Embryologic and Fetal Development of the Human Eyelid

Prenatal ultrasound diagnosis of complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization in a fetus: A case report and literature review

BACKGROUND

Complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization are relatively uncommon congenital eye malformations during the fetal period. Herein, we report a case of a fetus with complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization in both eyes and review previous prenatal reports of related cases.

CASE PRESENTATION

The patient was a 27-year-old pregnant woman, gravida 2, para 1, who was referred to our hospital for consultation at 23 weeks of gestation due to a diagnosis of fetal right renal agenesis at an external hospital. The ultrasound system of our hospital diagnosed the fetus with complete cryptophthalmos, congenital aphakia, and corneal vascularization, which was verified under the postnatal water basin test, anatomical and pathological sections.

CONCLUSIONS

Fetal ocular malformations are often associated with malformations of other organs, and if ultrasound findings are associated with such malformations, attention should be paid to the ocular examination to avoid missing the diagnosis.

Outcomes for expanded polytetrafluoroethylene strip in frontalis suspension surgery

PURPOSE

This study evaluates surgical outcomes and complication rates of frontalis suspension with expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE).

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study reviewed all patients undergoing frontalis suspension surgery using ePTFE as the sling material from January 1 2012 to March 3 2020 by a single surgeon at a single academic center. Two different surgical techniques were evaluated in the placement of the sling material. Demographic, clinical, and operative data were extracted. Outcome data including postoperative lid height, reoperation, and complication rate were extracted for the cohort and compared between the two surgical techniques. Descriptive statistics were utilized.

RESULTS

Sixty-four eyes from 49 unique patients were included in this study. Forty-three (67.2%) patients had isolated congenital blepharoptosis; 14 (21.9%) had blepharophimosis, ptosis, and epicanthus inversus syndrome (BPES); and 2 (3.1%) had cranial nerve III palsy. Fifty-one (79.7%) patients had no prior blepharoptosis surgery. Lid crease incision and stab incision techniques were utilized for 24 (37.5%) and 40 (62.5%) eyes, respectively. Overall, 21 (32.8%) eyes required reoperation with ePTFE to achieve appropriate eyelid height or contour. Only one patient experienced implant infection, requiring removal of ePTFE sling after a second reoperation. There were no cases of implant exposure or granuloma formation noted during the study period.

CONCLUSION

An ePTFE strip soaked in cefazolin prior to utilization in surgery is a viable material for frontalis suspension surgery, with a lower infectious or inflammatory complication rate than previously reported. However, reoperation rate was still relatively high.

Mucosal immune responses to Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in the ocular mucosa of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss, Walbaum), an ancient teleost fish

The eye, as a specialized visual organ, is directly exposed to the external environment, and, therefore, it faces constant challenges from external pathogenic organisms and toxins. In the ocular mucosa (OM) of mammals, mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues (MALTs) constitute the primary line of defense. However, the immune defense role of the OM remains unknown in aquatic vertebrates. To gain insights into the immune processes within the OM of teleost fish, we developed an infection model of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) OM using a parasite, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis (Ich). Immunofluorescence, qPCR, and H&E staining revealed that Ich successfully infiltrates the OM of rainbow trout, leading to pathological structural changes, as evidenced by A&B staining. Importantly, the qPCR results indicate an up-regulation of immune-related genes following Ich infection in the OM. Moreover, transcriptome analyses were conducted to detect immune responses and impairments in eye function within the OM of rainbow trout with Ich infection. The results of the transcriptome analysis that Ich infection can cause an extensive immune response in the OM, ultimately affecting ocular function. To the best of our knowledge, our findings represent for the first time that the teleost OM could act as an invasion site for parasites and trigger a strong mucosal immune response to parasitic infection.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42995-023-00199-6.

Autophagy and Exocytosis of Lipofuscin Into the Basolateral Extracellular Space of Human Retinal Pigment Epithelium From Fetal Development to Adolescence

Purpose

To undertake the first ultrastructural characterization of human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) differentiation from fetal development to adolescence.

Methods

Ten fetal eyes and three eyes aged six, nine, and 17 years were examined in the temporal retina adjacent to the optic nerve head by transmission electron microscopy. The area, number, and distribution of RPE organelles were quantified and interpreted within the context of adjacent photoreceptors, Bruch's membrane, and choriocapillaris maturation.

Results

Between eight to 12 weeks' gestation (WG), pseudostratified columnar epithelia with apical tight junctions differentiate to a simple cuboidal epithelium with random distribution of melanosomes and mitochondria. Between 12 to 26 WG, cells enlarge and show long apical microvilli and apicolateral junctional complexes. Coinciding with eye opening at 26 WG, melanosomes migrate apically whereas mitochondria distribute to perinuclear regions, with the first appearance of phagosomes, complex granules, and basolateral extracellular space (BES) formation. Significantly, autophagy and heterophagy, as evidenced by organelle recycling, and the gold standard of ultrastructural evidence for autophagy of double-membrane autophagosomes and mitophagosomes were evident from 32 WG, followed by basal infoldings of RPE cell membrane at 36 WG. Lipofuscin formation and deposition into the BES evident at six years increased at 17 years.

