889934 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2019.4400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary vascular remodeling and fibrosis are the critical pathological characteristics of hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. Our previous study demonstrated that hypoxia is involved in the functional alteration of lung fibroblasts, but the underlying mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of mast cells on the proliferation, function and phenotype of fibroblasts under hypoxic conditions. Hypoxia facilitated proliferation and the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α and interleukin (IL)‑6, in human mast cells (HMC‑1). RNA sequencing identified 2,077 upregulated and 2,418 downregulated mRNAs in human fetal lung fibroblasts (HFL‑1) cultured in hypoxic conditioned medium from HMC‑1 cells compared with normoxic controls, which are involved in various pathways, including extracellular matrix organization, cell proliferation and migration. Conditioned medium from hypoxic HMC‑1 cells increased the proliferation and migration capacity of HFL‑1 and triggered phenotypic transition from fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. A greater accumulation of collagen type I and III was also observed in an HFL‑1 cell culture in hypoxic conditioned medium from HMC‑1 cells, compared with HFL‑1 cells cultured in normoxic control medium. The expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑9 and MMP‑13 was upregulated in HFL‑1 cells grown in hypoxic conditioned medium from HMC‑1 cells. Similar pathological phenomena, including accumulation of mast cells, activated collagen metabolism and vascular remodeling, were observed in a hypoxic rat model. The results of the present study provide direct evidence that the multiple effects of the hypoxic microenvironment and mast cells on fibroblasts contribute to pulmonary vascular remodeling, and this process appears to be among the most important mechanisms underlying hypoxic pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Xinmin Liu
- Correspondence to: Professor Xinmin Liu, Department of Geriatrics, Peking University First Hospital, 8 Xishiku Street, Beijing 100034, P.R. China, E-mail:
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9
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Xiao R, Zhu L, Su Y, Zhang J, Lu Y, Li J, Wang T, Fang J, Jing ZC, Dupuis J, Luo S, Hu Q. Monocrotaline pyrrole induces pulmonary endothelial damage through binding to and release from erythrocytes in lung during venous blood reoxygenation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2019; 316:L798-L809. [PMID: 30785344 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00279.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocrotaline has been widely used to establish an animal model of pulmonary hypertension, most frequently in rats. An important feature of this model resides in the selectivity of monocrotaline injury toward the pulmonary vascular endothelium versus the systemic vasculature when administrated at standard dosage. The toxic metabolite of monocrotaline, monocrotaline pyrrole, is transported by erythrocytes. This study aimed to reveal whether partial pressure of oxygen of blood determined the binding and release of monocrotaline pyrrole from erythrocytes in rats with one subcutaneous injection of monocrotatline at the standard dosage of 60 mg/kg. Our experiments demonstrated that monocrotaline pyrrole bound to and released from erythrocytes at the physiological levels of partial pressure of oxygen in venous and arterial blood, respectively, and then aggregated on pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Monocrotaline pyrrole-induced damage of endothelial cells was also dependent on partial pressure of oxygen. In conclusion, our results demonstrate the importance of oxygen partial pressure on monocrotaline pyrrole binding to erythrocytes and on aggregation and injury of pulmonary endothelial cells. We suggest that these mechanisms contribute to pulmonary selectivity of this toxic injury model of pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xiao
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Liping Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuan Su
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiwei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Yankai Lu
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jiansha Li
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Jing Fang
- Department of Cardiothoracic and Vascular Surgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology , Wuhan China
| | - Zhi-Cheng Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Fu Wai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College , Beijing , China
| | - Jocelyn Dupuis
- Montreal Heart Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Université de Montréal , Montreal, Quebec , Canada
| | - Shengquan Luo
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Qinghua Hu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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10
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Carman BL, Predescu DN, Machado R, Predescu SA. Plexiform Arteriopathy in Rodent Models of Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2019; 189:1133-1144. [PMID: 30926336 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As time progresses, our understanding of disease pathology is propelled forward by technological advancements. Much of the advancements that aid in understanding disease mechanics are based on animal studies. Unfortunately, animal models often fail to recapitulate the entirety of the human disease. This is especially true with animal models used to study pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), a disease with two distinct phases. The first phase is defined by nonspecific medial and adventitial thickening of the pulmonary artery and is commonly reproduced in animal models, including the classic models (ie, hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension and monocrotaline lung injury model). However, many animal models, including the classic models, fail to capture the progressive, or second, phase of PAH. This is a stage defined by plexogenic arteriopathy, resulting in obliteration and occlusion of the small- to mid-sized pulmonary vessels. Each of these two phases results in severe pulmonary hypertension that directly leads to right ventricular hypertrophy, decompensated right-sided heart failure, and death. Fortunately, newly developed animal models have begun to address the second, more severe, side of PAH and aid in our ability to develop new therapeutics. Moreover, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation emerges as a central molecular mediator of plexiform lesions in both experimental models and human disease. Therefore, this review will focus on plexiform arteriopathy in experimental animal models of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon L Carman
- Division of Pulmonary Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Dan N Predescu
- Division of Pulmonary Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Roberto Machado
- Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care, Sleep, and Occupational Medicine, Department of Medicine, Indiana University, Indianapolis, Indiana
| | - Sanda A Predescu
- Division of Pulmonary Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Rush Medical College, Chicago, Illinois.
