Pain pathogenesis in rheumatoid arthritis-what have we learned from animal models?

An update of murine models and their methodologies in immune-mediated joint damage and pain research

Murine models have played an indispensable role in the understanding of rheumatic and musculoskeletal disorders (RMD), elucidating the genetic, endocrine and biomechanical pathways involved in joint pathology and associated pain. To date, the available models in RMD can be classified as induced or spontaneous, both incorporating transgenic alternatives that improve specific insights. It is worth noting that the selection of the most appropriate model together with the evaluation of their specific characteristics and technical capabilities are crucial when designing the experiments. Furthermore, it is also imperative to consistently adhere to the ethical standards concerning animal experimentation. Recognizing the inherent limitation that any model can entirely encapsulates the complexity of the pathophysiology of these conditions, the aim of this review is to provide an updated overview on the methodology of current murine models in major arthropathies and their immune-mediated pathways, addressing to basic, translational and pharmacological research in joint damage and pain.

Reliability, validity, and simplification of the Chinese version of the Global Pain Scale in patients with rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

Persistent pain is the most reported symptom in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA); however, effective and brief assessment tools are lacking. We validated the Chinese version of the Global Pain Scale (C-GPS) in Chinese patients with RA and proposed a short version of the C-GPS (s-C-GPS).

METHOD

The study was conducted using a face-to-face questionnaire survey with a multicenter cross-sectional design from March to December 2019. Patients aged > 18 years who met the RA diagnostic criteria were included. Based on the classical test theory (CTT) and the item response theory (IRT), we assessed the validity and reliability of the C-GPS and the adaptability of each item. An s-C-GPS was developed using IRT-based computerized adaptive testing (CAT) analytics.

RESULTS

In total, 580 patients with RA (mean age, 51.04 ± 24.65 years; mean BMI, 22.36 ± 4.07 kg/m2), including 513 (88.4%) women, were included. Most participants lived in a suburb (49.3%), were employed (72.2%) and married (91.2%), reported 9-12 years of education (66.9%), and had partial medical insurance (57.8%). Approximately 88.1% smoked and 84.5% drank alcohol. Analysis of the CTT demonstrated that all items in the C-GPS were positively correlated with the total scale score, and the factor loadings of all these items were > 0.870. A significant positive relationship was found between the Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and the C-GPS. IRT analysis showed that discrimination of the C-GPS was between 2.271 and 3.312, and items 6, 8, 13, 14, and 16 provided a large amount of information. Based on the CAT and clinical practice, six items covering four dimensions were included to form the s-C-GPS, all of which had very high discrimination. The s-C-GPS positively correlated with the VAS.

CONCLUSION

The C-GPS has good reliability and validity and can be used to evaluate pain in RA patients from a Chinese cultural background. The s-C-GPS, which contains six items, has good criterion validity and may be suitable for pain assessment in busy clinical practice.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This cross-sectional study was registered in the Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR1800020343), granted on December 25, 2018.

Fibromyalgia is associated with hypersensitivity but not with abnormal pain modulation: evidence from QST trials and spinal fMRI

Widespread pain and hyperalgesia are characteristics of chronic musculoskeletal pain conditions, including fibromyalgia syndrome (FM). Despite mixed evidence, there is increasing consensus that these characteristics depend on abnormal pain augmentation and dysfunctional pain inhibition. Our recent investigations of pain modulation with individually adjusted nociceptive stimuli have confirmed the mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia of FM patients but failed to detect abnormalities of pain summation or descending pain inhibition. Furthermore, our functional magnetic resonance imaging evaluations of spinal and brainstem pain processing during application of sensitivity-adjusted heat stimuli demonstrated similar temporal patterns of spinal cord activation in FM and HC participants. However, detailed modeling of brainstem activation showed that BOLD activity during "pain summation" was increased in FM subjects, suggesting differences in brain stem modulation of nociceptive stimuli compared to HC. Whereas these differences in brain stem activation are likely related to the hypersensitivity of FM patients, the overall central pain modulation of FM showed no significant abnormalities. These findings suggest that FM patients are hyperalgesic but modulate nociceptive input as effectively as HC.