Conclusions

We provide compelling ultrastructural evidence that heterophagy and autophagy begins in the third trimester of human fetal development and that deposition of cellular byproducts into the extracellular space of RPE takes place via exocytosis. Transplanted RPE cells must also demonstrate the capacity to subserve autophagic and heterophagic functions for effective disease mitigation.

Growth of muscles and nerves in the upper eyelid: a morphometrical and immunohistochemical study using term human fetuses

BACKGROUND

There is no information about muscle growth in eyelids with infrequent blinking in fetuses.

METHODS

To examine the muscle and nerve morphology, we morphometrically and immunohistochemically examined sagittal sections of unilateral upper eyelids obtained from 21 term fetuses (approximately 30-42 weeks of gestation) and, for the comparison, those from 10 midterm fetuses (12-15 weeks).

RESULTS

The approximation margin of the upper eyelid always corresponded to the entire free margin in midterm fetuses, whereas it was often (18/21) restricted in the posterior part in term fetuses. Thus, in the latter, the thickness at the approximation site to the lower lid often ranged from 0.8 to 1.6 mm and corresponded to 18-56% of the nearly maximum thickness of the lid. In the lower part of the upper eyelid, a layer of the orbicularis oculi muscles often (14/21) provided posterior flexion at 90-120° to extend posteriorly. Nerve fibers running along the mediolateral axis were rich along the approximation surface at term, but they might not be reported in the upper eyelid of adults.

CONCLUSION

Being different from adult morphologies, the term eyelid was much thicker than the approximation surface and it carried a flexed muscle layer and transversely-running nerve. The infrequent blinking in fetuses seemed to provide a specific condition for the muscle-nerve growth. Plastic and pediatric surgeons should pay attention to a fact that infants' upper eyelid was unlikely to be a mini-version of the adult morphology.

Ocular mucosal homeostasis of teleost fish provides insight into the coevolution between microbiome and mucosal immunity

BACKGROUND

The visual organ plays a crucial role in sensing environmental information. However, its mucosal surfaces are constantly exposed to selective pressures from aquatic or airborne pathogens and microbial communities. Although few studies have characterized the conjunctival-associated lymphoid tissue (CALT) in the ocular mucosa (OM) of birds and mammals, little is known regarding the evolutionary origins and functions of immune defense and microbiota homeostasis of the OM in the early vertebrates.

RESULTS

Our study characterized the structure of the OM microbial ecosystem in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and confirmed for the first time the presence of a diffuse mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) in fish OM. Moreover, the microbial communities residing on the ocular mucosal surface contribute to shaping its immune environment. Interestingly, following IHNV infection, we observed robust immune responses, significant tissue damage, and microbial dysbiosis in the trout OM, particularly in the fornix conjunctiva (FC), which is characterized by the increase of pathobionts and a reduction of beneficial taxa in the relative abundance in OM. Critically, we identified a significant correlation between viral-induced immune responses and microbiome homeostasis in the OM, underscoring its key role in mucosal immunity and microbiota homeostasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that immune defense and microbiota homeostasis in OM occurred concurrently in early vertebrate species, shedding light on the coevolution between microbiota and mucosal immunity. Video Abstract.

Tear film lipid layer and corneal oxygenation: a new function?

The classic model of tear film is composed of mucin layer, aqueous layer and the outermost tear film lipid layer (TFLL). The complex mixture of different classes of lipids, mainly secreted by meibomian glands, gives the TFLL unique physicochemical properties. Based on these properties, several functions of TFLL have been found and/or proposed such as the resistance to evaporation and facilitating the formation of a thin film. However, the role of TFLL in the oxygenation of the cornea, a transparent avascular tissue, has never been discussed in the literature. The continuous metabolic activity of the corneal surface and the replenishment of atmospheric gas creates an O2 gradient in the tear film. The molecules of O2 must therefore be transferred from the gas phase to the liquid phase through the TFLL. This process is a function of the diffusion and solubility of the lipid layer as well as interface transfer, which is influenced by alterations in the physical state and lipid composition. In the absence of research on TFLL, the present paper aims to bring the topic into the spotlight for the first time based on existing knowledge on O2 permeability of the lipid membranes and evaporation resistance of the lipid layers. The oxidative stress generated in perturbed lipid layers and the consequent adverse effects are also covered. The function of the TFLL proposed here intends to encourage future research in both basic and clinical sciences, e.g., opening new avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of ocular surface conditions.

Accessory Muscles Associated With the Levator Palpebrae Superioris Muscle in 100 Cadavers

PURPOSE

This study aimed to determine the variations of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle and to reveal its morphological features.