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11
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Su H, Xu X, Yan C, Shi Y, Hu Y, Dong L, Ying S, Ying K, Zhang R. LncRNA H19 promotes the proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells through AT 1R via sponging let-7b in monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension. Respir Res 2018; 19:254. [PMID: 30547791 PMCID: PMC6295077 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-018-0956-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is related to inflammation, and the lncRNA H19 is associated with inflammation. However, whether PDGF-BB-H19-let-7b-AT1R axis contributes to the pathogenesis of PAH has not been thoroughly elucidated to date. This study investigated the role of H19 in PAH and its related mechanism. METHODS In the present study, SD rats, C57/BL6 mice and H19-/- mice were injected with monocrotaline (MCT) to establish a PAH model. H19 was detected in the cytokine-stimulated pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (PASMCs), serum and lungs of rats/mice. H19 overexpression and knockdown experiments were also conducted. A dual luciferase reporter assay was used to explore whether let-7b is a sponge miRNA of H19, and AT1R is a novel target of let-7b. A CCK-8 assay and flow cytometry were used to analyse cell proliferation. RESULTS The results showed that H19 was highly expressed in the serum and lungs of MCT-induced rats/mice, and H19 was upregulated by PDGF-BB in vitro. H19 upregulated AT1R expression via sponging miRNA let-7b following PDGF-BB stimulation. AT1R is a novel target of let-7b. Moreover, the overexpression of H19 and AT1R could facilitate PASMCs proliferation in vitro. H19 knockout protected mice from pulmonary artery remodeling and PAH following MCT treatment. CONCLUSION Our study showed that H19 is highly expressed in MCT-induced rodent lungs and upregulated by PDGF-BB. The H19-let-7b-AT1R axis contributed to the pathogenesis of PAH by stimulating PASMCs proliferation. The H19 knockout had a protective role in the development of PAH. H19 may be a potential tar-get for the treatment of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Su
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Xiaoling Xu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Chao Yan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Yangfeng Shi
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Yanjie Hu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Liangliang Dong
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Songmin Ying
- Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 88 Jiefang Road, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Kejing Ying
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
| | - Ruifeng Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, No. 3 Qingchun Road East, Zhejiang, Hangzhou China
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12
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Thenappan T, Chan SY, Weir EK. Role of extracellular matrix in the pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2018; 315:H1322-H1331. [PMID: 30141981 PMCID: PMC6297810 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00136.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the pulmonary arteries with increased collagen deposition, cross-linkage of collagen, and breakdown of elastic laminae. Extracellular matrix remodeling occurs due to an imbalance in the proteolytic enzymes, such as matrix metalloproteinases, elastases, and lysyl oxidases, and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases, which, in turn, results from endothelial cell dysfunction, endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and inflammation. ECM remodeling and pulmonary vascular stiffness occur early in the disease process, before the onset of the increase in the intimal and medial thickness and pulmonary artery pressure, suggesting that the ECM is a cause rather than a consequence of distal pulmonary vascular remodeling. ECM remodeling and increased pulmonary arterial stiffness promote proliferation of pulmonary vascular cells (endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and adventitial fibroblasts) through mechanoactivation of various signaling pathways, including transcriptional cofactors YAP/TAZ, transforming growth factor-β, transient receptor potential channels, Toll-like receptor, and NF-κB. Inhibition of ECM remodeling and mechanotransduction prevents and reverses experimental pulmonary hypertension. These data support a central role for ECM remodeling in the pathogenesis of the PAH, making it an attractive novel therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thenappan Thenappan
- Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Stephen Y Chan
- Center for Pulmonary Vascular Biology and Medicine, Pittsburgh Heart, Lung, Blood, and Vascular Medicine Institute, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pennsylvania
- University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pennsylvania
| | - E Kenneth Weir
- Cardiovascular Division, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota
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13
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Pyruvate dehydrogenase activation precedes the down-regulation of fatty acid oxidation in monocrotaline-induced myocardial toxicity in mice. Heart Vessels 2018; 34:545-555. [DOI: 10.1007/s00380-018-1293-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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14
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Chen L, Zhang B, Liu J, Fan Z, Weng Z, Geng P, Wang X, Lin G. Pharmacokinetics and Bioavailability Study of Monocrotaline in Mouse Blood by Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:1578643. [PMID: 30186850 PMCID: PMC6110008 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1578643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The present study aimed to develop a simple and sensitive method for quantitative determination of monocrotaline (MCT) in mouse blood employing ultra-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI/MS/MS) using rhynchophylline as an internal standard. METHODS Proteins present in the blood samples were precipitated using acetonitrile. MCT was separated using a 1.7-μm ethylene bridged hybrid (BEH) C18 column (2.1 mm × 50 mm) with a gradient elution program and a constant flow rate of 0.4 mL/min. The LC mobile phase consisted of 10 mmol/L ammonium acetate (containing 0.1% formic acid) and acetonitrile. The total elution time was 4.0 min. The analytes were detected on a UPLC-ESI mass spectrometer in multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode and quantified. RESULTS The new method for the determination of MCT has a satisfactory linear detection range of 1-2000 ng/mL and excellent linearity (r = 0.9971). The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) of MCT is 1.0 ng/mL. Intra- and interassay precisions of MCT were ≤13% with an accuracy from 96.2% to 106.6%. The average recovery of the new method was >75.0%, and matrix effects were between 89.0% and 94.3%. Based on the pharmacokinetics data, the bioavailability of MCT in mice was 88.3% after oral administration. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that the newly standardized method for quantitative determination of MCT in whole blood is fast, reliable, specific, sensitive, and suitable for pharmacokinetic studies of MCT after intravenous or intragastric administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lianguo Chen
