Demonstration and Mitigation of Aerosol and Particle Dispersion During Mastoidectomy Relevant to the COVID-19 Era

Quantitative measurement of airborne particles during endoscopic and microscopic ear surgery in the operating room

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to quantitatively investigate airborne particle load in the operating room during endoscopic or microscopic epitympanectomy or mastoidectomy.

METHOD

In the transcanal endoscopic ear surgery group, drilling was performed underwater. A particle counter was used to measure the particle load before, during and after drilling during transcanal endoscopic ear surgery or microscopic ear surgery. The device counted the numbers of airborne particles of 0.3, 0.5 or 1.0 μm in diameter.

RESULTS

The particle load during drilling was significantly higher in the microscopic ear surgery group (n = 5) than in the transcanal endoscopic ear surgery group (n = 11) for all particle sizes (p < 0.01). In the transcanal endoscopic ear surgery group, no significant differences among the particle load observed before, during and after drilling were seen for any of the particle sizes.

CONCLUSION

Bone dissection carries a lower risk of airborne infection if it is performed using the endoscopic underwater drilling technique.

Experience with 2D Exoscope System for Bilateral Simultaneous Cochlear Implant Surgery in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic

We report the first case series utilizing the exoscope exclusively for bilateral simultaneous cochlear implant surgery and discuss the advantages, disadvantages, as well as surgical outcomes in the Covid-19 era. The VITOM® 2D is compatible with enhanced PPE and draping techniques which can improve safety while providing comparable surgical outcomes.

Aerosol containment device design considerations and performance evaluation metrics

BACKGROUND

Spurred by the Coronavirus infectious disease 2019 pandemic, aerosol containment devices (ACDs) were developed to capture infectious respiratory aerosols generated by patients at their source. Prior reviews indicated that such devices had low evidence of effectiveness, but did not address how ACDs should be evaluated, how well they should perform, nor have clearly defined performance standards. Towards developing design criteria for ACDs, two questions were posed: 1) What characteristics have guided the design of ACDs? 2) How have these characteristics been evaluated?

METHODS

A scoping review was performed consistent with PRISMA guidelines. Data were extracted with respect to general study information, intended use of the device, device design characteristics and evaluation.

RESULTS

Fifty-four articles were included. Evaluation was most commonly performed with respect to device aerosol containment (n = 31, 61%), with only 5 (9%), 3 (6%) and 8 (15%) formally assessing providing experience, patient experience and procedure impact, respectively. Nearly all of the studies that explored provider experience and procedure impact studied intubation. Few studies provided a priori performance criteria for any evaluation metric, or referenced any external guidelines by which to bench mark performance.

CONCLUSION

With respect to aerosol containment, ACDs should reduce exposure among HCP with the device compared with the absence of the device, and provide ≥90% reduction in respirable aerosols, equivalent in performance to N95 filtering facepiece respirators, if the goal is to reduce reliance on personal protective equipment. The ACD should not increase awkward or uncomfortable postures, or adversely impact biomechanics of the procedure itself as this could have implications for procedure outcomes. A variety of standardized instruments exist to assess the experience of patients and healthcare personnel. Integration of ACDs into routine clinical practice requires rigorous studies of aerosol containment and the user experience.

A full-face mask for protection against respiratory infections

BACKGROUND

Aerosols and droplets are the transmission routes of many respiratory infectious diseases. The COVID-19 management guidance recommends against the use of nebulized inhalation therapy directly in the emergency room or in an ambulance to prevent possible viral transmission. The three-dimensional printing method was used to develop an aerosol inhalation treatment mask that can potentially prevent aerosol dispersion. We conducted this utility validation study to understand the practicability of this new nebulizer mask system.

RESULTS

The fit test confirmed that the filter can efficiently remove small particles. The different locations of the mask had an excellent fit with a high pressure making a proper face seal usability. The full-face mask appeared to optimize filtration with pressure and is an example of materials that perform well for improvised respiratory protection using this design. The filtering effect test confirmed that the contamination of designated locations could be protected when using the mask with filters. As in the clinical safety test, a total of 18 participants (10 [55.6%] females; aged 33.1 ± 0.6 years) were included in the final analysis. There were no significant changes in SPO2, EtCO2, HR, SBP, DBP, and RR at the beginning, 20th, 40th, or 60th minutes of the test (all p >.05). The discomfort of wearing a mask increased slightly after time but remained within the tolerable range. The vision clarity score did not significantly change during the test. The mask also passed the breathability test.

CONCLUSION

The results of our study showed that this mask performed adequately in the fit test, the filtering test, and the clinical safety test. The application of a full-face mask with antiviral properties, together with the newly designed shape of a respirator that respects the natural curves of a human face, will facilitate the production of personal protective equipment with a highly efficient filtration system.

METHODS

We conducted three independent tests in this validation study: (1) a fit test to calculate the particle number concentration and its association with potential leakage; (2) a filtering effect test to verify the mask's ability to contain aerosol spread; and (3) a clinical safety test to examine the clinical safety, comfortableness, and visual clarity of the mask.

Aerosol Generation During Otologic Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To assess whether aerosol generation occurs during otologic surgery, to define which instruments are aerosol generating, and to identify factors that enhance safety in protection against airborne pathogens, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2.

STUDY DESIGN

An observational prospective study on aerosol measurements during otologic operations recorded between August and December 2020.

SETTING

Aerosol generation was measured with an Optical Particle Sizer as part of otologic operations with anesthesia. Particles with a size range of 0.3 to 10 μm were quantified. Aerosol generation was measured during otologic operations to analyze aerosols during drilling in transcanal and transmastoid operations and when using the following instruments: bipolar electrocautery, laser, suction, and cold instruments. Coughing is known to produce significant concentration of aerosols and is commonly used as a reference for high-risk aerosol generation. Thus, the operating room background concentration and coughing were chosen as reference values.

PATIENTS

Thirteen otologic operations were included. The average drilling time per surgery was 27.00 minutes (range, 2.00-71.80 min).

INTERVENTION

Different rotation speeds during drilling and other instruments were used.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Aerosol concentrations during operations were recorded and compared with background and cough aerosol concentrations.

RESULTS

Total aerosol concentrations during drilling were significantly higher than background ( p < 0.0001, d = 2.02) or coughing ( p < 0.0001, d = 0.50). A higher drilling rotation speed was associated with higher particle concentration ( p = 0.037, η2 = 0.01). Aerosol generation during bipolar electrocautery, drilling, and laser was significantly higher than with cold instruments or suction ( p < 0.0001, η2 = 0.04).

CONCLUSION

High aerosol generation is observed during otologic surgery when drill, laser, or bipolar electrocautery is used. Aerosol generation can be reduced by using cold instruments instead of electric and keeping the suction on during aerosol-generating procedures. If drilling is required, lower rotation speeds are recommended. These measures may help reduce the spread of airborne pathogens during otologic surgery.

Safety of Otological Operating During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A National Prospective Audit of 1130 Cases from 79 Centers

BACKGROUND

To assess compliance with guidance produced by the UK body representing all ENT Surgeons (ENT UK) and the British Society of Otology (BSO) on restarting otological surgery after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. Safety was assessed by recording surgical complica- tions and transmission of SARS-CoV-2 transmission during this period.

METHODS

A prospective multicenter audit of otological surgery was conducted over a 12-week period, from June 15, 2020, to September 6, 2020.