Yoga and pain: A mind-body complex system

Introduction

The human body's response to pain is indicative of a complex adaptive system. Therapeutic yoga potentially represents a similar complex adaptive system that could interact with the pain response system with unique benefits.

Objectives

To determine the viability of yoga as a therapy for pain and whether pain responses and/or yoga practice should be considered complex adaptive systems.

Methods

Examination through 3 different approaches, including a narrative overview of the evidence on pain responses, yoga, and complex system, followed by a network analysis of associated keywords, followed by a mapping of the functional components of complex systems, pain response, and yoga.

Results

The narrative overview provided extensive evidence of the unique efficacy of yoga as a pain therapy, as well as articulating the relevance of applying complex systems perspectives to pain and yoga interventions. The network analysis demonstrated patterns connecting pain and yoga, while complex systems topics were the most extensively connected to the studies as a whole.

Conclusion

All three approaches support considering yoga a complex adaptive system that exhibits unique benefits as a pain management system. These findings have implications for treating chronic, pervasive pain with behavioral medicine as a systemic intervention. Approaching yoga as complex system suggests the need for research of mind-body topics that focuses on long-term systemic changes rather than short-term isolated effects.

Mitochondria and sensory processing in inflammatory and neuropathic pain

Rheumatic diseases, such as osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, affect over 750 million people worldwide and contribute to approximately 40% of chronic pain cases. Inflammation and tissue damage contribute to pain in rheumatic diseases, but pain often persists even when inflammation/damage is resolved. Mechanisms that cause this persistent pain are still unclear. Mitochondria are essential for a myriad of cellular processes and regulate neuronal functions. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been implicated in multiple neurological disorders, but its role in sensory processing and pain in rheumatic diseases is relatively unexplored. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of how mitochondrial dysfunction connects inflammation and damage-associated pathways to neuronal sensitization and persistent pain. To provide an overall framework on how mitochondria control pain, we explored recent evidence in inflammatory and neuropathic pain conditions. Mitochondria have intrinsic quality control mechanisms to prevent functional deficits and cellular damage. We will discuss the link between neuronal activity, mitochondrial dysfunction and chronic pain. Lastly, pharmacological strategies aimed at reestablishing mitochondrial functions or boosting mitochondrial dynamics as therapeutic interventions for chronic pain are discussed. The evidence presented in this review shows that mitochondria dysfunction may play a role in rheumatic pain. The dysfunction is not restricted to neuronal cells in the peripheral and central nervous system, but also includes blood cells and cells at the joint level that may affect pain pathways indirectly. Pre-clinical and clinical data suggest that modulation of mitochondrial functions can be used to attenuate or eliminate pain, which could be beneficial for multiple rheumatic diseases.

Pain-like behavior in the collagen antibody-induced arthritis model is regulated by lysophosphatidic acid and activation of satellite glia cells

Inflammatory and neuropathic-like components underlie rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-associated pain, and lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is linked to both joint inflammation in RA patients and to neuropathic pain. Thus, we investigated a role for LPA signalling using the collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) model. Pain-like behavior during the inflammatory phase and the late, neuropathic-like phase of CAIA was reversed by a neutralizing antibody generated against LPA and by an LPA_1/3 receptor inhibitor, but joint inflammation was not affected. Autotaxin, an LPA synthesizing enzyme was upregulated in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons during both CAIA phases, but not in joints or spinal cord. Late-phase pronociceptive neurochemical changes in the DRG were blocked in Lpar1 receptor deficient mice and reversed by LPA neutralization. In vitro and in vivo studies indicated that LPA regulates pain-like behavior via the LPA₁ receptor on satellite glia cells (SGCs), which is expressed by both human and mouse SGCs in the DRG. Furthermore, CAIA-induced SGC activity is reversed by phospholipid neutralization and blocked in Lpar1 deficient mice. Our findings suggest that the regulation of CAIA-induced pain-like behavior by LPA signalling is a peripheral event, associated with the DRGs and involving increased pronociceptive activity of SGCs, which in turn act on sensory neurons.