- The Third Clinical Institute Affiliated with Wenzhou Medical University & Wenzhou People's Hospital, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Analytical and Testing Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Jinlai Liu
- The Third Clinical Institute Affiliated with Wenzhou Medical University & Wenzhou People's Hospital, Wenzhou 325000, China
| | - Zhehua Fan
- Analytical and Testing Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Ziwei Weng
- Analytical and Testing Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Peiwu Geng
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacy, The People's Hospital of Lishui, Lishui 323000, China
| | - Xianqin Wang
- Analytical and Testing Center, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China
| | - Guanyang Lin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China
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15
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Taylor S, Dirir O, Zamanian RT, Rabinovitch M, Thompson AAR. The Role of Neutrophils and Neutrophil Elastase in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018; 5:217. [PMID: 30131961 PMCID: PMC6090899 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a severe vasculopathy characterized by the presence of fibrotic lesions in the arterial wall and the loss of small distal pulmonary arteries. The vasculopathy is accompanied by perivascular inflammation and increased protease levels, with neutrophil elastase notably implicated in aberrant vascular remodeling. However, the source of elevated elastase levels in PAH remains unclear. A major source of neutrophil elastase is the neutrophil, an understudied cell population in PAH. The principal function of neutrophils is to destroy invading pathogens by means of phagocytosis and NET formation, but proteases, chemokines, and cytokines implicated in PAH can be released by and/or prime and activate neutrophils. This review focuses on the contribution of inflammation to the development and progression of the disease, highlighting studies implicating neutrophils, neutrophil elastase, and other neutrophil proteases in PAH. The roles of cytokines, chemokines, and neutrophil elastase in the disease are discussed and we describe new insight into the role neutrophils potentially play in the pathogenesis of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalina Taylor
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Vera Moulton Wall Center for Pulmonary Vascular Disease, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Omar Dirir
- Infection, Immunity, and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Roham T. Zamanian
- Vera Moulton Wall Center for Pulmonary Vascular Disease, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Marlene Rabinovitch
- Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
- Vera Moulton Wall Center for Pulmonary Vascular Disease, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - A. A. Roger Thompson
- Infection, Immunity, and Cardiovascular Disease, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
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16
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Dieffenbach PB, Maracle M, Tschumperlin DJ, Fredenburgh LE. Mechanobiological Feedback in Pulmonary Vascular Disease. Front Physiol 2018; 9:951. [PMID: 30090065 PMCID: PMC6068271 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular stiffening in the pulmonary arterial bed is increasingly recognized as an early disease marker and contributor to right ventricular workload in pulmonary hypertension. Changes in pulmonary artery stiffness throughout the pulmonary vascular tree lead to physiologic alterations in pressure and flow characteristics that may contribute to disease progression. These findings have led to a greater focus on the potential contributions of extracellular matrix remodeling and mechanical signaling to pulmonary hypertension pathogenesis. Several recent studies have demonstrated that the cellular response to vascular stiffness includes upregulation of signaling pathways that precipitate further vascular remodeling, a process known as mechanobiological feedback. The extracellular matrix modifiers, mechanosensors, and mechanotransducers responsible for this process have become increasingly well-recognized. In this review, we discuss the impact of vascular stiffening on pulmonary hypertension morbidity and mortality, evidence in favor of mechanobiological feedback in pulmonary hypertension pathogenesis, and the major contributors to mechanical signaling in the pulmonary vasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul B Dieffenbach
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Marcy Maracle
- Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Daniel J Tschumperlin
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Laura E Fredenburgh
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
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17
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α-Solanine reverses pulmonary vascular remodeling and vascular angiogenesis in experimental pulmonary artery hypertension. J Hypertens 2018; 35:2419-2435. [PMID: 28704260 DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0000000000001475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Similar to cancer, pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is characterized by vascular remodeling, which leads to obliteration of the small pulmonary arteriole, with marked proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC) and/or endothelial cells dysfunction. Aberrant expression of tumor suppressor genes is closely associated with susceptibility to PAH. We hypothesized that α-solanine, a glycoalkaloid found in members of the nightshade family known to have antitumor activity in different cancers, reverses experimental PAH by activating the tumor suppressor-axis inhibition protein 2 (AXIN2). METHODS AND RESULTS We investigated the effects of α-solanine on PASMC proliferation and apoptosis by using 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine proliferation assay, proliferating cell nuclear antigen and Ki67 staining, TUNEL and Anexine V assays. Scratch wound healing and tube formation assays were also used to study migration of endothelial cells. In vitro, we demonstrated, using cultured human PASMC from PAH patients, that α-solanine reversed dysfunctional AXIN2, β-catenin and bone morphogenetic protein receptor type-2 signaling, whereas restored [Ca]i, IL-6 and IL-8, contributing to the decrease of PAH-PASMC proliferation and resistance to apoptosis. Meanwhile, α-solanine inhibits proliferation, migration and tube formation of PAH-pulmonary artery endothelial cells by inhibiting Akt/GSK-3α activation. In vivo, α-solanine administration decreases distal pulmonary arteries remodeling, mean pulmonary arteries pressure and right ventricular hypertrophy in both monocrotaline-induced and Sugen/hypoxia-induced PAH in mice. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates that AXIN2/β-catenin axis and Akt pathway can be therapeutically targeted by α-solanine in PAH. α-Solanine could be used as a new therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PAH.