RESULTS

One thousand one hundred thirty cases from 79 hospital sites across Great Britain were involved in the study; 91.1% were tested for SARS-CoV-2 pre-operatively, none of whom tested positive; 70.4% were isolated for 7-14 days prior to surgery; 28.2% of surgeons wore full personal protective equipment, compared with 66.6% of anesthetists and 68.2% of scrub staff. The endoscope was used in 75 (6.7%) of all proce- dures, operations were changed to be performed under local rather than a general anesthetic in 3 cases (0.3%) and the "double drape" to protect against aerosol was used in 321 (27.4%) of cases. Trainees were present in 80.3% of cases. Complications occurred in 4% of cases. No patients or staff contracted SARS-CoV-2 during the audit.

CONCLUSION

ENT UK and BSO guidance was variably followed, with the highest compliance for the use of an FFP3 mask, a negative SARS-CoV-2 swab, and trainee presence in theater. Surgeons did not use full personal protective equipment as frequently as their anesthetic and scrub team colleagues. There were only minimal changes in surgical and anesthetic techniques. Otological operation after the first wave of the SARS- CoV-2 pandemic was performed safely with no reported COVID transmission or increase in major complications despite changes in operating practice.

COVID-19 and otologic surgery

In this article, we aim to summarize the impacts of COVID-19 on the practice of otologic surgery. Cadaveric studies have indicated COVID-19 viral particles are present in the middle ear mucosa of infected hosts. Otologic procedures can generate significant amounts of droplets due to reliance on high-speed drills. Multiple guidelines have been developed to improve patient and provider safety peri-operatively. Particle dispersion can be mitigated during microscopic mastoidectomy by utilizing barrier drape techniques. The barrier drape may similarly be applied to the surgical exoscope. Endoscopic techniques have theoretical improved safety benefits by minimizing the need for drilling. The discoveries and innovations borne of the COVID-19 pandemic will lay the groundwork for the practice of otology amidst future pandemics.

An endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy technique for cholesteatoma surgery

OBJECTIVE

Endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy, in which mastoidectomy is performed underwater, can be employed during transcanal endoscopic ear surgery for cholesteatoma removal. It was hypothesised that endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy might take less time than endoscopic non-underwater mastoidectomy because the endoscope does not need to be removed for cleaning.

METHODS

This study compared the mastoidectomy and total operative durations between the endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy (n = 25) and endoscopic non-underwater drilling (control, n = 8) groups. Moreover, it compared the size of resected areas of the external auditory canal between the two groups.

RESULTS

The mastoidectomy time of the endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy group was significantly shorter than that of the control group (p < 0.01). The total operative time did not differ significantly between the endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy and control groups (p = 0.17). The resected area was significantly larger in the endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy group than in the control group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic hydro-mastoidectomy enables more extensive bone resection within a shorter period.

Diagnostic and surgical innovations in otolaryngology for adult and paediatric patients during the COVID-19 era

During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, otolaryngology has been shown to be a high-risk specialty due to the exposure to aerosol-generating physical examinations, procedures and surgical interventions on the head and neck area, both in adult and paediatric patients. This has prompted the issue of updating the guidelines by International Health Authorities in the Ear Nose and Throat (ENT) field and, at the same time, has stimulated engineers and healthcare professionals to develop new devices and technologies with the aim of reducing the risk of contamination for physicians, nurses and patients.

Methods

A review of the literature published on PubMed, Ovid/Medline and Scopus databases was performed from January 01, 2020 to December 31, 2021.

Results

73 articles were eligible to be included, which were subdivided into 4 categories: ("Artificial Intelligence (AI)"; "Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)"; "Diagnostic tools"; "Surgical tools").

Conclusions

All of the innovations that have been developed during the COVID-19 pandemic have laid the foundation for a radical technological change of society, not only in medicine but also from a social, political and economical points of view that will leave its mark in the coming decades.

The utility of the exoscope compared to the operating microscope in simulated temporal bone surgery

OBJECTIVE

To objectively assess the utility of an exoscope during simulated otological surgery.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

Tertiary referral otolaryngology centre.

PARTICIPANTS

Seven experienced otologists undertook simulated temporal bone surgery on plastic temporal bones using the Zeiss Kinevo microscope with both a microscope and exoscope facility.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The utility of microscope and exoscope was compared using a Likert scale from 1 to 10 with and without PPE. Attributes assessed included image quality, depth perception, adequacy of view, exoscope positioning, surgeon comfort, surgeon safety and adequacy of image and protection for assistants and observers.

RESULTS

The exoscope in 3D mode performed as well as or better than the microscope for image quality, field of view and manoeuvrability. It outperformed the microscope for compatibility with PPE, surgeon comfort and assistant/observer experience. It scored almost as highly as the microscope for depth perception.

CONCLUSION

There is likely to be a learning curve but this initial assessment of the exoscope shows significant potential as an alternative to the operating microscope in otological surgery but with the advantage of allowing the use of appropriate PPE and better ergonomics for both surgeon and assistant/observer.

Mitigation of Particle Spread During Mastoidectomy: A Systematic Review

Our objective is to analyze the risk of particle spread through mastoidectomy during the COVID-19 pandemic with an aim to assess the tools used to mitigate the spread. A systematic review was conducted using PRISMA guidelines. Our search terms included: MASTOIDECTOMY + COVID-19 or MASTOIDECTOMY + SAR- CoV-2 or MASTOIDECTOMY + CORONAVIRUS. Studies consistent with the inclusion and exclusion criteria were included in the review. Of the 20 articles identified in the initial search, six met the inclusion criteria. The included articles were all experimental studies, with five studies using cadaver subjects and one study using live human subjects. Three studies measured droplet spread and three studies measured aerosolized particle spread. The maximum distance of particle spread ranged from 30 cm to 208 cm. Four studies assessed the use of a barrier system, with two using the OtoTent and two using a barrier drape. Two studies defined the microscope alone as a possible mitigatory tool. One study compared burr type and size to determine the effects on particle spread. During the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, evaluation of tools to mitigate particle spread is imperative for the safety of the surgical team and the healthcare system at large. Barrier drapes, OtoTents and microscopes all have proven to mitigate particle spread; however, further research needs to be performed to compare their efficacy and develop a standard of safety.

The UK national registry of ENT surgeons with coronavirus disease 2019: one year on

OBJECTIVES

To report the one-year findings of the UK national registry of ENT surgeons with suspected or confirmed coronavirus disease 2019, and the results of a survey on the coronavirus disease 2019 experience of UK ENT trainees.

METHOD

An online registry was created in April 2020. A separate survey was circulated electronically to all members of the Association of Otolaryngologists in Training.

RESULTS

The registry recorded 98 clinicians with confirmed or suspected coronavirus disease 2019. The majority of infections were reported in the first wave of spring 2020. Two ENT surgeons were hospitalised and one died. The majority suspected workplace exposure, with a significant proportion attributing this to a lack of personal protective equipment at a time before formal guidance had been introduced. Of the ENT trainees surveyed, almost one-third believed that they had contracted coronavirus disease 2019.

CONCLUSION

This highlights the importance of ongoing risk-reduction measures, including optimal personal protective equipment and vaccination.

Powered air-purifying respirators used during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic significantly reduce speech perception

BACKGROUND

Due to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, interventions in the upper airways are considered high-risk procedures for otolaryngologists and their colleagues. The purpose of this study was to evaluate limitations in hearing and communication when using a powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) system to protect against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission and to assess the benefit of a headset.