Evidence Needed for Efficacy of Antidepressant Medications Among Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) experience pain from inflammation, joint destruction, and neuropathy. Antidepressants may play a role among patients with RA and depression, fibromyalgia, or neuropathy to achieve desired outcomes. This commentary evaluated evidence for medications individually and identified important variables for future research. While we await the results of well-designed studies, a trial of duloxetine or milnacipran may be considered for patients with remnant pain and RA remission. Research is needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants in patients with RA and associated comorbid conditions.

Macrophages transfer mitochondria to sensory neurons to resolve inflammatory pain

The current paradigm is that inflammatory pain passively resolves following the cessation of inflammation. Yet, in a substantial proportion of patients with inflammatory diseases, resolution of inflammation is not sufficient to resolve pain, resulting in chronic pain. Mechanistic insight into how inflammatory pain is resolved is lacking. Here, we show that macrophages actively control resolution of inflammatory pain remotely from the site of inflammation by transferring mitochondria to sensory neurons. During resolution of inflammatory pain in mice, M2-like macrophages infiltrate the dorsal root ganglia that contain the somata of sensory neurons, concurrent with the recovery of oxidative phosphorylation in sensory neurons. The resolution of pain and the transfer of mitochondria requires expression of CD200 receptor (CD200R) on macrophages and the non-canonical CD200R-ligand iSec1 on sensory neurons. Our data reveal a novel mechanism for active resolution of inflammatory pain.

A ligand-receptor interactome platform for discovery of pain mechanisms and therapeutic targets

In the peripheral nervous system, ligand-receptor interactions between cells and neurons shape sensory experience, including pain. We set out to identify the potential interactions between sensory neurons and peripheral cell types implicated in disease-associated pain. Using mouse and human RNA sequencing datasets and computational analysis, we created interactome maps between dorsal root ganglion (DRG) sensory neurons and an array of normal cell types, as well as colitis-associated glial cells, rheumatoid arthritis-associated synovial macrophages, and pancreatic tumor tissue. These maps revealed a common correlation between the abundance of heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF) in peripheral cells with that of its receptor EGFR (a member of the ErbB family of receptors) in DRG neurons. Subsequently, we confirmed that increased abundance of HBEGF enhanced nociception in mice, likely acting on DRG neurons through ErbB family receptors. Collectively, these interactomes highlight ligand-receptor interactions that may lead to treatments for disease-associated pain and, furthermore, reflect the complexity of cell-to-neuron signaling in chronic pain states.

Autoimmune regulation of chronic pain

Chronic pain is an unpleasant and debilitating condition that is often poorly managed by existing therapeutics. Reciprocal interactions between the nervous system and the immune system have been recognized as playing an essential role in the initiation and maintenance of pain. In this review, we discuss how neuroimmune signaling can contribute to peripheral and central sensitization and promote chronic pain through various autoimmune mechanisms. These pathogenic autoimmune mechanisms involve the production and release of autoreactive antibodies from B cells. Autoantibodies-ie, antibodies that recognize self-antigens-have been identified as potential molecules that can modulate the function of nociceptive neurons and thereby induce persistent pain. Autoantibodies can influence neuronal excitability by activating the complement pathway; by directly signaling at sensory neurons expressing Fc gamma receptors, the receptors for the Fc fragment of immunoglobulin G immune complexes; or by binding and disrupting ion channels expressed by nociceptors. Using examples primarily from rheumatoid arthritis, complex regional pain syndrome, and channelopathies from potassium channel complex autoimmunity, we suggest that autoantibody signaling at the central nervous system has therapeutic implications for designing novel disease-modifying treatments for chronic pain.