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18
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Egemnazarov B, Crnkovic S, Nagy BM, Olschewski H, Kwapiszewska G. Right ventricular fibrosis and dysfunction: Actual concepts and common misconceptions. Matrix Biol 2018; 68-69:507-521. [PMID: 29343458 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2018.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Fibrosis and remodeling of the right ventricle (RV) are associated with RV dysfunction and mortality of patients with pulmonary hypertension (PH) but it is unknown how much RV fibrosis contributes to RV dysfunction and mortality. RV fibrosis manifests as fibroblast accumulation and collagen deposition which may be excessive. Although extracellular matrix deposition leads to elevated ventricular stiffness, it is not known to which extent it affects RV function. Various animal models of pulmonary hypertension have been established to investigate the role of fibrosis in RV dysfunction and failure. However, they do not perfectly resemble the human disease. In the current review we describe the major characteristics of RV fibrosis, molecular mechanisms regulating the fibrotic process, and discuss how therapeutic targeting of fibrosis might affect RV function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Slaven Crnkovic
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria
| | - Bence M Nagy
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria
| | - Horst Olschewski
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria; Division of Pulmonology, Department of Internal Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Grazyna Kwapiszewska
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Lung Vascular Research, Graz, Austria; Institute of Physiology, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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19
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Dihydromyricetin prevents monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension in rats. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 96:825-833. [PMID: 29078260 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH) is a chronic and deadly disease, for which effective medical treatments are lacking. Here, we investigated whether 2R,3R-dihydromyricetin (DHM) could prevent monocrotaline (MCT)-induced PAH in rats. The MCT-injected rats were treated with normal saline or DHM (100mg/kg body weight/d) for 4 weeks, followed by measurements of right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP), right ventricular hypertrophy index (RVHI), pulmonary arterial remodeling (PAR), and expression levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10. In vitro, we assessed the role of DHM on IL-6-induced migration of primary human pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cells (HPASMCs). We found that DHM treatment attenuated changes in RVSP, RVHI, and PAR in MCT-injected PAH rats. The observed increase of IL-6 levels in PAH rats was inhibited by DHM treatment. In vitro, DHM pretreatment reduced IL-6-induced HPASMC migration. Furthermore, MCT- and IL-6-mediated increases in MMP9 and P-STAT3 (tyr705) PY-STAT3 levels were suppressed by DHM treatment in vivo and in vitro. These results suggest that DHM could prevent MCT-induced rat PAH and IL-6-induced HPASMC migration through a mechanism involving inhibiting of the STAT3/MMP9 axis.
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20
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Yin J, You S, Liu H, Chen L, Zhang C, Hu H, Xue M, Cheng W, Wang Y, Li X, Shi Y, Li N, Yan S, Li X. Role of P2X 7R in the development and progression of pulmonary hypertension. Respir Res 2017. [PMID: 28646872 PMCID: PMC5483271 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-017-0603-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) is a devastating disease that lacks sufficient treatment. Studies have shown that the Nod-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome contributes to PAH pathogenesis, but the role of the upstream molecular P2X7 receptor (P2X7R) has remained unexplored. We investigated the role of P2X7R in the pathogenesis of PAH. METHODS AND RESULTS PH was induced by a single subcutaneous injection of monocrotaline (MCT) (60 mg/kg) on left pneumonectomised Sprague-Dawley rats, as validated by significant increases in pulmonary artery pressure and vessel wall thickness. Marked P2X7R was detected by predominant PA immunostaining in lungs from PH rats. Western blot revealed a significant increase in the protein levels of P2X7R as well as NLRP3 and caspase-1 in the diseased lung tissue compared with normal tissue. The rats received A-740003 (a selective P2X7 receptor antagonist, 30 mg/kg) daily starting from 1 week before or 2 weeks after MCT injection. Consequently, A-740003 reversed the NLRP3 inflammasome upregulation, significantly decreased the mean right ventricular (RV) pressure and RV hypertrophy, and reversed pulmonary arterial remodelling 4 weeks after MCT injection, as both a pretreatment and rescue intervention. Notably, A-740003 significantly reduced macrophage and pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, as measured via bronchoalveolar lavage. The recruitment of macrophages as well as collagen fibre deposition in the perivascular areas were also reduced, as confirmed by histological staining. CONCLUSIONS P2X7R contributes to the pathogenesis of PH, probably in association with activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Blockade of P2X7R might be applied as a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yin
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Shuling You
- Adicon Company, Department of Pathology, Wangkai Infectious Diseases Hospital of Zaozhuang City, Zaozhuang, Shandong Province, China
| | - Haopeng Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Zhangqiu People Hospital, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Li Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chengdong Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, the Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Hesheng Hu
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Mei Xue
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Wenjuan Cheng
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Ye Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Xinran Li
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Yugen Shi
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Nannan Li
- Department of Emergency, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China
| | - Suhua Yan
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China.
| | - Xiaolu Li
- Department of Cardiology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, No. 16766 Jingshi Road, Lixia District, Jinan, Shandong Province, China. .,Department of Emergency, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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21
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Lu Y, Guo H, Sun Y, Pan X, Dong J, Gao D, Chen W, Xu Y, Xu D. Valsartan attenuates pulmonary hypertension via suppression of mitogen activated protein kinase signaling and matrix metalloproteinase expression in rodents. Mol Med Rep 2017; 16:1360-1368. [PMID: 28586065 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
It has previously been demonstrated that the renin-angiotensin system is involved in the pathogenesis and development of pulmonary hypertension (PH). However, the efficacy of angiotensin II type I (AT1) receptor blockers in the treatment of PH is variable. The present study examined the effects of the AT1 receptor blocker valsartan on monocrotaline (MCT)‑induced PH in rats and chronic hypoxia‑induced PH in mice. The results demonstrated that valsartan markedly attenuated development of PH in rats and mice, as indicated by reduced right ventricular systolic pressure, diminished lung vascular remodeling and decreased right ventricular hypertrophy, compared with vehicle treated animals. Immunohistochemical analyses of proliferating cell nuclear antigen expression revealed that valsartan suppressed smooth muscle cell proliferation. Western blot analysis demonstrated that valsartan limited activation of p38, c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase 1/2 and extracellular signal‑regulated kinase 1/2 signaling pathways and significantly reduced MCT‑induced upregulation of pulmonary matrix metalloproteinases‑2 and ‑9, and transforming growth factor‑β1 expression. The results suggested that valsartan attenuates development of PH in rodents by reducing expression of extracellular matrix remodeling factors and limiting smooth muscle cell proliferation to decrease pathological vascular remodeling. Therefore, valsartan may be a valuable future therapeutic approach for the treatment of PH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuyan Lu
