Noninvasive assessment of arterial pressure

Comparison of Non-Invasive Oscillometric and Intra-Arterial Blood Pressure Measurements in Children Admitted to the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit

Intra-arterial blood pressure (IABP) measurement, although considered the gold standard in critically ill children, is associated with certain risks and lacks widespread availability. This study was conducted to determine the differences and agreements between oscillometric non-invasive blood pressure (NIBP) and invasive IABP measurements in children. Inclusion criteria consisted of children (from 1 month to 18 years) admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) of a teaching hospital who required arterial catheter insertion for blood pressure (BP) monitoring. The comparison between IABP and NIBP was studied using paired t-test, Bland–Altman analysis, and Pearson's correlation coefficient. In total, 4,447 pairs of simultaneously recorded hourly NIBP and IABP measurements were collected from 65 children. Mean differences between IABP and NIBP were −3.6 ± 12.85, −4.7 ± 9.3, and −3.12 ± 9.30 mm Hg for systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial BP, respectively (p < 0.001), with wide limits of agreement. NIBP significantly overestimated BP (p < 0.001) in all three BP states (hypotensive, normotensive, and hypertensive), except systolic blood pressure (SBP) during hypertension where IABP was significantly higher. The difference in SBP was most pronounced during hypotension. The difference in SBP was significant in children <10 years (p < 0.001), with the maximum difference being in infants. It was insignificant in adolescents (p = 0.28) and underweight children (p = 0.55). NIBP recorded significantly higher BP in all states of BP except SBP in the hypertensive state. SBP measured by NIBP tended to be the most reliable in adolescents and underweight children. NIBP was the most unreliable in infants, obese children, and during hypotension.

Invasive Blood Pressure Measurement and In-hospital Mortality in Critically Ill Patients With Hypertension

Background: Invasive blood pressure (IBP) measurement is common in the intensive care unit, although its association with in-hospital mortality in critically ill patients with hypertension is poorly understood.

Methods and Results: A total of 11,732 critically ill patients with hypertension from the eICU-Collaborative Research Database (eICU-CRD) were enrolled. Patients were divided into 2 groups according to whether they received IBP. The primary outcome in this study was in-hospital mortality. Propensity score matching (PSM) and inverse probability of treatment weighing (IPTW) models were used to balance the confounding covariates. Multivariable logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between IBP measurement and hospital mortality. The IBP group had a higher in-hospital mortality rate than the no IBP group in the primary cohort [238 (8.7%) vs. 581 (6.5%), p < 0.001]. In the PSM cohort, the IBP group had a lower in-hospital mortality rate than the no IBP group [187 (8.0%) vs. 241 (10.3%), p = 0.006]. IBP measurement was associated with lower in-hospital mortality in the PSM cohort (odds ratio, 0.73, 95% confidence interval, 0.59–0.92) and in the IPTW cohort (odds ratio, 0.81, 95% confidence interval, 0.67–0.99). Sensitivity analyses showed similar results in the subgroups with high body mass index and no sepsis.

Conclusions: In conclusion, IBP measurement was associated with lower in-hospital mortality in critically ill patients with hypertension, highlighting the importance of IBP measurement in the intensive care unit.

Measurement of Blood Pressure in Humans: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

The accurate measurement of blood pressure (BP) is essential for the diagnosis and management of hypertension. This article provides an updated American Heart Association scientific statement on BP measurement in humans. In the office setting, many oscillometric devices have been validated that allow accurate BP measurement while reducing human errors associated with the auscultatory approach. Fully automated oscillometric devices capable of taking multiple readings even without an observer being present may provide a more accurate measurement of BP than auscultation. Studies have shown substantial differences in BP when measured outside versus in the office setting. Ambulatory BP monitoring is considered the reference standard for out-of-office BP assessment, with home BP monitoring being an alternative when ambulatory BP monitoring is not available or tolerated. Compared with their counterparts with sustained normotension (ie, nonhypertensive BP levels in and outside the office setting), it is unclear whether adults with white-coat hypertension (ie, hypertensive BP levels in the office but not outside the office) have increased cardiovascular disease risk, whereas those with masked hypertension (ie, hypertensive BP levels outside the office but not in the office) are at substantially increased risk. In addition, high nighttime BP on ambulatory BP monitoring is associated with increased cardiovascular disease risk. Both oscillometric and auscultatory methods are considered acceptable for measuring BP in children and adolescents. Regardless of the method used to measure BP, initial and ongoing training of technicians and healthcare providers and the use of validated and calibrated devices are critical for obtaining accurate BP measurements.