Pain: A Review of Interleukin-6 and Its Roles in the Pain of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Pain is a major and common symptom reported as a top priority in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Intuitively, RA-related pain is often considered to be a natural consequence of peripheral inflammation, so treatment of RA is expected to manage pain concurrently as part of inflammation control. However, pain in patients with RA can be poorly correlated with objective measures of inflammation, for example, in patients who are otherwise in remission. Joint damage appears to account for only a fraction of this residual pain. Emerging evidence suggests that alteration of peripheral and central pain processing contributes to RA-related pain; this is parallel to, but somewhat independent of, joint inflammation. Interleukin (IL)-6 is a proinflammatory cytokine that contributes to the pathogenesis of RA. It exerts systemic effects via signaling through soluble forms of the IL-6 receptor (“trans-signaling”). Evidence from preclinical studies demonstrates that intra-articular IL-6 can produce long-lasting peripheral sensitization to mechanical stimulation and suggests an important role for IL-6 in central pain sensitization. This may be partly explained by its ability to activate neurons through trans-signaling, affecting nociceptive plasticity and nerve fiber regrowth. Local activity at neuron endings may culminate in altered pain processing in the central nervous system because of persistent signaling from sensitized peripheral neurons. Peripheral and central sensitization can promote the development of chronic pain, which can have a significant impact on patients’ health and quality of life. A proportion of pain in RA may be more appropriately managed as an entity separate from inflammation. Both the peripheral and central nervous systems should be recognized as important potential systems targeted by RA. The substantial burden of RA-related chronic pain suggests that pain should be a key focus in RA management and should be assessed and addressed early and separately from the inflammatory component.

Sexual Dimorphism in the Expression of Pain Phenotype in Preclinical Models of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is one of most frequent rheumatic diseases, affecting around 1% of the population worldwide. Pain impacting the quality of life for the patient with rheumatoid arthritis, is often the primary factor leading them to seek medical care. Although sex-related differences in humans and animal models of rheumatoid arthritis are described, the correlation between pain and sex in rheumatoid arthritis has only recently been directly examined. Here we review the literature and explore the mechanisms underlying the expression of the pain phenotype in females and males in preclinical models of rheumatoid arthritis.

Infrared radiation from cage bedding moderates rat inflammatory and autoimmune responses in collagen-induced arthritis

The development of collagen type II (CII)-induced arthritis (CIA), a model of rheumatoid arthritis, in rats housed in cages with bedding composed of Celliant fibres containing ceramic particles, which absorb body heat and re-emit the energy back to the body in the form of infrared radiation (+IRF rats), and those housed in cages with standard wooden shaving bedding (-IRF control rats) was examined. The appearance of the first signs of CIA was postponed, while the disease was milder (judging by the arthritic score, paw volume, and burrowing behaviour) in +IRF compared with -IRF rats. This correlated with a lower magnitude of serum anti-CII IgG antibody levels in +IRF rats, and lower production level of IL-17, the Th17 signature cytokine, in cultures of their paws. This could be partly ascribed to impaired migration of antigen-loaded CD11b + dendritic cells and their positioning within lymph nodes in +IRF rats reflecting diminished lymph node expression of CCL19 /CCL21. Additionally, as confirmed in rats with carrageenan-induced paw inflammation (CIPI), the infrared radiation from Celliant fibres, independently from immunomodulatory effects, exerted anti-inflammatory effects (judging by a shift in pro-inflammatory mediator to anti-inflammatory/immunoregulatory mediator ratio towards the latter in paw cultures) and ameliorated burrowing behaviour in CIA rats.

Anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activity of Siparuna guianensis Aublet, an amazonian plant traditionally used by indigenous communities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Siparuna guianensis Aublet leaves, known as negramina, are used by indigenous and local communities in Brazil and other countries in the Americas to treat pain and inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To characterize the chemical constituents and to evaluate the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive and locomotor activities of the dichloromethane fraction (DF) of S. guianensis leaves. Also, an acute oral toxicity test was accomplished.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The chemical characterization of DF was performed by ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography (UHPLC) analyses coupled with a high-resolution mass spectrometer. The antioxidant potential of DF was investigated using nitric oxide (NO) and hydroxyl radical (OH) scavenging test. The evaluation study of the anti-inflammatory activity was carried out in vitro by NO measurement in stimulated macrophages and, in vivo, by croton oil-induced ear edema, LPS-induced peritonitis, and zymosan-induced arthritis in mice. Different mechanisms of central and peripheral nociception were stimulated by acetic acid-induced writhing, formalin, and tail-flick tests. Besides that, the open field assay was performed.