METHODS

This study conducted on 100 adult orbit cadavers in the Department of Anatomy, Istanbul University, used an exploratory, descriptive research design. The anatomical and morphological variations of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle and its relationship with the superior ophthalmic vein were evaluated.

RESULTS

Variations of levator palpebrae superioris muscle were discovered in 11 of 100 orbits. Single (9%), double (1%), and triple (1%) accessory muscle slips were observed. The origin of accessory muscle slips showed variation as the accessory muscle slips originated either from the proximal or distal half of the levator palpebrae superioris muscle. Also, the insertions of accessory muscle slips were variable, as they were inserted into levator aponeurosis, trochlea, lacrimal gland, lateral orbital wall, or the fascia of the superior ophthalmic vein.

CONCLUSIONS

Accessory muscles associated with levator aponeurosis were found in a significant proportion of cadavers. These muscles may cause confusion in orbital surgery and should be taken into account during surgical planning and orientation in the superior orbit.

Wnt/β-catenin signaling controls mouse eyelid growth by mediating epithelial-mesenchymal interactions

PURPOSE

To investigate the role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in mouse eyelid development.

METHODS

Wnt/β-catenin signaling was disrupted by deleting supraorbital mesenchymal β-catenin or epithelial Wls. p63 was removed to determine whether the expression of Wnts is affected. The eyelid morphology was examined at different stages. Proliferation, apoptosis, and expression of Wnt ligands and their target genes were analyzed via immunofluorescence staining, TUNEL assay, and in situ hybridization.

RESULTS

Deletion of β-catenin in supraorbital mesenchyme abolishes eyelid growth by causing decreased proliferation in supraorbital epithelium and underlying mesenchyme. Inhibition of Wnt secretion by deleting Wls in supraorbital epithelium results in failure of eyelid development, similar to the effects of deleting mesenchymal β-catenin. Knockout of p63 results in formation of hypoplastic eyelids and reduced expression of several Wnt ligands in eyelid epithelium.

CONCLUSIONS

Epithelial Wnt ligands activate mesenchymal Wnt/β-catenin signaling to control eyelid growth and their expression is partially regulated by p63.

Molecular and Cellular Regulations in the Development of the Choroidal Circulation System

Disorders in the development and regulation of blood vessels are involved in various ocular disorders, such as persistent hyperplastic primary vitreous, familial exudative vitreoretinopathy, and choroidal dystrophy. Thus, the appropriate regulation of vascular development is essential for healthy ocular functions. However, regulation of the developing choroidal circulation system has not been well studied compared with vascular regulation in the vitreous and the retina. The choroid is a vascular-rich and uniquely structured tissue supplying oxygen and nutrients to the retina, and hypoplasia and the degeneration of the choroid are involved in many ocular disorders. Therefore, understanding the developing choroidal circulation system expands our knowledge of ocular development and supports our understanding of ocular disorders. In this review, we examine studies on regulating the developing choroidal circulation system at the cellular and molecular levels and discuss the relevance to human diseases.

A Systematic Approach of the Intrauterine Morphogenesis of the Human Palpebral Apparatus

The human eyelid embodies a vast diversity of functions. Acting as a protective shield for the ocular apparatus and as a light regulator in the sight process, eyelids stand a fascinating - yet omitted - role in facial aesthetics, serving as a racial trait by which humankind succeeded to manifest heterogeneity as a species. These assumptions are precisely forecasted right from in-utero life through intricate processes of growth and cell differentiation. In the Department of Anatomy of "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, we performed morphological assessments on 41 embryos and fetuses with gestational ages ranging from 6 to 29 weeks. This study aims to illustrate the morphogenesis of eyelids in human embryos and fetuses and highlight macroscopic features which could potentially have significant clinical implications in ophthalmic pathology.

The Role of Ectodysplasin A on the Ocular Surface Homeostasis

Ectodysplasin A (EDA), a ligand of the TNF family, plays an important role in maintaining the homeostasis of the ocular surface. EDA is necessary for the development of the meibomian gland, the lacrimal gland, as well as the proliferation and barrier function of the corneal epithelium. The mutation of EDA can induce the destruction of the ocular surface resulting in keratopathy, abnormality of the meibomian gland and maturation of the lacrimal gland. Experimental animal studies showed that a prenatal ultrasound-guided intra-amniotic injection or postnatal intravenous administration of soluble recombinant EDA protein can efficiently prevent the development of ocular surface abnormalities in EDA mutant animals. Furthermore, local application of EDA could restore the damaged ocular surface to some extent. Hence, a recombinant EDA-based therapy may serve as a novel paradigm to treat ocular surface disorders, such as meibomian gland dysfunction and corneal epithelium abnormalities.