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Haipeng Guo
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Qilu Hospital of Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250000, P.R. China
| | - Yuxi Sun
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Xin Pan
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Jia Dong
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Di Gao
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Wei Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Yawei Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
| | - Dachun Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200072, P.R. China
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Xiao R, Su Y, Feng T, Sun M, Liu B, Zhang J, Lu Y, Li J, Wang T, Zhu L, Hu Q. Monocrotaline Induces Endothelial Injury and Pulmonary Hypertension by Targeting the Extracellular Calcium-Sensing Receptor. J Am Heart Assoc 2017; 6:JAHA.116.004865. [PMID: 28330842 PMCID: PMC5533002 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.116.004865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Monocrotaline has been widely used to establish an animal model of pulmonary hypertension. The molecular target underlying monocrotaline-induced pulmonary artery endothelial injury and pulmonary hypertension remains unknown. The extracellular calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) and particularly its extracellular domain hold the potential structural basis for monocrotaline to bind. This study aimed to reveal whether monocrotaline induces pulmonary hypertension by targeting the CaSR. METHODS AND RESULTS Nuclear magnetic resonance screening through WaterLOGSY (water ligand-observed gradient spectroscopy) and saturation transfer difference on protein preparation demonstrated the binding of monocrotaline to the CaSR. Immunocytochemical staining showed colocalization of monocrotaline with the CaSR in cultured pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Cellular thermal shift assay further verified the binding of monocrotaline to the CaSR in pulmonary arteries from monocrotaline-injected rats. Monocrotaline enhanced the assembly of CaSR, triggered the mobilization of calcium signaling, and damaged pulmonary artery endothelial cells in a CaSR-dependent manner. Finally, monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension in rats was significantly attenuated or abolished by the inhibitor, the general or lung knockdown or knockout of CaSR. CONCLUSIONS Monocrotaline aggregates on and activates the CaSR of pulmonary artery endothelial cells to trigger endothelial damage and, ultimately, induces pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Xiao
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Yuan Su
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Tian Feng
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Mengxiang Sun
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Bingxun Liu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Jiwei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Yankai Lu
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Jiansha Li
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Department of Pathology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Department of Respiratory Medicine, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Liping Zhu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China .,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
| | - Qinghua Hu
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China .,Key Laboratory of Pulmonary Diseases of Ministry of Health, School of Basic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China.,Key Laboratory of Molecular Biophysics of the Ministry of Education, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Wuhan, China
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23
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Sarkar J, Nandy SK, Chowdhury A, Chakraborti T, Chakraborti S. Inhibition of MMP-9 by green tea catechins and prediction of their interaction by molecular docking analysis. Biomed Pharmacother 2016; 84:340-347. [PMID: 27668533 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2016.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Green tea polyphenolic catechins have been shown to prevent various types of diseases such as pulmonary hypertension (PAH), cancer and cardiac and neurological disorders. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in the development of PAH. The present study demonstrated that among the four green tea catechins (EGCG, ECG, EC and EGC), EGCG and ECG inhibit pro-/active MMP-9 activities in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell culture supernatant. Based on the above, we investigated the interactions of pro-/active MMP-9 with the green tea catechins by computational methods. In silico molecular docking analysis revealed a strong interaction between pro-/active MMP-9 and EGCG/ECG, and galloyl group appears to be responsible for this enhanced interaction. The molecular docking studies corroborate our experimental observation that EGCG and ECG are mainly active in preventing both the proMMP-9 and MMP-9 activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaganmay Sarkar
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
| | - Suman Kumar Nandy
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
| | - Animesh Chowdhury
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
| | - Tapati Chakraborti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
| | - Sajal Chakraborti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235, West Bengal, India.
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24
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Cero FT, Hillestad V, Sjaastad I, Yndestad A, Aukrust P, Ranheim T, Lunde IG, Olsen MB, Lien E, Zhang L, Haugstad SB, Løberg EM, Christensen G, Larsen KO, Skjønsberg OH. Absence of the inflammasome adaptor ASC reduces hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension in mice. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2015; 309:L378-87. [PMID: 26071556 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00342.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension is a serious condition that can lead to premature death. The mechanisms involved are incompletely understood although a role for the immune system has been suggested. Inflammasomes are part of the innate immune system and consist of the effector caspase-1 and a receptor, where nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) is the best characterized and interacts with the adaptor protein apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain (ASC). To investigate whether ASC and NLRP3 inflammasome components are involved in hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension, we utilized mice deficient in ASC and NLRP3. Active caspase-1, IL-18, and IL-1β, which are regulated by inflammasomes, were measured in lung homogenates in wild-type (WT), ASC(-/-), and NLRP3(-/-) mice, and phenotypical changes related to pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular remodeling were characterized after hypoxic exposure. Right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) of ASC(-/-) mice was significantly lower than in WT exposed to hypoxia (40.8 ± 1.5 mmHg vs. 55.8 ± 2.4 mmHg, P < 0.001), indicating a substantially reduced pulmonary hypertension in mice lacking ASC. Magnetic resonance imaging further supported these findings by demonstrating reduced right ventricular remodeling. RVSP of NLRP3(-/-) mice exposed to hypoxia was not significantly altered compared with WT hypoxia. Whereas hypoxia increased protein levels of caspase-1, IL-18, and IL-1β in WT and NLRP3(-/-) mice, this response was absent in ASC(-/-) mice. Moreover, ASC(-/-) mice displayed reduced muscularization and collagen deposition around arteries. In conclusion, hypoxia-induced elevated right ventricular pressure and remodeling were attenuated in mice lacking the inflammasome adaptor protein ASC, suggesting that inflammasomes play an important role in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadila Telarevic Cero
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway;