RESULTS

UHPLC analyses of DF showed the presence of a mixture of glycosylated and methoxylated flavonoids. DF was able to scavenge NO and OH radicals in vitro and showed anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting NO production in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages. Oral administration of DF considerably inhibited the ear edema after croton oil application and reduced the leukocyte infiltrated in LPS-induced peritonitis. In the inflammatory intra-articular zymosan-induced process, DF showed a significant reduction in the inflammatory area and of the cells in the synovial and connective tissues adjacent to the joint. Also, DF was able to reduce the intra-articular edema. In nociception models, the oral administration of DF considerably inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhings. The formalin test showed that DF attenuated the licking time in both phases, which suggested that DF reduce the nociception by central and peripheral mechanisms. In the tail-flick test, DF showed no activity. Besides that, DF did not affect the animal locomotion, and no acute toxicity was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

For the first time, the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities of S. guianensis were reported, supporting its ethnopharmacological uses for some inflammatory diseases and painful conditions.

Hemokinin-1 as a Mediator of Arthritis-Related Pain via Direct Activation of Primary Sensory Neurons

The tachykinin hemokinin-1 (HK-1) is involved in immune cell development and inflammation, but little is known about its function in pain. It acts through the NK1 tachykinin receptor, but several effects are mediated by a yet unidentified target. Therefore, we investigated the role and mechanism of action of HK-1 in arthritis models of distinct mechanisms with special emphasis on pain. Arthritis was induced by i.p. K/BxN serum (passive transfer of inflammatory cytokines, autoantibodies), intra-articular mast cell tryptase or Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA, active immunization) in wild type, HK-1- and NK1-deficient mice. Mechanical- and heat hyperalgesia determined by dynamic plantar esthesiometry and increasing temperature hot plate, respectively, swelling measured by plethysmometry or micrometry were significantly reduced in HK-1-deleted, but not NK1-deficient mice in all models. K/BxN serum-induced histopathological changes (day 14) were also decreased, but early myeloperoxidase activity detected by luminescent in vivo imaging increased in HK-1-deleted mice similarly to the CFA model. However, vasodilation and plasma protein extravasation determined by laser Speckle and fluorescent imaging, respectively, were not altered by HK-1 deficiency in any models. HK-1 induced Ca2+-influx in primary sensory neurons, which was also seen in NK1-deficient cells and after pertussis toxin-pretreatment, but not in extracellular Ca2+-free medium. These are the first results showing that HK-1 mediates arthritic pain and cellular, but not vascular inflammatory mechanisms, independently of NK1 activation. HK-1 activates primary sensory neurons presumably via Ca2+ channel-linked receptor. Identifying its target opens new directions to understand joint pain leading to novel therapeutic opportunities.

Intraarticular Injection of Infliximab-Loaded Thermosensitive Hydrogel Alleviates Pain and Protects Cartilage in Rheumatoid Arthritis

Purpose

Pain and cartilage destruction caused by rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are major challenges during clinical treatment. Traditional systemic administration not only has obvious side effects but also provides limited relief for local symptoms in major joints. Local delivery of therapeutics for RA treatment is a potential strategy but is limited by rapid intraarticular release.

Materials and Methods

In this study, we prepared a thermoresponsive injectable hydrogel by mixing pluronic F127 (F127) and hyaluronic acid (HA) with poly (γ-glutamic acid) (PGA) incorporating infliximab (IFX), a new generation monoclonal antibody drug. We investigated the biocompatibility of the hydrogel and its IFX release profile. In vivo, we studied the clinical manifestations (articular skin temperature and joint diameter), detected cytokines in the synovial fluid and cartilage, performed behavioral studies on pain relief, and evaluated the cartilage protection effect.

Results

A thermoresponsive hydrogel was successfully prepared by mixing F127, HA, and PGA with injectable properties. The F127-HA-PGA hydrogel had a porous structure with interconnected pores. The infliximab-loaded thermosensitive hydrogel exhibited good biocompatibility and biodegradability and sustained release properties. Intraarticular injection of the IFX-loaded F127-HA-PGA hydrogel could alleviate the expression of inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-17 (IL-17), in the synovial fluid and cartilage as well as relieve pain and inhibit cartilage destruction in RA.

Conclusion

The double effect on pain relief and cartilage protection indicated the significant potential of the IFX-loaded injectable hydrogel for RA treatment in major joint lesions.