METHODS

Acoustic properties of the PAPR system were measured using a head and torso simulator. Audiological tests (tone audiometry, Freiburg speech test, Oldenburg sentence test (OLSA)) were performed in normal-hearing subjects (n = 10) to assess hearing with PAPR. The audiological test setup also included simulation of conditions in which the target speaker used either a PAPR, a filtering face piece (FFP) 3 respirator, or a surgical face mask.

RESULTS

Audiological measurements revealed that sound insulation by the PAPR headtop and noise, generated by the blower-assisted respiratory protection system, resulted in significantly deteriorated hearing thresholds (4.0 ± 7.2 dB hearing level (HL) vs. 49.2 ± 11.0 dB HL, p < 0.001) and speech recognition scores in quiet (100.0 ± 0.0% vs. 2.5 ± 4.2%, p < 0.001; OLSA: 20.8 ± 1.8 dB vs. 61.0 ± 3.3 dB SPL, p < 0.001) when compared to hearing without PAPR. Hearing with PAPR was significantly improved when the subjects were equipped with an in-ear headset (p < 0.001). Sound attenuation by FFP3 respirators and surgical face masks had no clinically relevant impact on speech perception.

CONCLUSIONS

The PAPR system evaluated here can be considered for high-risk procedures in SARS-CoV-2-positive patients, provided that hearing and communication of the surgical team are optimized by the additional use of a headset.

COVID-19 and otorhinolaryngology: Returning to practice

This article aims to focus on key points and provide an overview of the current knowledge of the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19); the increased susceptibility of otorhinolaryngologists to the virus; its effects and impact on the ENT practice; disruption of specialist clinic services; as well as associated risks in ENT surgical procedures. Mitigation strategies that can be employed to efficiently return to practice and ensuring the highest level of safety to both the patient and the otorhinolaryngologist is emphasised whilst simultaneously adapting to the new normal. Attention was given to understanding of the virus, its effect on the ENT discipline and practice, counter measures to mitigate and minimise risk to allow for continuation of ENT services once restrictions and lockdowns are progressively lifted. Otorhinolaryngological manifestations are common symptoms of COVID-19. Evidence suggests that the highest rates of nosocomial spread were seen amongst otorhinolaryngologists. The COVID-19 pandemic unexpectedly halted a majority of the otorhinolaryngology activities, which impacted service provision in the ENT practice. As the pandemic evolves, and with its duration unpredictable, this may necessitate a fundamental shift in the way otorhinolaryngology is practiced as there may be further global viral pandemics in future and the ENT fraternity has to now adapt to the new normal. Continued vigilance is imperative and strategies optimally implemented to ensure safe return to both ENT specialist clinic services and surgeries is vital. There are currently no uniform best-practice recommendations for otorhinolaryngology in the COVID-19 setting, although key strategies to prevent the virus spread have become evident to be able to effectively ‘flatten the curve’ of COVID-19 infections over time.

International Survey of Operative Practices for Otologists and Neurotologists During the COVID-19 Crisis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic on operative practices of otology and neurotology providers internationally.

STUDY DESIGN

Cross-sectional survey.

METHODS

A 78-question survey was distributed to otologists and neurotologists between May 12, 2020 and June 8, 2020 to assess the impact of the pandemic on surgical practices. Sections within the survey delineated time periods: prior to the crisis, onset of the crisis, during the crisis, postcrisis transition.

RESULTS

Of 396 survey respondents, 284 participants from 38 countries met inclusion criteria.Respondents were 16.9% female and 82.4% male, with a most common age range of 40 to 49 years (36.3%). 69.8% of participants had been in practice for over 10 years and most respondents worked in an academic medical center (79.2%). The average operative weekly caseload was 5.3 (SD 3.9) per surgeon prior to the crisis, 0.7 (SD 1.2) during the COVID-19 crisis, and 3.5 (SD 3.3) for those who had begun a postcrisis transition at the time of survey administration (p < 0.001). 71.5% of providers did not perform an elective otologic or neurotologic operative procedure during the initial crisis period. 49.8% reported modifying their surgical technique due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Use of powered air-purifying respirators and filtering facepiece 2 or 3 (FFP2/FFP3) respirators were in minimal supply for 66.9% and 62.3% of respondents, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The COVID-19 pandemic impacted the otology and neurotology community globally, resulting in significant changes in operative volume and case selection. Modification of surgical technique and shortages of personal protective equipment were frequently reported.

Aerosol Generation in Ear Canal and Air-Fluid Interface Suction

Objective

The identification of aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs) is important during the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic due to aerosol-mediated virus transmission. Aerosol measurement during clinical procedures using particle counting may be confounded by variable natural background aerosol levels or limited by partial volume sampling. The study objective was to quantify any significant aerosol generated from simulated suction clearance procedures.

Study Design

Prospective quantification of aerosol generation during clinical suction simulation.

Setting

Clean chamber.

Methods

We created a clean environment for particle counting in a transparent neutralized polypropylene chamber. Air was passed through a HEPA 14 class filter to maintain a constant chamber inlet pressure. An optical particle counter was connected in line to the chamber exhaust vent to measure all of the vented particles. The chamber background count was 1 particle ≥0.3 µm per 15 minutes at a flow rate of 1 chamber air change per minute. We used this system to quantify very low aerosol counts generated from suction clearance of a silicone ear canal and at an open air-fluid interface.

Results

No clinically significant aerosol generation was found by particle counting of the whole chamber air volume during simulated suction procedures.

Conclusion

Simulated ear suction clearance and air-fluid interface suction does not generate any significant aerosol. It appears likely that any aerosol potentially generated at the suction tube tip is entrained by incoming air flow. This is the first study to quantify aerosols generated by suction in a controlled environment; further research is required to determine its clinical implications.

Surgically generated aerosol and mitigation strategies: combined use of irrigation, respirators and suction massively reduces particulate matter aerosol

Background

Aerosol is a health risk to theatre staff. This laboratory study quantifies the reduction in particulate matter aerosol concentrations produced by electrocautery and drilling when using mitigation strategies such as irrigation, respirator filtration and suction in a lab environment to prepare for future work under live OR conditions.

Methods

We combined one aerosol-generating procedure (monopolar cutting or coagulating diathermy or high-speed diamond- or steel-tipped drilling of cadaveric porcine tissue) with one or multiple mitigation strategies (instrument irrigation, plume suction and filtration using an FFP3 respirator filter) and using an optical particle counter to measure particulate matter aerosol size and concentrations.

Results

Significant aerosol concentrations were observed during all aerosol-generating procedures with concentrations exceeding 3 × 10⁶ particles per 100 ml. Considerable reductions in concentrations were observed with mitigation. In drilling, suction, FFP3 filtration and wash alone respectively reduced aerosol by 19.3–31.6%, 65.1–70.8% and 97.2 to > 99.9%. The greatest reduction (97.38 to > 99.9%) was observed when combining irrigation and filtration. Coagulating diathermy reduced concentrations by 88.0–96.6% relative to cutting, but produced larger particles. Suction alone, and suction with filtration reduced aerosol concentration by 41.0–49.6% and 88.9–97.4% respectively. No tested mitigation strategies returned aerosol concentrations to baseline.

Conclusion

Aerosol concentrations are significantly reduced through the combined use of filtration, suction and irrigation. Further research is required to characterise aerosol concentrations in the live OR and to find acceptable exposure limits, and in their absence, to find methods to further reduce exposure to theatre staff.