Blood Pressure Assessment with Differential Pulse Transit Time and Deep Learning: A Proof of Concept

Background

Modern clinical environments are laden with technology devices continuously gathering physiological data from patients. This is especially true in critical care environments, where life-saving decisions may have to be made on the basis of signals from monitoring devices. Hemodynamic monitoring is essential in dialysis, surgery, and in critically ill patients. For the most severe patients, blood pressure is normally assessed through a catheter, which is an invasive procedure that may result in adverse effects. Blood pressure can also be monitored noninvasively through different methods and these data can be used for the continuous assessment of pressure using machine learning methods. Previous studies have found pulse transit time to be related to blood pressure. In this short paper, we propose to study the feasibility of implementing a data-driven model based on restricted Boltzmann machine artificial neural networks, delivering a first proof of concept for the validity and viability of a method for blood pressure prediction based on these models.

Summary and Key Messages

For the most severe patients (e.g., dialysis, surgery, and the critically ill), blood pressure is normally assessed through invasive catheters. Alternatively, noninvasive methods have also been developed for its monitorization. Data obtained from noninvasive measurements can be used for the continuous assessment of pressure using machine learning methods. In this study, a restricted Boltzmann machine artificial neural network is used to present a first proof of concept for the validity and viability of a method for blood pressure prediction.

Optical blood pressure estimation with photoplethysmography and FFT-based neural networks

We introduce and validate a beat-to-beat optical blood pressure (BP) estimation paradigm using only photoplethysmogram (PPG) signal from finger tips. The scheme determines subject-specific contribution to PPG signal and removes most of its influence by proper normalization. Key features such as amplitudes and phases of cardiac components were extracted by a fast Fourier transform and were used to train an artificial neural network, which was then used to estimate BP from PPG. Validation was done on 69 patients from the MIMIC II database plus 23 volunteers. All estimations showed a good correlation with the reference values. This method is fast and robust, and can potentially be used to perform pulse wave analysis in addition to BP estimation.

Determination of trigeminocardiac reflex during rhinoplasty

In most rhinoplasty procedures, osteotomies are usually required. The osteotomy areas are innervated by sensory branches of the trigeminal nerve. The trigeminocardiac reflex (TCR) is clinically defined as the sudden onset of parasympathetic activity during stimulation of the trigeminal nerve. When an osteotomy is performed or external pressure is applied over the nasal bone, the infraorbital nerve may send signals via this nerve. The aim of this prospective study is to determine the blood pressure changes and occurrence of TCR during rhinoplasty. one hundred and eight patients were enrolled into the study. Lidocaine and adrenaline combination (LAC) was injected only into the left lateral osteotomy sites. All patients underwent median, right-side, then left-side lateral osteotomies and nasal pyramid infracture. The haemodynamic changes were recorded. A 10% or more decrease in the heart rate from baseline was considered a TCR. TCR was detected in nine patients following lateral osteotomies and nasal pyramid infracture procedures (8.3%). The authors determined that LAC injection prior to osteotomy did not prevent TCR. Manipulation at or near the infraorbital nerve during rhinoplasty may cause TCR, even if local anaesthetic infiltration is used.

Chest associated to motor physiotherapy improves cardiovascular variables in newborns with respiratory distress syndrome

BACKGROUND

We aimed to evaluate the effects of chest and motor physiotherapy treatment on hemodynamic variables in preterm newborns with respiratory distress syndrome.