The morphogenesis of the rabbit meibomian gland in relation to sex hormones: Immunohistochemical and transmission electron microscopy studies

Rabbits have been proposed as a model for the human meibomian gland (MG), a large specific sebaceous gland in the eyelid that consists of secretory acini arranged laterally and related to the central duct via short ductules, with the central duct continuing as an excretory duct to open at the free margin of the lid. First detected at embryonic day 18 as an aggregation of mesenchymal cells in the tarsal plate, it completes its development approximately 2 weeks postnatal when the separation of the eyelids is completed. The Transmission electron microscopy supports the meibocytes’ gradient maturation to the meibum’s synthesis. While the differentiating cells, their cytoplasm, are well packed with lipid droplets, the basal cells are characterized by a high nuclear to cytoplasm ratio. The androgen and estrogen receptor proteins are expressed in the basal cell and the meibocytes, and increase in age increases in the expression of these proteins. Additionally, the cytokeratin (CK14) is expressed in the basal and differentiating cells of the acini and the ductal epithelium. Therefore, the duct cells of the MG are common in all stem cells. These data concluded that the MG plays a major role in maintaining the health of the ocular surface and preservation of visual acuity. Any abnormalities in the structure of the MG lead to its dysfunction and changes in lipid secretion.

Potential Risks of Corneal Refractive Surgery in Patients with Ectodermal Dysplasia

Ectodermal dysplasia (ED) involves the aberrant development of at least two ectodermal derivatives, such as skin, teeth, hair, sweat glands, and ocular tissue. The group of over 200 conditions is commonly classified into two major types: hypohidrotic/anhidrotic ED, in which sweat glands are either absent or significantly reduced, and hidrotic ED, in which sweat glands are normal. Ocular manifestations pertinent to patients undergoing corneal vision correction surgery include multifaceted dry eye syndrome, corneal pathology, such as recurrent erosions, scars, neovascularization, and limbal stem cell deficiency, and early-onset cataracts and glaucoma. In this article we discuss the current understanding of ED and offer factors to consider when these patients are seeking corneal refractive surgery.

Embryonic Development of the Orbit

The embryonic and fetal development of the orbit comprises a series of sequential events, starting with the fertilization of the ovum and extending until birth. Most of the publications dealing with orbital morphogenesis describe the sequential development of each germinal layer, the ectoderm with its neuroectoderm derivative and the mesoderm. This approach provides a clear understanding of the mode of development of each layer but does not give the reader a general picture of the structure of the orbit within any specified time frame. In order to enhance our understanding of the developmental anatomy of the orbit, the authors have summarized the recent developments in orbital morphogenesis, a temporally precise and morphogenetically intricate process. Understanding this multidimensional process of development in prenatal life, identifying and linking signaling cascades, as well as the regulatory genes linked to existing diseases, may pave the way for advanced molecular diagnostic testing, developing minimally invasive interventions, and the use of progenitor/stem cell and even regenerative therapy.

Long-read genome sequencing resolves a complex 13q structural variant associated with syndromic anophthalmia

Microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma (MAC) are a heterogeneous spectrum of anomalous eye development and degeneration with genetic and environmental etiologies. Structural and copy number variants of chromosome 13 have been implicated in MAC; however, the specific loci involved in disease pathogenesis have not been well-defined. Herein we report a newborn with syndromic degenerative anophthalmia and a complex de novo rearrangement of chromosome 13q. Long-read genome sequencing improved the resolution and clinical interpretation of a duplication-triplication/inversion-duplication (DUP-TRP/INV-DUP) and terminal deletion. Sequence features at the breakpoint junctions suggested microhomology-mediated break-induced replication (MMBIR) of the maternal chromosome as the origin. Comparing this rearrangement to previously reported copy number alterations in 13q, we refine a putative dosage-sensitive critical region for MAC that might provide new insights into its molecular etiology.

Association between gestational period and obesity in children with the use of dermatoglyphic traits: A preliminary study

Events occurring during the gestational period can influence the development of diseases and conditions such as obesity. This study aimed to analyze the association between events occurring in the gestational period and the occurrence of obesity in children based on dermatoglyphic traits. The sample comprised 73 children born in 2009, living in Palhoça, Santa Catarina (SC), Brazil, regularly enrolled in public and private schools in that municipality and who are participants of an ongoing major cohort study project called Coorte Brasil Sul. The results show predictive traits of obesity when comparing BMI and fingerprint groups. Obese male group, presented the figure Ulnar Loop (UL) in the right hand (MDT1) thumb and greater number of ridges in the (MDSQL1) right thumb the greater the BMI; likewise, the older the woman getting pregnant the greater the number of ridges that the child presented in the (MESQL2) left index finger and (MESQL1) right thumb. The results obtained infer the presence of predictive traits of BMI ranges and a possible association between the dermatoglyphic traits of children with obesity and late pregnancy women.