Droplet and Aerosol Generation With Mastoidectomy During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Assessment of Baseline Risk and Mitigation Measures With a High-performance Cascade Impactor

HYPOTHESIS

Aerosols are generated during mastoidectomy and mitigation strategies may effectively reduce aerosol spread.

BACKGROUND

An objective understanding of aerosol generation and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies can inform interventions to reduce aerosol risk from mastoidectomy and other open surgeries involving drilling.

METHODS

Cadaveric and fluorescent three-dimensional printed temporal bone models were drilled under variable conditions and mitigation methods. Aerosol production was measured with a cascade impactor set to detect particle sizes under 14.1 μm. Field contamination was determined with examination under UV light.

RESULTS

Drilling of cadaveric bones and three-dimensional models resulted in strongly positive aerosol production, measuring positive in all eight impactor stages for the cadaver trials. This occurred regardless of using coarse or cutting burs, irrigation, a handheld suction, or an additional parked suction. The only mitigation factor that led to a completely negative aerosol result in all eight stages was placing an additional microscope drape to surround the field. Bone dust was scattered in all directions from the drill, including on the microscope, the surgeon, and visually suspended in the air for all but the drape trial.

CONCLUSIONS

Aerosols are generated with drilling the mastoid. Using an additional microscope drape to cover the surgical field was an effective mitigation strategy to prevent fine aerosol dispersion while drilling.

Barrier for Particle Dispersion Control During Mastoidectomy

Introduction  The China Health Authority alerted the World Health Organization (WHO) of several cases of pneumonia, and the WHO has declared the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) a global pandemic. Mastoidectomy is a high-risk aerosol generating procedure with the potential to expose the surgeon to infectious particles. Objective  Aim to develop a low-cost prototype for a barrier device that can be used during mastoidectomy. Methods  Describe the steps involved during otological emergency, requiring immediate surgical procedure, in untested patients. The Otorhinolaryngology Surgical Team of Walter Cantídio Hospital developed the barrier for particle dispersion presented here. Results  During surgery, the prototype did not compromise visualization of the surgical field and instrumentation. Microscope repositioning was not compromised or limited by tent Instrumentation and instrument pouch under the Microscope-Tent (MT) performed surgery. After surgery, the plastic sheet was removed simply, without requiring strength. Bone dust and irrigation droplets were collected on the tent. Conclusion  Our team developed and practiced, in an otologic emergency, a low-cost and reproducible barrier device that can be used in mastoidectomy in COVID-19 patients. Further tests on efficacy may be necessary.

Effect of Personal Protection Equipment (PPE) and the Distance From the Eye Piece of Surgical Microscope on the Field of Vision; An Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

During the Covid-19 pandemic, otolaryngologists are at risk due to aerosol-generating procedures such as mastoidectomy and need enhanced personal protective equipment (PPE). Eye protection can interfere with the use of a microscope due to a reduction in the field of vision. We aimed to study the effect of PPE on the microsurgical field.

METHODS

Five surgeons measured the visual field using digital calipers at different power settings. They were done with no PPE, a surgical mask, FFP3 mask (N99), and with the addition of small goggles, large vistamax goggles, vistamax plus a face shield, and only a face shield. The measurements were repeated with rings of 5 mm increments. We also measured the "eye relief" of the microscope which is the ideal distance for maximum field of view.

RESULTS

There was no major reduction of the field with the surgical or FFP3 mask. But even simple goggles reduced the field up to 31.6% and there were progressive reductions of up to 75.7% with large goggles, 76.8% when a face shield was added, and 61.9% when only face shield was used. The distance rings more than 5 mm also affected the field of view.The eye relief of our eyepiece was found to be 15 mm.

CONCLUSION

The current PPE eye protection is not compatible with the use of a microscope. There is scope for research into better eye protection. Mitigation strategies including barrier drapes and alternative techniques such as endoscopic surgery or use of exoscopes should also be considered.

Propensity of aerosol and droplet creation during oculoplastic procedures: A risk assessment with high-speed imaging amidst COVID-19 pandemic

Purpose

The study uses principles of liquid and gas mechanics to verify and quantify the generation of aerosols in oculoplastic procedures, namely surgery using a scalpel, electrosurgical device, and a mechanized drill.

Methods

Surgical techniques were performed ex vivo using the electrosurgical device, scalpel, and mechanized drill on the muscle and bone of commercially available chicken. The liquid and gas dynamics were observed using a high-speed high-resolution Photron SA5 camera (0.125 to 8 ms temporal resolution, 0.016 to 0.054 mm/pixel spatial resolution) and stroboscopic lighting (Veritas 120 E LED Constellation). The analysis was performed using in-house algorithms and ImageJ software.

Results

The use of a mechanized drill at 35000 rpm and a 3 mm fluted burr generated aerosol with particle size 50 to 550 microns with a spread of 1.8 m radius. Surgical smoke was generated by an electrosurgical device in both cutting and coagulation modes. Dispersion of the smoke could be controlled significantly by the use of suction, mean smoke spread ratio being 0.065 without suction and 0.002 with use of suction within 2 cm.

Conclusion

The quantification of the aerosol generation will help surgeons take practical decisions in their surgical techniques in the pandemic era.

Barrier enclosure use during aerosol-generating medical procedures: A scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Barrier enclosure devices were introduced to protect against infectious disease transmission during aerosol generating medical procedures (AGMP). Recent discussion in the medical community has led to new designs and adoption despite limited evidence. A scoping review was conducted to characterize devices being used and their performance.

METHODS

We conducted a scoping review of formal databases (MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, CENTRAL, Scopus), grey literature, and hand-searched relevant journals. Forward and reverse citation searching was completed on included articles. Article/full-text screening and data extraction was performed by two independent reviewers. Studies were categorized by publication type, device category, intended medical use, and outcomes (efficacy - ability to contain particles; efficiency - time to complete AGMP; and usability - user experience).

RESULTS

Searches identified 6489 studies and 123 met criteria for inclusion (k = 0.81 title/abstract, k = 0.77 full-text). Most articles were published in 2020 (98%, n = 120) as letters/commentaries (58%, n = 71). Box systems represented 42% (n = 52) of systems described, while plastic sheet systems accounted for 54% (n = 66). The majority were used for airway management (67%, n = 83). Only half of articles described outcome measures (54%, n = 67); 82% (n = 55) reporting efficacy, 39% (n = 26) on usability, and 15% (n = 10) on efficiency. Efficacy of devices in containing aerosols was limited and frequently dependent on use of suction devices.

CONCLUSIONS

While use of various barrier enclosure devices has become widespread during this pandemic, objective data of efficacy, efficiency, and usability is limited. Further controlled studies are required before adoption into routine clinical practice.

Novel Use of Vitamin B2 as a Fluorescent Tracer in Aerosol and Droplet Contamination Models in Otolaryngology

OBJECTIVE

During the COVID-19 era, a reliable method for tracing aerosols and droplets generated during otolaryngology procedures is needed to accurately assess contamination risk and to develop mitigation measures. Prior studies have not investigated the reliability of different fluorescent tracers for the purpose of studying aerosols and small droplets. Objectives include (1) comparing vitamin B2, fluorescein, and a commercial fluorescent green dye in terms of particle dispersion pattern, suspension into aerosols and small droplets, and fluorescence in aerosolized form and (2) determining the utility of vitamin B2 as a fluorescent tracer coating the aerodigestive tract mucosa in otolaryngology contamination models.