| | - Vigdis Hillestad
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ivar Sjaastad
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Inflammation Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Arne Yndestad
- Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Inflammation Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Pål Aukrust
- Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Inflammation Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Section of Clinical Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Trine Ranheim
- Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; K.G. Jebsen Inflammation Research Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ida Gjervold Lunde
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Maria Belland Olsen
- Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Research Institute of Internal Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Egil Lien
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Department of Medicine, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts; Centre of Inflammation Research, Department of Cancer Research and Molecular Medicine, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Lili Zhang
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Solveig Bjærum Haugstad
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Else Marit Løberg
- Department of Pathology, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Geir Christensen
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Karl-Otto Larsen
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Center for Heart Failure Research, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ole Henning Skjønsberg
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Oslo University Hospital Ullevål and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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25
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Kameshima S, Kazama K, Okada M, Yamawaki H. Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase mediates monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension via reactive oxygen species-dependent vascular remodeling. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2015; 308:H1298-305. [DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00864.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial (PA) hypertension (PAH) is a progressive and lethal disease that is caused by increased vascular contractile reactivity and structural remodeling. These changes contribute to increasing pulmonary peripheral vascular resistance, finally leading to right heart failure and death. Eukaryotic elongation factor 2 kinase (eEF2K) is a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase. We previously revealed that eEF2K protein increases in the mesenteric artery from spontaneously hypertensive rats and partly mediates the development of hypertension via a promotion of ROS-dependent vascular inflammatory responses and proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells. However, a role of eEF2K in the pathogenesis of PAH is unknown. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that eEF2K may be involved in the pathogenesis of PAH. PAH was induced by a single intraperitoneal injection of monocrotaline (MCT; 60 mg/kg) to rats. A specific eEF2K inhibitor, A-484954 (2.5 mg·kg−1·day−1), was intraperitoneally injected for 14 days. Long-term A-484954 treatment inhibited MCT-induced increased PA pressure. It was revealed that A-484954 inhibited MCT-induced PA hypertrophy and fibrosis but not impairment of endothelium-dependent and -independent relaxation. Furthermore, A-484954 inhibited MCT-induced NADPH oxidase-1 expression and ROS generation as well as matrix metalloproteinase-2 activation. In conclusion, the present results suggest that eEF2K at least partly mediates MCT-induced PAH via stimulation of vascular structural remodeling perhaps through NADPH oxidase-1/ROS/matrix metalloproteinase-2 pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Kameshima
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
| | - Kyosuke Kazama
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
| | - Muneyoshi Okada
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Yamawaki
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kitasato University, Towada, Aomori, Japan
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26
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Tan R, Li J, Peng X, Zhu L, Cai L, Wang T, Su Y, Irani K, Hu Q. GAPDH is critical for superior efficacy of female bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells on pulmonary hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 2013; 100:19-27. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvt165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
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27
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Patel M, Predescu D, Tandon R, Bardita C, Pogoriler J, Bhorade S, Wang M, Comhair S, Ryan-Hemnes A, Chen J, Machado R, Husain A, Erzurum S, Predescu S. A novel p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase/Elk-1 transcription factor-dependent molecular mechanism underlying abnormal endothelial cell proliferation in plexogenic pulmonary arterial hypertension. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:25701-25716. [PMID: 23893408 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.502674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Plexiform lesions (PLs), the hallmark of plexogenic pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), contain phenotypically altered, proliferative endothelial cells (ECs). The molecular mechanism that contributes to EC proliferation and formation of PLs is poorly understood. We now show that a decrease in intersectin-1s (ITSN-1s) expression due to granzyme B (GrB) cleavage during inflammation associated with PAH and the high p38/Erk1/2(MAPK) activity ratio caused by the GrB/ITSN cleavage products lead to EC proliferation and selection of a proliferative/plexiform EC phenotype. We used human pulmonary artery ECs of PAH subjects (EC(PAH)), paraffin-embedded and frozen human lung tissue, and animal models of PAH in conjunction with microscopy imaging, biochemical, and molecular biology approaches to demonstrate that GrB cleaves ITSN-1s, a prosurvival protein of lung ECs, and generates two biologically active fragments, an N-terminal fragment (GrB-EH(ITSN)) with EC proliferative potential and a C-terminal product with dominant negative effects on Ras/Erk1/2. The proliferative potential of GrB-EH(ITSN) is mediated via sustained phosphorylation of p38(MAPK) and Elk-1 transcription factor and abolished by chemical inhibition of p38(MAPK). Moreover, lung tissue of PAH animal models and human specimens and EC(PAH) express lower levels of ITSN-1s compared with controls and the GrB-EH(ITSN) cleavage product. Moreover, GrB immunoreactivity is associated with PLs in PAH lungs. The concurrent expression of the two cleavage products results in a high p38/Erk1/2(MAPK) activity ratio, which is critical for EC proliferation. Our findings identify a novel GrB-EH(ITSN)-dependent pathogenic p38(MAPK)/Elk-1 signaling pathway involved in the poorly understood process of PL formation in severe PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monal Patel
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Dan Predescu
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Rajive Tandon
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Cristina Bardita
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | | | - Sangeeta Bhorade
- Center for Lung Transplant, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637
| | - Minhua Wang
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Suzy Comhair
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195
| | - Anna Ryan-Hemnes
- Division of Allergy, Pulmonary, and Critical Care Medicine, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37240, and
| | - Jiwang Chen
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care Medicine, Sleep and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | - Roberto Machado
- Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care Medicine, Sleep and Allergy, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612
| | | | - Serpil Erzurum
- Department of Pathobiology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195
| | - Sanda Predescu
- From the Departments of Pharmacology and Medicine, Vascular Biology, and Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois 60612,.