NGS Analysis Confirms Common TP53 and RB1 Mutations, and Suggests MYC Amplification in Ocular Adnexal Sebaceous Carcinomas

Ocular adnexal (OA) sebaceous carcinomas generally demonstrate more aggressive clinical and histopathological phenotypes than extraocular cases, but the molecular drivers implicated in their oncogenesis remain poorly defined. A retrospective review of surgical and ocular pathology archives identified eleven primary resection specimens of OA sebaceous carcinomas with adequate tissue for molecular analysis; two extraocular cases were also examined. Next-generation sequencing was used to evaluate mutations and copy number changes in a large panel of cancer-associated genes. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) confirmed MYC copy number gain in select cases, and immunohistochemistry to evaluate MYC protein expression. The commonest mutations occurred in TP53 (10/13) and RB1 (7/13). Additional mutations in clinically actionable genes, or mutations with a frequency of at least 25%, included the NF1 (3/12), PMS2 (4/12), ROS1 (3/12), KMT2C (4/12), MNX1 (6/12), NOTCH1 (4/12), PCLO (3/12), and PTPRT (3/12) loci. Low level copy number gain suggestive of amplification of the MYC locus was seen in two cases, and confirmed using FISH. MYC protein expression, as assessed by immunohistochemistry, was present in almost all sebaceous carcinoma cases. Our findings support the concept that alterations in TP53 and RB1 are the commonest alterations in sebaceous carcinoma, and suggest that MYC may contribute to the oncogenesis of these tumors.

Surgical Observations of the Levator Aponeurosis Fibrotic Changes in Simple Congenital Ptosis Suggest Complex Pathogenesis

PURPOSE

To shed light upon the possible role of the levator aponeurosis (LA) developmental fibrotic changes as an added etiology for simple congenital ptosis, which causes limitation of the levator function (LF).

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study included patients with simple congenital ptosis who underwent skin approach LA resection as a primary intervention with an intraoperative photographic documentation of LA fibrotic changes. Preoperative demographics and clinical data were reviewed. The effect of LA fibrotic changes on the LF was assessed in different LA fibrotic changes with or without levator palpebrae superioris (LPS) muscle fatty infiltration.

RESULTS

A total of 56 eyelids of 49 patients with a mean age (±SD) 6.7 (±3.2) years were enrolled in this study. The fibrotic changes of LA were observed as a sheet of fibrosis (19 eyelids) or fibrous bands (23 eyelids). Fatty infiltration of LPS was noticed in 28 eyelids, either with or without fibrotic changes of LA. Preoperative LF was diminished in LPS fatty infiltration compared with LA fibrotic sheets (P = 0.026). Postoperative LF improved significantly in both LA fibrotic sheets and LA fibrotic bands (9.4 ± 2.5 mm and 9.6 ± 2.8 mm, respectively) compared with LPS with fatty infiltration (6.4 ± 1.8 mm) (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

Although our data are inconclusive due to lack of embryologic studies, the observed LA fibrotic changes may suggest a complex pathogenesis of simple congenital ptosis. The meticulous observation of the LA and the releasing of any adhesion or band to the surrounding structures could improve postoperative LF.

Congenital Eyelid Anomalies: What General Physicians Need To Know

The eyelids are important structures that maintain the health of the ocular surface and have an important role in facial esthetics. Any interruption in eyelid development can lead to congenital eyelid deformities. Eyelid abnormalities in children may present at birth due to abnormal embryogenesis (congenital) or may occur at a later stage as the child matures (developmental). These abnormalities, in general, can be classified into three different categories depending on the location: malformation of the margins, malformation of the folds, and malformation of the position. Congenital and developmental eyelid abnormalities are among the most challenging problems encountered by ophthalmic reconstructive surgeons. Additional considerations include social factors regarding the patient’s self-awareness of their deformities and associated medical issues, which often coexist and maybe multisystem in nature. This article briefly reviews eyelid embryology, the most common congenital eyelid anomalies, and the management options available to address these conditions.

Ultrasonographic Visualization of Bilaterally Fused Eyelids in a Premature Neonate

In cases of significant prematurity, neonates born with eyelid fusion can undergo spontaneous eyelid disjunction. Here, the authors present such a case, along with ultrasound findings shortly before eyelid separation. All protected patient information extracted for this report was done so in accordance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act. This report was prepared in accordance with the tenants of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Ocular manifestations of ectodermal dysplasia

Purpose

The ectodermal dysplasias (EDs) constitute a group of disorders characterized by abnormalities in two or more ectodermal derivatives, including skin, hair, teeth, and sweat glands. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate ocular manifestations in pediatric patients with ED.

Methods

Retrospective case series including consecutive ED subjects who were treated in the ophthalmology department at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia over a 12-year period (2009–2020). Main Outcome Measures were ocular and ocular adnexal abnormalities.

Results

Thirty subjects were included: 20 males (67%), mean age of 4.5 years (range 0.3–18). Patients with different subtypes were included, with the hypohidrotic ED and ectrodactyly-ectodermal dysplasia-clefting variants being most prevalent. Most common findings were: lacrimal drainage obstruction in 12 (40%) including punctal agenesis in 10 (33%), refractive errors in 13 (43%) and amblyopia in 6 (20%). A new finding of eyelid ptosis or eyelash ptosis was demonstrated in 11 subjects (37%), mostly associated with TP63 or EDA1 genes variants.