METHODS

Vitamin B2, fluorescein, and a commercial fluorescent dye were aerosolized using a nebulizer and passed through the nasal cavity from the trachea in a retrograde-intubated cadaveric head. In another scenario, vitamin B2 was irrigated to coat the nasal cavity and nasopharyngeal mucosa of a cadaveric head for assessment of aerosol and droplet generation from endonasal drilling. A cascade impactor was used to collect aerosols and small droplets ≤14.1 µm based on average aerodynamic diameter, and the collection chambers were visualized under UV light.

RESULTS

When vitamin B2 was nebulized, aerosols ≤5.4 µm were generated and the collected particles were fluorescent. When fluorescein and the commercial water tracer dye were nebulized, aerosols ≤8.61 µm and ≤2.08 µm respectively were generated, but the collected aerosols did not appear visibly fluorescent. Endonasal drilling in the nasopharynx coated with vitamin B2 irrigation yielded aerosols ≤3.30 µm that were fluorescent under UV light.

CONCLUSION

Vitamin B2's reliability as a fluorescent tracer when suspended in aerosols and small droplets ≤14.1 µm and known mucosal safety profile make it an ideal compound compared to fluorescein and commercial water-based fluorescent dyes for use as a safe fluorescent tracer in healthcare contamination models especially with human subjects.

Airborne Aerosolized Mouse Cytomegalovirus From Common Otolaryngology Procedures: Implications for COVID-19 Infection

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether common otolaryngology procedures generate viable aerosolized virus through a murine cytomegalovirus (mCMV) model for infection.

STUDY DESIGN

mCMV model of infection.

SETTING

University of Utah laboratory.

METHODS

Three-day-old BALB/c mice were inoculated with mCMV or saline. Five days later, each mouse underwent drilling, microdebrider, coblation, and electrocautery procedures. Particle size distribution and PM2.5 (particulate matter <2.5 µm) concentration were determined with a scanning mobility particle sizer and an aerosol particle sizer in the range of 15 nm to 32 µm. Aerosolized samples from these procedures were collected with an Aerosol Devices BioSpot sampler for viral titer based on polymerase chain reaction and for viable virus through viral culture.

RESULTS

As compared with the background aerosol concentrations, coblation and electrocautery showed statistically significant increases in airborne aerosols (Tukey-adjusted P value <.040), while microdebrider and drilling at 30,000 rpm did not (.870 < Tukey-adjusted P value < .930). We identified viral DNA in samples from coblation and drilling procedures, although we did not identify viable viruses in aerosol samples from any of the 4 procedures.

CONCLUSION

Coblation and electrocautery procedures generate >100-fold increases in aerosol concentrations over background; only coblation and drilling produce aerosolized viral DNA. The high concentration of aerosols from coblation and electrocautery suggests the need for appropriate safeguards against particle exposure to health care workers. The presence of viral DNA from drilling and coblation procedures warrants the need for appropriate protection against droplet and aerosol exposure.

Managing head and neck cancer patients during the COVID-19 pandemic: the experience of a tertiary referral center in southern Italy

BACKGROUND

The medical community has been deeply involved in fighting the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and, as a consequence, the care of non-COVID-19 patients has been impacted. However, the treatment of head and neck cancer patients is not deferrable, and an integrated strategy is required. The aim of the current article is to present the experience in the management of head and neck patients during the COVID-19 pandemic at the research hospital "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza". This review contains replicable and widely usable instructions on how to avoid delays in the diagnosis and treatment of head and neck tumors and to ensure a gradual return to elective procedures.

MAIN TEXT

The Head and Neck Department of the research hospital "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza" includes an Otolaryngology and a Maxillofacial Surgery Unit, both of which deal with the diagnosis and treatment of benign and malignant pathologies of the head and neck, as well as urgent/emergent consultations and surgical procedures that necessitate time sensitive operative management, such as cochlear implantation (CI). Given these premises and the complexity of the Department, the "COVID-19 organizing protocol" of the research hospital "Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza" was divided into two phases in accordance with the different stages of the pandemic and the priority of treatment. Special attention was given to the medical surveillance of health care workers and hospitalized patients, to the organization of the outpatient clinic and the operating setting as well as to the implementation of telehealth systems.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 pandemic is going to be a long-term situation with lasting effects on the public health and the entire society. Therefore, an efficient health care system has to adopt a double strategy: always being ready for a "new wave" of the pandemic and not forgetting non-COVID-19 patients, among whom head and neck cancer patients represent a priority. More than 1 year since the first outbreak in Wuhan, this review offers a unique and helpful perspective that incorporates awareness of the disease.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Otolaryngology Community Practice in Massachusetts

OBJECTIVES

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) significantly affected many health care specialties, including otolaryngology. In response to governmental policy changes, many hospitals and private practices in Massachusetts canceled or postponed nonurgent office visits and elective surgeries. The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of COVID-19 on the provision and practice trends of otolaryngology services for 10 private practices in Massachusetts.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review.

SETTING

Multipractice study for community practices in Massachusetts.

METHODS

Electronic billing records from 10 private otolaryngology practices in Massachusetts were obtained for the first 4 months of 2019 and 2020. Questionnaires from these otolaryngology practices were collected to assess financial and staffing impact of COVID-19.

RESULTS

The local onset of the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant decrease of 63% of visits in comparison to equivalent weeks in 2019. Virtual visits overtook in-person visits over time. A greater decline in operating room (OR) procedures than for office procedures was recorded. Ninety percent of practices reduced working hours, and 80% furloughed personnel. Seventy percent of practices applied for the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP).

CONCLUSION

COVID-19 has had a multifaceted impact on private otolaryngology practices in Massachusetts. A significant decline in provision of otolaryngology services aligned with the Massachusetts government's public health policy changes. The combination of limited personnel and personal protective equipment, as well as suspension of nonessential office visits and surgeries, led to decrease in total office visits and even higher decrease in OR procedures.

Using a 4K three-dimensional exoscope system (Vitom 3D) for mastoid surgery during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic

Objective

Microscopic surgery is currently considered the ‘gold standard’ for middle-ear, mastoid and lateral skull base surgery. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has made microscopic surgery more challenging to perform. This work aimed to demonstrate the feasibility of the Vitom 3D system, which integrates a high-definition (4K) view and three-dimensional technology for ear surgery, within the context of the pandemic.

Method

Combined approach tympanoplasty and ossiculoplasty were performed for cholesteatoma using the Vitom 3D system exclusively.

Results

Surgery was performed successfully. The patient made a good recovery, with no evidence of residual disease at follow up. The compact system has excellent depth of field, magnification and colour. It enables ergonomic work, improved work flow, and is ideal for teaching and training.

Conclusion

The Vitom 3D system is considered a revolutionary alternative to microscope-assisted surgery, particularly in light of coronavirus disease 2019. It allows delivery of safe otological surgery, which may aid in continuing elective surgery.

Heads-up Surgery: Endoscopes and Exoscopes for Otology and Neurotology in the Era of the COVID-19 Pandemic

A new era of surgical visualization and magnification is poised to disrupt the field of otology and neurotology. The once revolutionary benefits of the binocular microscope now are shared with rigid endoscopes and exoscopes. These 2 modalities are complementary. The endoscope improves visualization of the hidden recesses through the external auditory canal or canal-up mastoidectomy. The exoscope provides an immersive visual experience and superior ergonomics compared with binocular microscopy. Endoscopes and exoscopes are poised to disrupt the standard of care for surgical visualization and magnification in otology and neurotology.