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28
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Han C, Hong KH, Kim YH, Kim MJ, Song C, Kim MJ, Kim SJ, Raizada MK, Oh SP. SMAD1 deficiency in either endothelial or smooth muscle cells can predispose mice to pulmonary hypertension. Hypertension 2013; 61:1044-52. [PMID: 23478097 DOI: 10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.199158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A deficiency in bone morphogenetic protein receptor type 2 (BMPR2) signaling is a central contributor in the pathogenesis of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). We have recently shown that endothelial-specific Bmpr2 deletion by a novel L1Cre line resulted in pulmonary hypertension. SMAD1 is one of the canonical signal transducers of the BMPR2 pathway, and its reduced activity has been shown to be associated with PAH. To determine whether SMAD1 is an important downstream mediator of BMPR2 signaling in the pathogenesis of PAH, we analyzed pulmonary hypertension phenotypes in Smad1-conditional knockout mice by deleting the Smad1 gene either in endothelial cells or in smooth muscle cells using L1Cre or Tagln-Cre mouse lines, respectively. A significant number of the L1Cre(+);Smad1 (14/35) and Tagln-Cre(+);Smad1 (4/33) mutant mice showed elevated pulmonary pressure, right ventricular hypertrophy, and a thickening of pulmonary arterioles. A pulmonary endothelial cell line in which the Bmpr2 gene deletion can be induced by 4-hydroxy tamoxifen was established. SMAD1 phosphorylation in Bmpr2-deficient cells was markedly reduced by BMP4 but unaffected by BMP7. The sensitivity of SMAD2 phosphorylation by transforming growth factor-β1 was enhanced in the Bmpr2-deficient cells, and the inhibitory effect of transforming growth factor-β1-mediated SMAD2 phosphorylation by BMP4 was impaired in the Bmpr2-deficient cells. Furthermore, transcript levels of several known transforming growth factor-β downstream genes implicated in pulmonary hypertension were elevated in the Bmpr2-deficient cells. Taken together, these data suggest that SMAD1 is a critical mediator of BMPR2 signaling pertinent to PAH, and that an impaired balance between BMP4 and transforming growth factor-β1 may account for the pathogenesis of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chul Han
- Department of Physiology and Functional Genomics, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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29
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Freund-Michel V, Guibert C, Dubois M, Courtois A, Marthan R, Savineau JP, Muller B. Reactive oxygen species as therapeutic targets in pulmonary hypertension. Ther Adv Respir Dis 2013; 7:175-200. [PMID: 23328248 DOI: 10.1177/1753465812472940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized by a progressive elevation of pulmonary arterial pressure due to alterations of both pulmonary vascular structure and function. This disease is rare but life-threatening, leading to the development of right heart failure. Current PH treatments, designed to target altered pulmonary vascular reactivity, include vasodilating prostanoids, phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors and endothelin-1 receptor antagonists. Although managing to slow the progression of the disease, these molecules still do not cure PH. More effective treatments need to be developed, and novel therapeutic strategies, targeting in particular vascular remodelling, are currently under investigation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important physiological messengers in vascular cells. In addition to atherosclerosis and other systemic vascular diseases, emerging evidence also support a role of ROS in PH pathogenesis. ROS production is increased in animal models of PH, associated with NADPH oxidases increased expression, in particular of several Nox enzymes thought to be the major source of ROS in the pulmonary vasculature. These increases have also been observed in vitro and in vivo in humans. Moreover, several studies have shown either the deleterious effect of agents promoting ROS generation on pulmonary vasculature or, conversely, the beneficial effect of antioxidant agents in animal models of PH. In these studies, ROS production has been directly linked to pulmonary vascular remodelling, endothelial dysfunction, altered vasoconstrictive responses, inflammation and modifications of the extracellular matrix, all important features of PH pathophysiology. Altogether, these findings indicate that ROS are interesting therapeutic targets in PH. Blockade of ROS-dependent signalling pathways, or disruption of sources of ROS in the pulmonary vasculature, targeting in particular Nox enzymes, represent promising new therapeutic strategies in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Freund-Michel
- Laboratoire de Pharmacologie-INSERM U1045, UFR des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Université Bordeaux Segalen, Case 83, 146 Rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France.
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30
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Xue H, Sun K, Xie W, Hu G, Kong H, Wang Q, Wang H. Etanercept attenuates short-term cigarette-smoke-exposure-induced pulmonary arterial remodelling in rats by suppressing the activation of TNF-a/NF-kB signal and the activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2012; 25:208-15. [PMID: 22724137 DOI: 10.1016/j.pupt.2012.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of cigarette-smoke-exposure-induced pulmonary vasculature impairment is unclear. Cigarette-smoke-exposure-induced the accumulation of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and upregulates the expression and activities of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) involved in smoke-induced vascular remodelling, which are important processes in the pathogenesis of vasculature impairment. The TNF-α antagonist Etanercept is an anti-inflammatory drug with a potential role in regulating MMP expression. To determine the effect of Etanercept on short-term smoke-induced pulmonary arteriole impairment and investigate its possible mechanism, male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to cigarette-smoke daily for two weeks in both the absence and presence of Etanercept. Cigarette-smoke-exposure-induced elevation of mean pulmonary artery pressures and medial hypertrophy of pulmonary arterioles were partially reduced by Etanercept. Up-regulation of the expression and activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9, induced by cigarette-smoke, were also suppressed significantly by Etanercept. Furthermore, Etanercept treatment significantly attenuated cigarette-smoke-induced TNFα accumulation and activation of nuclear factor NF-kB signal. These results suggest that Etanercept have the protective effects in cigarette-smoke-induced pulmonary vascular remodelling, with the attenuation of the up-regulated expression and activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 and activation of TNF-α/NF-kB signal pathway probably being involved as part of its mechanism. Our study might provide insight into the development of new interventions for vasculature impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Xue
- Department of respiratory medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, and Department of Pharmacology and Neurobiology, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, PR China.