Conclusion

Ectodermal dysplasias are associated with various ocular pathologies and amblyopia in the pediatric population. We report a possible genetic association between lash ptosis and EDA1 gene, and eyelid ptosis and TP63 or EDA1 genes variants.

The Metabolic Reprogramming of Frem2 Mutant Mice Embryos in Cryptophthalmos Development

Background

Cryptophthalmos is characterized by congenital ocular dysplasia with eyelid malformation. The pathogenicity of mutations in genes encoding components of the FRAS1/FREM protein complex is well established, but the underlying pathomechanisms of this disease are still unclear. In the previous study, we generated mice carrying Frem2^R725X/R2156W compound heterozygous mutations using CRISPR/Cas9 and showed that these mice recapitulated the human cryptophthalmos phenotype.

Methods

In this study, we tracked changes in the metabolic profile of embryos and expression of metabolism-related genes in Frem2 mutant mice on E13.5 compared with wild-type mice. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) was utilized to decipher the differentiated expression of genes associated with metabolism. Untargeted metabolomics and targeted metabolomics analyses were performed to detect and verify the shifts in the composition of the embryonic metabolome.

Results

Differentially expressed genes participating in amino acid metabolism and energy metabolism were observed by RNA-seq. Transcriptomic analysis suggests that 821 (39.89%) up-regulated genes and 320 (32.99%) down-regulated genes were involved in the metabolic process in the enriched GO terms. A total of 92 significantly different metabolites were identified including creatine, guanosine 5′-monophosphate, cytosine, cytidine 5′-monophosphate, adenine, and L-serine. Interestingly, major shifts related to ATP binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters) and the biosynthesis of amino acids in the composition of the embryonic metabolome were observed by KEGG metabolic analysis, indicating that these pathways could also be involved in the pathogenesis of cryptophthalmos.

Conclusion

We demonstrate that Frem2 mutant fetal mice have increased susceptibility to the disruption of eye morphogenesis in association with distinct transcriptomic and metabolomic signatures. Our findings suggest that the metabolomic signature established before birth may play a role in mediating cryptophthalmos in Frem2 mutant mice, which may have important implications for the pathogenesis of cryptophthalmos.

Ontogenesis of the tear drainage system requires Prickle1-driven polarized basement membrane deposition

In terrestrial animals, the lacrimal drainage apparatus evolved to serve as conduits for tear flow; however, little is known about the ontogenesis of this system. Here, we define the anatomy of the fully formed tear duct in mice, characterize crucial morphogenetic events for the development of tear duct components and identify the site for primordial tear duct (PTD) initiation. We report that the PTD originates from the orbital lacrimal lamina, a junction formed by the epithelia of the maxillary and lateral nasal processes. We demonstrate that Prickle1, a key component of planar cell polarity signaling, is expressed in progenitors of the PTD and throughout tear duct morphogenesis. Disruption of Prickle1 stalls tear duct elongation; in particular, the loss of basement membrane deposition and aberrant cytoplasmic accumulation of laminin are salient. Altered cell adhesion, cytoskeletal transport systems, vesicular transport systems and cell axis orientation in Prickle1 mutants support the role of Prickle1 in planar cell polarity. Taken together, our results highlight a crucial role of Prickle1-mediated polarized basement membrane secretion and deposition in PTD elongation.

Retinal vascular development in an immature retina at 33-34 weeks postmenstrual age predicts retinopathy of prematurity

In preterm birth, the immature retina can develop a potentially blinding disorder of the eye known as retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). The vaso-proliferative phase of ROP begins at an approximate postmenstrual age (PMA) of 32 weeks. There is little or no evidence of an association between ROP development and retinal status in the early vaso-proliferative phase. We aimed to evaluate the retinal vascular findings of infants at 33–34 weeks PMA to determine their risk of ROP. We reviewed 130 serial wide-field retinal images from 65 preterm infants born before the gestational age of 31 weeks. ROP occurred more frequently in infants having a leading vascular edge within posterior Zone II. This was in contrast to normal infants, who are characterized by complete retinal vascularization up to Zone II at 34 weeks PMA. The probability of ROP development in preterm infants with retinal edge hemorrhage was 24.58 times higher than in preterm infants without retinal edge hemorrhage. Eyes with ROP that required treatment showed significantly delayed retinal vascularization accompanied by pre-plus disease. In conclusion, retinal status in the early vaso-proliferation phase might determine the risk of ROP.