Innovations in otorhinolaryngology in the age of COVID-19: a systematic literature review

OBJECTIVE

Otolaryngologists are at increased occupational risk of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection due to exposure from respiratory droplets and aerosols generated during otologic, nasal, and oropharyngeal examinations and procedures. There have been a variety of guidelines and precautions developed to help mitigate this risk. While many reviews have focused on the personal protective equipment (PPE) and preparation guidelines for surgery in the COVID-19 era, none have focused on the more creative and unusual solutions designed to limit viral transmission. This review aims to fill that need.

DATA SOURCES

PubMed, Ovid/Medline, and Scopus.

METHODS

A comprehensive review of literature was performed on September 28, 2020 using PubMed, Ovid/Medline, and Scopus databases. All English-language studies were included if they proposed or assessed novel interventions developed for Otolaryngology practice during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed.

RESULTS

A total of 41 papers met inclusion criteria and were organized into 5 categories ('General Recommendations for Otolaryngologic Surgery', 'Equipment Shortage Solutions', 'Airway Procedures', 'Nasal Endoscopy and Skull Base Procedures', and 'Otologic Procedures'). Articles were summarized, highlighting the innovations created and evaluated during the COVID-19 pandemic. Creative solutions such as application of topical viricidal agents, make-shift mask filters, three-dimensional (3-D) printable adapters for headlights, aerosol containing separation boxes, and a variety of new draping techniques have been developed to limit the risk of COVID-19 transmission.

CONCLUSIONS

Persistent risk of COVID-19 exposure remains high. Thus, there is an increased need for solutions that mitigate the risk of viral transmission during office procedures and surgeries, especially given that most COVID-19 positive patients present asymptomatically. This review examines and organizes creative solutions that have been proposed and utilized in the otolaryngology. These solutions have a potential to minimize the risk of viral transmission in the current clinical environment and to create safer outpatient and operating room conditions for patients and healthcare staff.

Aerosol and droplet generation from mandible and midface fixation: Surgical risk in the pandemic era

PURPOSE

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to concerns over transmission risk from healthcare procedures, especially when operating in the head and neck such as during surgical repair of facial fractures. This study aims to quantify aerosol and droplet generation from mandibular and midface open fixation and measure mitigation of airborne particles by a smoke evacuating electrocautery hand piece.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The soft tissue of the bilateral mandible and midface of two fresh frozen cadaveric specimens was infiltrated using a 0.1% fluorescein solution. Surgical fixation via oral vestibular approach was performed on each of these sites. Droplet splatter on the surgeon's chest, facemask, and up to 198.12 cm (6.5 ft) away from each surgical site was measured against a blue background under ultraviolet-A (UV-A) light. Aerosol generation was measured using an optical particle sizer.

RESULTS

No visible droplet contamination was observed for any trials of mandible or midface fixation. Total aerosolized particle counts from 0.300-10.000 μm were increased compared to baseline following each use of standard electrocautery (n = 4, p < 0.001) but not with use of a suction evacuating electrocautery hand piece (n = 4, p = 0.103). Total particle counts were also increased during use of the powered drill (n = 8, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Risk from visible droplets during mandible and midface fixation is low. However, significant increases in aerosolized particles were measured after electrocautery use and during powered drilling. Aerosol dispersion is significantly decreased with the use of a smoke evacuating electrocautery hand piece.

Use of a novel drape 'tent' as an infection prevention control measure for mastoid surgery

BACKGROUND

Mastoid surgery is an aerosol-generating procedure that involves the use of a high-speed drill, which produces a mixture of water, bone, blood and tissue that may contain the viable coronavirus disease 2019 pathogen. This potentially puts the surgeon and other operating theatre personnel at risk of acquiring the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 from contact with droplets or aerosols. The use of an additional drape designed to limit the spread of droplets and aerosols has been described; such drapes include the 'Southampton Tent' and 'OtoTent'.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the use of a novel drape 'tent' that has advantages over established 'tent' designs in terms of having: (1) a CE marking; (2) no requirement for modification during assembly; and (3) no obstruction to the surgical visual field.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

During mastoid surgery, the dispersion of macroscopic droplets and other particulate matter was confined within the novel drape 'tent'. Use of this drape 'tent' had no adverse effects upon the surgeon's manual dexterity or efficiency, the view of the surgical field, or the sterility. Hence, our findings support its use during mastoid surgery in the coronavirus disease 2019 era.

Quantification of biomaterial dispersion during otologic procedures and role of barrier drapes in Covid 2019 era - a laboratory model

BACKGROUND

Aerosol generation during temporal bone surgery caries the risk of viral transmission. Steps to mitigate this problem are of particular importance during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.

OBJECTIVE

To quantify the effect of barrier draping on particulate material dispersion during temporal bone surgery.

METHODS

The study involved a cadaveric model in a simulated operating theatre environment. Particle density and particle count for particles sized 1-10 μ were measured in a simulated operating theatre environment while drilling on a cadaveric temporal bone. The effect of barrier draping to decrease dispersion was recorded and analysed.

RESULTS

Barrier draping decreased counts of particles smaller than 5 μ by a factor of 80 in the operating theatre environment. Both particle density and particle count showed a statistically significant reduction with barrier draping (p = 0.027).

CONCLUSION

Simple barrier drapes were effective in decreasing particle density and particle count in the operating theatre model and can prevent infection in operating theatre personnel.

Quantification and Comparison of Droplet Formation During Endoscopic and Microscopic Ear Surgery: A Cadaveric Model

Objectives

The COVID-19 pandemic and the disproportional spread of the disease among otorhinolaryngologists raised concerns regarding the safety of health care staff. Therefore, a quantitative risk assessment for otologic surgery would be desirable. This study aims to quantitatively compare the risk of perioperative droplet formation between microscopic and endoscopic approaches.

Study Design

Experimental research.

Setting

Temporal bone laboratory.

Methods

The middle ear of whole head specimens was injected with fluorescein (0.2 mg/10 mL) before endoscopic and microscopic epitympanectomy and mastoidectomy. Fluorescent droplet deposition on the surgical table was recorded under ultraviolet light, quantified, and compared among the interventions. Drilling time, droplet proportion, fluorescein intensity, and droplet size were assessed for every procedure.

Results

A total of 12 procedures were performed: 4 endoscopic epitympanectomies, 4 microscopic epitympanectomies, and 4 mastoidectomies. The mean (SD) proportion of fluorescein droplets was 0.14‰ (0.10‰) for endoscopic epitympanectomy and 0.64‰ (0.31‰) for microscopic epitympanectomy. During mastoidectomy, the deposition of droplets was 8.77‰ (6.71‰). Statistical comparison based on a mixed effects model revealed a significant increase (0.50‰) in droplet deposition during microscopic epitympanectomy as compared with endoscopic epitympanectomy (95% CI, 0.16‰ to 0.84‰).

Conclusions

There is considerable droplet generation during otologic surgery, and this represents a risk for the spread of airborne infectious diseases. The endoscopic technique offers the lowest risk of droplet formation as compared with microscopic approaches, with a significant 4.5-fold reduction of droplets between endoscopic and microscopic epitympanectomy and a 62-fold reduction between endoscopic epitympanectomy and cortical mastoidectomy.