Pain Mechanism in Rheumatoid Arthritis: From Cytokines to Central Sensitization

Pain is the most common symptom in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Although in recent years, through the implementation of targeted treatment and the introduction of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), the treatment of RA patients has made a significant progress, a large proportion of patients still feel pain. Finding appropriate treatment to alleviate the pain is very important for RA patients. Current research showed that, in addition to inflammation, RA pain involves peripheral sensitization and abnormalities in the central nervous system (CNS) pain regulatory mechanisms. This review summarized the literature on pain mechanisms of RA published in recent years. A better understanding of pain mechanisms will help to develop new analgesic targets and deploy new and existing therapies.

Peripheral mechanisms of arthritic pain: A proposal to leverage large animals for in vitro studies

Pain arising from musculoskeletal disorders such as arthritis is one of the leading causes of disability. Whereas the past 20-years has seen an increase in targeted therapies for rheumatoid arthritis (RA), other arthritis conditions, especially osteoarthritis, remain poorly treated. Although modulation of central pain pathways occurs in chronic arthritis, multiple lines of evidence indicate that peripherally driven pain is important in arthritic pain. To understand the peripheral mechanisms of arthritic pain, various in vitro and in vivo models have been developed, largely in rodents. Although rodent models provide numerous advantages for studying arthritis pathogenesis and treatment, the anatomy and biomechanics of rodent joints differ considerably to those of humans. By contrast, the anatomy and biomechanics of joints in larger animals, such as dogs, show greater similarity to human joints and thus studying them can provide novel insight for arthritis research. The purpose of this article is firstly to review models of arthritis and behavioral outcomes commonly used in large animals. Secondly, we review the existing in vitro models and assays used to study arthritic pain, primarily in rodents, and discuss the potential for adopting these strategies, as well as likely limitations, in large animals. We believe that exploring peripheral mechanisms of arthritic pain in vitro in large animals has the potential to reduce the veterinary burden of arthritis in commonly afflicted species like dogs, as well as to improve translatability of pain research into the clinic.

Neuroimmune Interactions in Pain and Stress: An Interdisciplinary Approach

Mounting evidence indicates that disruptions in bidirectional communication pathways between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral immune system underlie the etiology of pathologic pain conditions. The purpose of this review is to focus on the cross-talk between these two systems in mediating nociceptive circuitry under various conditions, including nervous system disorders. Elevated and prolonged proinflammatory signaling in the CNS is argued to play a role in psychiatric illnesses and chronic pain states. Here we review current research on the dynamic interplay between altered nociceptive mechanisms, both peripheral and central, and physiological and behavioral changes associated with CNS disorders.

Neuraxial Cytokines in Pain States

A high-intensity potentially tissue-injuring stimulus generates a homotopic response to escape the stimulus and is associated with an affective phenotype considered to represent pain. In the face of tissue or nerve injury, the afferent encoding systems display robust changes in the input–output function, leading to an ongoing sensation reported as painful and sensitization of the nociceptors such that an enhanced pain state is reported for a given somatic or visceral stimulus. Our understanding of the mechanisms underlying this non-linear processing of nociceptive stimuli has led to our appreciation of the role played by the functional interactions of neural and immune signaling systems in pain phenotypes. In pathological states, neural systems interact with the immune system through the actions of a variety of soluble mediators, including cytokines. Cytokines are recognized as important mediators of inflammatory and neuropathic pain, supporting system sensitization and the development of a persistent pathologic pain. Cytokines can induce a facilitation of nociceptive processing at all levels of the neuraxis including supraspinal centers where nociceptive input evokes an affective component of the pain state. We review here several key proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines and explore their underlying actions at four levels of neuronal organization: (1) peripheral nociceptor termini; (2) dorsal root ganglia; (3) spinal cord; and (4) supraspinal areas. Thus, current thinking suggests that cytokines by this action throughout the neuraxis play key roles in the induction of pain and the maintenance of the facilitated states of pain behavior generated by tissue injury/inflammation and nerve injury.