Animal models for neonatal brain injury induced by hypoxic ischemic conditions in rodents

Neonatal hypoxia-ischemia and resulting encephalopathies are of significant concern. Intrapartum asphyxia is a leading cause of neonatal death globally. Among surviving infants, there remains a high incidence of hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy due to neonatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury, manifesting as mild conditions including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and debilitating disorders such as cerebral palsy. Various animal models of neonatal hypoxic brain injury have been implemented to explore cellular and molecular mechanisms, assess the potential of novel therapeutic strategies, and characterize the functional and behavioural correlates of injury. Each of the animal models has individual advantages and limitations. The present review looks at several widely-used and alternative rodent models of neonatal hypoxia and hypoxia-ischemia; it highlights their strengths and limitations, and their potential for continued and improved use.

Developmental horizons in the pre-natal development of the Greater cane rat (Thryonomys swinderianus)

The Greater cane rat (GCR, Thyronomys swinderianus) is a precocial rodent predominantly found within Africa. Economic and scientific interests have led to several research efforts towards the domestication and better understanding of the biology and development of this rodent. Despite these efforts, information on the pre-natal development of this rodent is currently lacking. This study characterises distinct developmental milestones including skin pigmentation, emergence and distributions of hairs, calvarium consistency, teeth eruption, development of appendages, sensory organs and external genitalia in the pre-natal GCR and assesses quantitative body parameters, that is body weight, body and crown-rump lengths across its entire gestation length (gestation days [GDs] 10-140). Using these external features, we provide baseline reference ontogenetic scales for GCR embryos and fetuses, employable for stage, age and sex estimation of the pre-natal GCR in future studies. We observed that the first evidence of an embryo was not seen before the end of the first trimester (GD50) and that the late second trimester (GD80-GD100) marks the transition from embryogenesis to fetogenesis in the GCR. As both events occur at a much later developmental time point when compared to precocial non-rodents including human, sheep and pig and slightly later when compared to other precocial rodents such as guinea pig, our data provide first indication that the pre-natal GCR development might be associated with a reproductive delay. Together, this study expands our knowledge of the development and biology of the GCR, which will improve reproductive and breeding management, and native species conservation of this hystricomorph mammal.

Congenital eye anomalies: More mosaic than thought?

The eye is a sensory organ that primarily captures light and provides the sense of sight, as well as delivering non-visual light information involving biological rhythms and neurophysiological activities to the brain. Since the early 1990s, rapid advances in molecular biology have enabled the identification of developmental genes, genes responsible for human congenital diseases, and relevant genes of mutant animals with various anomalies. In this review, we first look at the development of the eye, and we highlight seminal reports regarding archetypal gene defects underlying three developmental ocular disorders in humans: (1) holoprosencephaly (HPE), with cyclopia being exhibited in the most severe cases; (2) microphthalmia, anophthalmia, and coloboma (MAC) phenotypes; and (3) anterior segment dysgenesis (ASDG), known as Peters anomaly and its related disorders. The recently developed methods, such as next-generation sequencing and genome editing techniques, have aided the discovery of gene mutations in congenital eye diseases and gene functions in normal eye development. Finally, we discuss Pax6-genome edited mosaic eyes and propose that somatic mosaicism in developmental gene mutations should be considered a causal factor for variable phenotypes, sporadic cases, and de novo mutations in human developmental disorders.

Loss-of-function mutations in FREM2 disrupt eye morphogenesis

Cryptophthalmos is a rare congenital disorder characterized by ocular dysplasia with eyelid malformation. Complete cryptophthalmos is characterized by the presence of continuous skin from the forehead over the eyes and onto the cheek, along with complete fusion of the eyelids. In the present study, we characterized the clinical manifestations of three patients with isolated bilateral cryptophthalmos. These patients shared the same c.6499C > T missense mutation in the FRAS1-related extracellular matrix protein 2 (FREM2) gene, while each individual presented an additional nonsense mutation in the same gene (Patient #1, c.2206C > T; Patient #2, c.5309G > A; and Patient #3, c.4063C > T). Then, we used CRISPR/Cas9 to generate mice carrying Frem2^R725X/R2156W compound heterozygous mutations, and showed that these mice recapitulated the human isolated cryptophthalmos phenotype. We detected FREM2 expression in the outer plexiform layer of the retina for the first time in the cryptophthalmic eyes, and the levels were comparable to the wild-type mice. Moreover, a set of different expressed genes that may contribute secondarily to the phenotypes were identified by performing RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of the fetal Frem2 mutant mice. Our findings extend the spectrum of FREM2 mutations, and provide insights into opportunities for the prenatal diagnosis of isolated cryptophthalmos. Furthermore, our work highlights the importance of the FREM2 protein during the development of eyelids and the anterior segment of the eyeballs, establishes a suitable animal model for studying epithelial reopening during eyelid development and serves as a valuable reference for further mechanistic studies of the pathogenesis of isolated cryptophthalmos.

PDGFRα monoclonal antibody: Assessment of embryo-fetal toxicity and time-dependent placental transfer of a murine surrogate antibody of olaratumab in mice

BACKGROUND

Olaratumab (Lartruvo™) is a recombinant human IgG₁ monoclonal antibody that specifically binds PDGFRα. The maternal and in utero embryo-fetal toxicity and toxicokinetics of a human anti-mouse PDGFRα antibody (LSN3338786) were investigated in pregnant mice.