Awareness of an Primitive Art for Treating Otological Diseases in Present Covid-19 Scenario: Need of the Hour

In current scenario of Covid-19 pandemic spread of virus via aerosol generating procedures has become a special concern in otorhinolaryngology community. Motive of this study is to spread awareness of an ancient forgotten method of performing mastoidectomy through which risk of virus infection can be greatly reduced among otologic surgeons. Retrospective Observational study. Three patients of chronic otitis media with complication were operatively intervened with combined approach of otorhinolaryngology and neurosurgeons. Mastoidectomies were performed without drilling. Instruments used were small, medium and large size gouge, chisel and hammer, curettes, kerrison punches and other microscopic ear instruments. All three patients recovered well without any residual disease or cavity problems. Referring ancient practices like above in this COVID era may prove an important tool in addressing surgical urgencies while combating transmission risks at the same time. One should be vigilant and versatile in surgical techniques in order to serve the needy and save the saviours simultaneously.

An operative barrier system for skull base and mastoid surgery: creating a safe operative theatre in the era of COVID-19

Within Neurotology, special draping systems have been devised for mastoid surgery recognizing that drilling of middle ear mucosa is an aerosol generating medical procedure (AGMP) which can place surgical teams at risk of COVID-19 infection. We provide a thorough description of a barrier system utilized in our practice, along with work completed by our group to better quantify its effectiveness. Utilization of a barrier system can provide near complete bone dust and droplet containment within the surgical field and prevent contamination of other healthcare workers. As this is an early system, further adaptations and national collaborations are required to ultimately arrive at a system that seamlessly integrates into the surgical suite. While these barrier systems are new, they are timely as we face a pandemic, and can play a crucial role in safely resuming surgery.

Otolaryngology Surgical Activity in Tertiary Care Center During the Covid-19 Lockdown

Corona virus disease (COVID 19) is an infectious respiratory disease caused by the novel virus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). With many countries implementing lockdown the surgical activities in the division of otolaryngology across the world has been affected with many hospital confining themselves to only emergency or essential surgeries. The aim of this work is to report and discuss the in the surgical activity of the otolaryngology unit of the St John’s National Academy of Health Sciences, Bangalore (India) during the pandemic. We performed acute and subacute emergencies which include diagnosis and treatment of malignant tumors of the head and neck, management of airway emergencies in adults and children, drainage of abscesses of the head and neck, Foreign body removal, emergency nasal debridement and surgeries for the unsafe ear. With the pandemic the surgical activities in otolaryngology changed drastically and with strict protocol and triaging put in place the risk for Health care workers was avoided and services to patients delivered.

The clinical consequences of the COVID-19 lockdown: A report from an Italian referral ENT department

Objectives

To evaluate the clinical effects of health care reorganization because of COVID-19, in a non-red zone Italian referral department of Otorhinolaryngology.

Materials and Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the statistics of admissions to the Emergency Department (ED) of the Careggi University Hospital, Florence, from January 1, 2020, to May 17, 2020. Data regarding elective and urgent head and neck disorders were reviewed and the most challenging cases were discussed.

Results

During the lockdown period, outpatient otolaryngological consultations and elective procedures decreased by 78% and 75% respectively, while emergency/urgency surgery increased by 128%. The five most emblematic clinical cases were thoroughly analyzed.

Conclusion

Our analysis shows how the profound rearrangement of clinical and surgical activities, along with the citizens' fear to seek medical care has probably exacerbated the management of many routine head and neck conditions.

Level of Evidence

4.

American Neurotology Society, American Otological Society, and American Academy of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Foundation Guide to Enhance Otologic and Neurotologic Care During the COVID-19 Pandemic

: This combined American Neurotology Society, American Otological Society, and American Academy of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery Foundation document aims to provide guidance during the coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) on 1) "priority" of care for otologic and neurotologic patients in the office and operating room, and 2) optimal utilization of personal protective equipment. Given the paucity of evidence to inform otologic and neurotologic best practices during COVID-19, the recommendations herein are based on relevant peer-reviewed articles, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention COVID-19 guidelines, United States and international hospital policies, and expert opinion. The suggestions presented here are not meant to be definitive, and best practices will undoubtedly change with increasing knowledge and high-quality data related to COVID-19. Interpretation of this guidance document is dependent on local factors including prevalence of COVID-19 in the surgeons' local community. This is not intended to set a standard of care, and should not supersede the clinician's best judgement when managing specific clinical concerns and/or regional conditions.Access to otologic and neurotologic care during and after the COVID-19 pandemic is dependent upon adequate protection of physicians, audiologists, and ancillary support staff. Otolaryngologists and associated staff are at high risk for COVID-19 disease transmission based on close contact with mucosal surfaces of the upper aerodigestive tract during diagnostic evaluation and therapeutic procedures. While many otologic and neurotologic conditions are not imminently life threatening, they have a major impact on communication, daily functioning, and quality of life. In addition, progression of disease and delay in treatment can result in cranial nerve deficits, intracranial and life-threatening complications, and/or irreversible consequences. In this regard, many otologic and neurotologic conditions should rightfully be considered "urgent," and almost all require timely attention to permit optimal outcomes. It is reasonable to proceed with otologic and neurotologic clinic visits and operative cases based on input from expert opinion of otologic care providers, clinic/hospital administration, infection prevention and control specialists, and local and state public health leaders. Significant regional variations in COVID-19 prevalence exist; therefore, physicians working with local municipalities are best suited to make determinations on the appropriateness and timing of otologic and neurotologic care.

Minimising aerosol spread during endoscopic sinus and skull base surgery. Experimental model evaluation of the efficacy of the microscope drape method

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic sinus and anterior skull base surgery is considered particularly high risk for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 transmission in the operating theatre setting. In this context, the use of a microscope drape method is proposed, to minimise aerosol spread in the wider operating theatre environment.

METHODS

The efficacy of the method is assessed with a simulation model, using a CMI Concept Air Trace MK2 smoke generator for aerosol generation and a Fluke 985 air particle counter to measure air particles sized 0.3-10 μm in the operating theatre environment.

RESULTS

Aerosol spread was contained almost to baseline levels with the application of the drape barrier and the negative pressure created using suction within the drape.

CONCLUSION

The method is an efficient adjunct that could reduce the risk of aerosol shedding and viral transmission to the operating theatre team. It potentially allows faster operating theatre turnover and more liberal use of powered instruments during endonasal surgery.

Two-drape closed pocket technique: minimizing aerosolization in mastoid exploration during COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

Mastoidectomy is associated with extensive bone-drilling which makes it a major aerosol generating procedure. Considering the ongoing COVID-19 global pandemic, it is essential to devise methods to minimize aerosolization and hence ensure safety of the healthcare workers during the operative procedure.

METHODS

Two disposable surgical drapes are used to create a closed pocket prior to commencement of mastoid bone-drilling. This limits aerosolization of bone-dust in the external operating theatre environment.

CONCLUSION

Two-drape closed pocket technique is an easy, cost-effective and safe method to limit aerosolization of tissue particles during mastoidectomy.

Considerations in Management of Acute Otitis Media in the COVID-19 Era

Objectives:

To present the otologic findings of a patient with COVID-19 and complicated acute otitis media, evaluate for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in middle ear fluid, and assess whether suctioning of middle ear fluid may be aerosol- generating.

Methods:

The case of a man with SARS-CoV-2 infection and complicated acute otitis media with facial paralysis is presented to illustrate unique clinical decisions made in context of the COVID-19 pandemic. A cadaveric temporal bone was used to simulate droplet spread during suctioning of fluorescein-labelled middle ear fluid and visualized with a blue-light filter.