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31
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Gomez-Arroyo J, Saleem SJ, Mizuno S, Syed AA, Bogaard HJ, Abbate A, Taraseviciene-Stewart L, Sung Y, Kraskauskas D, Farkas D, Conrad DH, Nicolls MR, Voelkel NF. A brief overview of mouse models of pulmonary arterial hypertension: problems and prospects. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2012; 302:L977-91. [PMID: 22307907 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00362.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Many chronic pulmonary diseases are associated with pulmonary hypertension (PH) and pulmonary vascular remodeling, which is a term that continues to be used to describe a wide spectrum of vascular abnormalities. Pulmonary vascular structural changes frequently increase pulmonary vascular resistance, causing PH and right heart failure. Although rat models had been standard models of PH research, in more recent years the availability of genetically engineered mice has made this species attractive for many investigators. Here we review a large amount of data derived from experimental PH reports published since 1996. These studies using wild-type and genetically designed mice illustrate the challenges and opportunities provided by these models. Hemodynamic measurements are difficult to obtain in mice, and right heart failure has not been investigated in mice. Anatomical, cellular, and genetic differences distinguish mice and rats, and pharmacogenomics may explain the degree of PH and the particular mode of pulmonary vascular adaptation and also the response of the right ventricle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Gomez-Arroyo
- Victoria Johnson Center for Obstructive Lung Disease Research, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1220 E. Broad St., Richmond, VA 23298, USA
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32
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Transgenic expression of human matrix metalloproteinase-1 attenuates pulmonary arterial hypertension in mice. Clin Sci (Lond) 2011; 122:83-92. [PMID: 21793800 DOI: 10.1042/cs20110295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
PAH (pulmonary arterial hypertension) is a debilitating and life-threatening disease, often affecting young people. We specifically expressed human MMP-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1) in mouse macrophages and examined its effects in attenuating the decompensating features of MCT (monocrotaline)-induced PAH. Measurement of RV (right ventricular) pressure revealed a 2.5-fold increase after treatment with MCT, which was reduced to 1.5-fold in MMP-1 transgenic mice. There was conspicuous pulmonary inflammation with chronic infiltration of mononuclear cells after the administration of MCT, which was significantly diminished in transgenic mice. Furthermore, transgenic mice showed decreased collagen deposition compared with WT (wild-type). Staining for Mac-3 (macrophage-3) and α-SMA (α-smooth muscle actin) revealed extensive infiltration of macrophages and medial hypertrophy of large pulmonary vessels with complete occlusion of small arteries respectively. These changes were markedly reduced in MMP-1 transgenic mice compared with WT. Western blotting for molecules involved in cell multiplication and proliferation depicted a significant decrease in the lung tissue of transgenic mice after the treatment with MCT. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that transgenic expression of human MMP-1 decreased proliferation of smooth muscle cells and prevented excessive deposition of collagen in the pulmonary arterial tree. Our results indicate that up-regulation of MMP-1 could attenuate the debilitation of human PAH and provide an option for therapeutic intervention.
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33
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Ali OF, Growcott EJ, Butrous GS, Wharton J. Pleiotropic effects of statins in distal human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. Respir Res 2011; 12:137. [PMID: 21999923 PMCID: PMC3213146 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-12-137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent clinical data suggest statins have transient but significant effects in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. In this study we explored the molecular effects of statins on distal human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) and their relevance to proliferation and apoptosis in pulmonary arterial hypertension. METHODS Primary distal human PASMCs from patients and controls were treated with lipophilic (simvastatin, atorvastatin, mevastatin and fluvastatin), lipophobic (pravastatin) and nitric-oxide releasing statins and studied in terms of their DNA synthesis, proliferation, apoptosis, matrix metalloproteinase-9 and endothelin-1 release. RESULTS Treatment of human PASMCs with selected statins inhibited DNA synthesis, proliferation and matrix metalloproteinase-9 production in a concentration-dependent manner. Statins differed in their effectiveness, the rank order of anti-mitogenic potency being simvastatin > atorvastatin > > pravastatin. Nevertheless, a novel nitric oxide-releasing derivative of pravastatin (NCX 6550) was effective. Lipophilic statins, such as simvastatin, also enhanced the anti-proliferative effects of iloprost and sildenafil, promoted apoptosis and inhibited the release of the mitogen and survival factor endothelin-1. These effects were reversed by mevalonate and the isoprenoid intermediate geranylgeranylpyrophosphate and were mimicked by inhibitors of the Rho and Rho-kinase. CONCLUSIONS Lipophilic statins exert direct effects on distal human PASMCs and are likely to involve inhibition of Rho GTPase signalling. These findings compliment some of the recently documented effects in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omar F Ali
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital, Du Cane Road, London W12 ONN, UK.
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Pulmonary oxidative stress is increased in cyclooxygenase-2 knockdown mice with mild pulmonary hypertension induced by monocrotaline. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23439. [PMID: 21850273 PMCID: PMC3151294 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the role of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and downstream signaling of prostanoids in the pathogenesis of pulmonary hypertension (PH) using mice with genetically manipulated COX-2 expression. COX-2 knockdown (KD) mice, characterized by 80–90% suppression of COX-2, and wild-type (WT) control mice were treated weekly with monocrotaline (MCT) over 10 weeks. Mice were examined for cardiac hypertrophy/function and right ventricular pressure. Lung histopathological analysis was performed and various assays were carried out to examine oxidative stress, as well as gene, protein, cytokine and prostanoid expression. We found that MCT increased right ventricular systolic and pulmonary arterial pressures in comparison to saline-treated mice, with no evidence of cardiac remodeling. Gene expression of endothelin receptor A and thromboxane synthesis, regulators of vasoconstriction, were increased in MCT-treated lungs. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung sections demonstrated mild inflammation and perivascular edema but activation of inflammatory cells was not predominant under the experimental conditions. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression and indicators of oxidative stress in lungs were significantly increased, especially in COX-2 KD MCT-treated mice. Gene expression of NOX-4, but not NOX-2, two NADPH oxidase subunits crucial for superoxide generation, was induced by ∼4-fold in both groups of mice by MCT. Vasodilatory and anti-aggregatory prostacyclin was reduced by ∼85% only in MCT-treated COX-2 KD mice. This study suggests that increased oxidative stress-derived endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction and mild inflammation, exacerbated by the lack of COX-2, contribute to the pathogenesis of early stages of PH when mild hemodynamic changes are evident and not yet accompanied by vascular and cardiac remodeling.
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