METHODS

A pilot study was used to set doses for the definitive study. In the definitive study, mice were administered vehicle, 5, 50, or 150 mg/kg LSN3338786 by intravenous injection on gestation days (GD) 6, 9, 12, and 15. Fetal tissues and/or serum samples were collected on GD 10, 12, 15, and 18 to evaluate exposure of antibody.

RESULTS

There were no adverse maternal effects at 50 and 150 mg/kg although maternal deaths and adverse clinical signs were observed at 5 mg/kg. LSN3338786 crossed the placenta as early as GD 10 during organogenesis. Elimination half-life of LSN3338786 in dams decreased between GD 6 and 15. On GD 18, fetal serum concentrations of antibody were substantially higher than maternal serum concentrations at all doses. Increased incidences of malformations consisting of open and partially open eye and increased incidences of skeletal variation frontal/parietal additional ossification site occurred in fetuses from mid- and high-dose groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of transplacental migration of antibody occurred in concert with rapid maternal serum clearance before parturition. The no-observed effect level for teratogenicity of 5 mg/kg was associated with GD 15 maternal serum concentrations 3-11 times lower than clinical exposure of olaratumab, suggesting that olaratumab may cause fetal harm when administered to pregnant women.

Embryologic and Fetal Development of the Human Orbit

PURPOSE

To review the recent data about orbital development and sort out the controversies from the very early stages during embryonic life till final maturation of the orbit late in fetal life, and to appreciate the morphogenesis of all the definitive structures in the orbit in a methodical and timely fashion.

METHODS

The authors extensively review major studies detailing every aspect of human embryologic and fetal orbital morphogenesis including the development of extraocular muscles, orbital fat, vessels, nerves, and the supportive connective tissue framework as well as bone. These interdisciplinary studies span almost a century and a half, and include some significant controversial opposing points of view which the authors hopefully sort out. The authors also highlight a few of the most noteworthy molecular biologic studies regarding the multiple and interacting signaling pathways involved in regulating normal orbital morphogenesis.

RESULTS

Orbital morphogenesis involves a successive series of subtle yet tightly regulated morphogenetic events that could only be explained through the chronological narrative used by the authors. The processes that trigger and contribute to the formation of the orbits are complex and seem to be intricately regulated by multifaceted interactions and bidirectional cross-talk between a multitude of cellular building raw materials including the developing optic vesicles, neuroectoderm, cranial neural crest cells and mesoderm.

CONCLUSIONS

Development of the orbit is a collective enterprise necessitating interactions between, as well as contributions from different cell populations both within and beyond the realm of the orbit. A basic understanding of the processes underlying orbital ontogenesis is a crucial first step toward establishing a genetic basis or an embryologic link with orbital disease.

Role of EGF receptor signaling on morphogenesis of eyelid and meibomian glands

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling has a pivotal role in the regulation of morphogenesis during development and maintenance of homeostasis in adult eyelid and its adnexa. Studies have demonstrated that during eyelid morphogenesis the EGFR signaling pathway is responsible for keratinocyte and mesenchymal cell proliferation and migration at the eyelid tip. For meibomian gland morphogenesis, EGFR signaling activation stimulates meibomian gland epithelial cell proliferation. EGFR signaling pathway functions through multiple downstream signals such as ERK, Rho/ROCK and integrin and is regulated by a variety of upstream signals including Adam17, GPR48 and FGFR signaling. Herein we review the literature that describe the role of EGFR and its related signaling pathways in eyelid and meibomian gland morphogenesis.

Human Lacrimal Gland Gene Expression

BACKGROUND

The study of human lacrimal gland biology and development is limited. Lacrimal gland tissue is damaged or poorly functional in a number of disease states including dry eye disease. Development of cell based therapies for lacrimal gland diseases requires a better understanding of the gene expression and signaling pathways in lacrimal gland. Differential gene expression analysis between lacrimal gland and other embryologically similar tissues may be helpful in furthering our understanding of lacrimal gland development.

METHODS

We performed global gene expression analysis of human lacrimal gland tissue using Affymetrix ® gene expression arrays. Primary data from our laboratory was compared with datasets available in the NLM GEO database for other surface ectodermal tissues including salivary gland, skin, conjunctiva and corneal epithelium.

RESULTS

The analysis revealed statistically significant difference in the gene expression of lacrimal gland tissue compared to other ectodermal tissues. The lacrimal gland specific, cell surface secretory protein encoding genes and critical signaling pathways which distinguish lacrimal gland from other ectodermal tissues are described.

CONCLUSIONS

Differential gene expression in human lacrimal gland compared with other ectodermal tissue types revealed interesting patterns which may serve as the basis for future studies in directed differentiation among other areas.