Sensory Ganglia-Specific TNF Expression Is Associated With Persistent Nociception After Resolution of Inflammation

Joint pain is a distressing symptom of arthritis, and it is frequently persistent even after treatments which reduce local inflammation. Continuous production of algogenic factors activate/sensitize nociceptors in the joint structures and contribute to persistent pain, a challenging and difficult condition to treat. TNF is a crucial cytokine for the pathogenesis of several rheumatic diseases, and its inhibition is a mainstay of treatment to control joint symptoms, including pain. Here, we sought to investigate the inflammatory changes and the role of TNF in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) during persistent hypernociception after the resolution of acute joint inflammation. Using a model of antigen-induced arthritis, the peak of joint inflammation occurred 12–24 h after local antigen injection and was characterized by an intense influx of neutrophils, pro-inflammatory cytokine production, and joint damage. We found that inflammatory parameters in the joint returned to basal levels between 6 and 8 days after antigen-challenge, characterizing the resolving phase of joint inflammation. Mechanical hyperalgesia was persistent up to 14 days after joint insult. The persistent nociception was associated with the inflammatory status of DRG after cessation of acute joint inflammation. The late state of neuroinflammation in the ipsilateral side was evidenced by gene expression of TNF, TNFR2, IL-6, IL-1β, CXCL2, COX2, and iNOS in lumbar DRG (L3-L5) and leukocyte adhesion in the lumbar intumescent vessels between days 6 and 8. Moreover, there were signs of resident macrophage activation in DRG, as evidenced by an increase in Iba1-positive cells. Intrathecal or systemic injection of etanercept, an agent clinically utilized for TNF neutralization, at day 7 post arthritis induction, alleviated the persistent joint hyperalgesia by specific action in DRG. Our data suggest that neuroinflammation in DRG after the resolution of acute joint inflammation drives continuous neural sensitization resulting in persistent joint nociception in a TNF-dependent mechanism.

Understanding the Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Pathogenesis of Arthritis Pain Using Animal Models

Arthritis, including osteoarthritis (OA) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA), is the leading cause of years lived with disability (YLD) worldwide. Although pain is the cardinal symptom of arthritis, which is directly related to function and quality of life, the elucidation of the mechanism underlying the pathogenesis of pain in arthritis has lagged behind other areas, such as inflammation control and regulation of autoimmunity. The lack of therapeutics for optimal pain management is partially responsible for the current epidemic of opioid and narcotic abuse. Recent advances in animal experimentation and molecular biology have led to significant progress in our understanding of arthritis pain. Despite the inherent problems in the extrapolation of data gained from animal pain studies to arthritis in human patients, the critical assessment of molecular mediators and translational studies would help to define the relevance of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of arthritis pain. This review discusses biological and molecular mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of arthritis pain determined in animal models of OA and RA, along with the methodologies used.

Profiling of how nociceptor neurons detect danger - new and old foes

The host evolves redundant mechanisms to preserve physiological processing and homeostasis. These functions range from sensing internal and external threats, creating a memory of the insult and generating reflexes, which aim to resolve inflammation. Impairment in such functioning leads to chronic inflammatory diseases. By interacting through a common language of ligands and receptors, the immune and sensory nervous systems work in concert to accomplish such protective functions. Whilst this bidirectional communication helps to protect from danger, it can contribute to disease pathophysiology. Thus, the somatosensory nervous system is anatomically positioned within primary and secondary lymphoid tissues and mucosa to modulate immunity directly. Upstream of this interplay, neurons detect danger, which prompts the release of neuropeptides initiating (i) defensive reflexes (ranging from withdrawal response to coughing) and (ii) chemotaxis, adhesion and local infiltration of immune cells. The resulting outcome of such neuro-immune interplay is still ill-defined, but consensual findings start to emerge and support neuropeptides not only as blockers of T_H 1-mediated immunity but also as drivers of T_H 2 immune responses. However, the modalities detected by nociceptors revealed broader than mechanical pressure and temperature sensing and include signals as various as cytokines and pathogens to immunoglobulins and even microRNAs. Along these lines, we aggregated various dorsal root ganglion sensory neuron expression profiling datasets supporting such wide-ranging sensing capabilities to help identifying new danger detection modalities of these cells. Thus, revealing unexpected aspects of nociceptor neuron biology might prompt the identification of novel drivers of immunity, means to resolve inflammation and strategies to safeguard homeostasis.