Results:

A 23-year-old male who presented with complicated acute otitis media with facial paralysis was found to have an acute infection with SARS-CoV-2, with positive viral PCR of nasopharyngeal swab, and a negative PCR of the middle ear fluid. He was placed on isolation precautions and treated with myringotomy, topical and systemic antibiotics, and antivirals. Consistent with observations during endonasal suctioning, suctioning of middle ear fluid was not found to be aerosol or droplet generating.

Conclusion:

The case of a patient with active COVID-19 presenting with complicated acute otitis media in whom middle ear fluid was sampled to evaluate the etiology of the infection and the potential middle ear predilection of SARS-CoV-2 is described. This study has implications for the clinical management of patients with both known and unknown SARS-CoV-2 infection who present with ear disease. While middle ear suctioning may not be aerosol-generating, the risk of coughing or prolonged close contact requires heightened precautions during otologic procedures in patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19.

Emergent and urgent otologic surgeries during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: a protocol and review of literature

Objective

To review guidelines for otologic procedures during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and to present a protocol for emergent or urgent mastoidectomy at our institution.

Data sources

Guidelines regarding emergent and urgent otologic procedures from otolaryngologic societies are reviewed. We described a protocol for emergent or urgent mastoidectomy at our institution.

Conclusion

Patients requiring urgent or emergent mastoidectomy during the COVID-19 pandemic require prompt treatment. We make the following recommendations: Emergent or urgent otologic procedures should be performed in a contained environment, such as a tent created by the microscope drape. The surgical team should practice using instruments in the tent setup to prepare for real cases. Otologic procedures should adhere to guidelines set for high-risk procedures.

Recommended Personal Protective Equipment for Cochlear Implant and Other Mastoid Surgery During the COVID-19 Era

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

The overall aim of this study was to evaluate personal protective equipment (PPE) that may facilitate the safe recommencement of cochlear implantation in the COVID-19 era, with the broader goal of minimizing the period of auditory deprivation in prelingually deaf children and reducing the risk of cochlear ossification in individuals following meningitis.

METHODS

The study design comprised 1) an objective assessment of mastoid drilling-induced droplet spread conducted during simulated cochlear implant (CI) surgery and its mitigation via the use of a protective drape tent and 2) an evaluation of three PPE configurations by otologists while performing mastoid drilling on ex vivo temporal bones. The various PPE solutions were assessed in terms of their impact on communication, vital physiological parameters, visual acuity and fields, and acceptability to surgeons using a systematic risk-based approach.

RESULTS

Droplet spread during simulated CI surgery extended over 2 m, a distance greater than previously reported. A drape tent significantly reduced droplet spread. The ensemble of a half-face mask and safety spoggles (foam lined safety goggles) had consistently superior performance across all aspects of clinical usability. All other PPE options were found to substantially restrict the visual field, making them unsafe for microsurgery.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this preclinical study indicate that the most viable solution to enable the safe conduct of CI and other mastoid surgery is a combination of a filtering facepiece (FFP3) mask or half-face respirator with safety spoggles as PPE. Prescription spoggles are an option for surgeons who need to wear corrective glasses to operate. A drape tent reduces droplet spread. A multicenter clinical trial to evaluate the effectiveness of PPE should be the next step toward safely performing CI surgery during the COVID-19 era.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

4 Laryngoscope, 130:2693-2699, 2020.

The challenge of performing mastoidectomy using the operating microscope with coronavirus disease 2019 personal protective equipment (PPE)

OBJECTIVE

Mastoidectomy is considered an aerosol-generating procedure. This study examined the effect of wearing personal protective equipment on the view achieved using the operating microscope.

METHODS

ENT surgeons assessed the area of a calibrated target visible through an operating microscope whilst wearing a range of personal protective equipment, with prescription glasses when required. The distance between the surgeon's eye and the microscope was measured in each personal protective equipment condition.

RESULTS

Eleven surgeons participated. The distance from the eye to the microscope inversely correlated with the diameter and area visible (p < 0.001). The median area visible while wearing the filtering facepiece code 3 mask and full-face visor was 4 per cent (range, 4-16 per cent).

CONCLUSION

The full-face visor is incompatible with the operating microscope. Solutions offering adequate eye protection for aerosol-generating procedures that require the microscope, including mastoidectomy, are urgently needed. Low-profile safety goggles should have a working distance of less than 20 mm and be compatible with prescription lenses.

Review of indoor aerosol generation, transport, and control in the context of COVID-19

The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has heightened the awareness of aerosol generation by human expiratory events and their potential role in viral respiratory disease transmission. Concerns over high severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) viral burden of mucosal surfaces has raised questions about the aerosol-generating potential and dangers of many otorhinolaryngologic procedures. However, the risks of aerosol generation and associated viral transmission by droplet or airborne routes for many otorhinolaryngology procedures are largely unknown. Indoor aerosol and droplet viral respiratory transmission risk is influenced by 4 factors: (1) aerosol or droplet properties; (2) indoor airflow; (3) virus-specific factors; and (4) host-specific factors. Herein we elaborate on known aerosol vs droplet properties, indoor airflow, and aerosol-generating events to provide context for risks of aerosol infectious transmission. We also provide simple but typically effective measures for mitigating the spread and inhalation of viral aerosols in indoor settings. Understanding principles of infectious transmission, aerosol and droplet generation, as well as concepts of indoor airflow, will assist in the integration of new data on SARS-CoV-2 transmission and activities that can generate aerosol to best inform on the need for escalation or de-escalation from current societal and institutional guidelines for protection during aerosol-generating procedures.

Aerosol Dispersion During Mastoidectomy and Custom Mitigation Strategies for Otologic Surgery in the COVID-19 Era

Objective

To investigate small-particle aerosolization from mastoidectomy relevant to potential viral transmission and to test source-control mitigation strategies.

Study Design

Cadaveric simulation.

Setting

Surgical simulation laboratory.

Methods

An optical particle size spectrometer was used to quantify 1- to 10-µm aerosols 30 cm from mastoid cortex drilling. Two barrier drapes were evaluated: OtoTent1, a drape sheet affixed to the microscope; OtoTent2, a custom-structured drape that enclosed the surgical field with specialized ports.

Results

Mastoid drilling without a barrier drape, with or without an aerosol-scavenging second suction, generated large amounts of 1- to 10-µm particulate. Drilling under OtoTent1 generated a high density of particles when compared with baseline environmental levels (P < .001, U = 107). By contrast, when drilling was conducted under OtoTent2, mean particle density remained at baseline. Adding a second suction inside OtoTent1 or OtoTent2 kept particle density at baseline levels. Significant aerosols were released upon removal of OtoTent1 or OtoTent2 despite a 60-second pause before drape removal after drilling (P < .001, U = 0, n = 10, 12; P < .001, U = 2, n = 12, 12, respectively). However, particle density did not increase above baseline when a second suction and a pause before removal were both employed.

Conclusions

Mastoidectomy without a barrier, even when a second suction was added, generated substantial 1- to 10-µm aerosols. During drilling, large amounts of aerosols above baseline levels were detected with OtoTent1 but not OtoTent2. For both drapes, a second suction was an effective mitigation strategy during drilling. Last, the combination of a second suction and a pause before removal prevented aerosol escape during the removal of either drape.