METHODS

We evaluated heart rate (HR), respiratory rate (RR), systolic (SAP), mean (MAP) and diastolic arterial pressure (DAP), temperature and oxygen saturation (SO2%) in 44 newborns with respiratory distress syndrome. We compared all variables between before physiotherapy treatment vs. after the last physiotherapy treatment. Newborns were treated during 11 days. Variables were measured 2 minutes before and 5 minutes after each physiotherapy treatment. We applied paired Student t test to compare variables between the two periods.

RESULTS

HR (148.5 ± 8.5 bpm vs. 137.1 ± 6.8 bpm - p < 0.001), SAP (72.3 ± 11.3 mmHg vs. 63.6 ± 6.7 mmHg - p = 0.001) and MAP (57.5 ± 12 mmHg vs. 47.7 ± 5.8 mmHg - p = 0.001) were significantly reduced after 11 days of physiotherapy treatment compared to before the first session. There were no significant changes regarding RR, temperature, DAP and SO2%.

CONCLUSIONS

Chest and motor physiotherapy improved cardiovascular parameters in respiratory distress syndrome newborns.

Changes in pulse pressure following fluid loading: a comparison between aortic root (non-invasive tonometry) and femoral artery (invasive recordings)

PURPOSE

To document the relationship between stroke volume (SV) and pulse pressure (PP) recorded at the femoral and aortic sites during volume expansion (VE) in patients in shock. We hypothesized that non-invasively estimated aortic PP would exhibit the same ability as PP recorded invasively at the femoral level to track SV changes.

METHODS

Included in this prospective study were 56 ICU patients needing VE. Femoral PP (indwelling catheter), aortic PP (tonometry) and cardiac output (thermodilution) were recorded before and after VE. Responders were defined as patients who showed an increase in SV of ≥15% after VE.

RESULTS

Of the 56 included patients in shock, 39 (age 57 ± 14 years, SAPS II 46 ± 18) completed the study. At both sites, PP increased after VE in responders (n=17, mean SV increase 30 ± 15%) but not in non-responders. In the overall population, there was a positive relationship between VE-induced changes in SV and in PP at the femoral (r=0.60, p<0.001) and aortic (r=0.52, p<0.001) sites. Increases in femoral PP of ≥9% indicated SV increases of ≥15% with 82% sensitivity and 95% specificity. Increases in aortic PP of ≥4.5% indicated SV increases of ≥15% with 76% sensitivity and 82% specificity. Areas under the ROC curves indicated that aortic PP was not different from femoral PP for tracking changes in SV.

CONCLUSION

The ability of non-invasively estimated aortic PP to track fluid response was the same as that of invasively recorded femoral PP. This may have implications for non-invasive haemodynamic monitoring.

Care of the intubated emergency department patient

BACKGROUND

Emergency physicians perform tracheal intubation and initiate mechanical ventilation for critically ill patients on a daily basis. With the current national challenges of intensive care unit bed availability, intubated patients now often remain in the emergency department (ED) for exceedingly long periods of time. As a result, care of the intubated patient falls to the emergency physician (EP). Given the potential for significant morbidity and mortality, it is crucial for the EP to possess the most current, up-to-date information pertaining to the care of intubated patients.

DISCUSSION

This article discusses critical aspects in the ED management of intubated and mechanically ventilated patients. Specifically, emphasis is placed on providing adequate sedation and analgesia, limiting the use of neuromuscular blocking agents, correctly setting and adjusting the mechanical ventilator, utilizing appropriate monitoring modalities, and providing key supportive measures. Despite these measures, inevitably, some patients deteriorate while receiving mechanical ventilation. The article concludes with a discussion outlining a step-wise approach to evaluating the intubated patient who develops respiratory distress or circulatory compromise. With this information, the EP can more effectively care for ventilated patients while minimizing morbidity, and ultimately, improving outcome.

CONCLUSION

Essential components of the care of intubated ED patients includes administering adequate sedative and analgesic medications, using lung-protective ventilator settings with attention to minimizing ventilator-induced lung injury, elevating the head of the bed in the absence of contraindications, early placement of an orogastric tube, and providing prophylaxis for stress-related mucosal injury and deep venous thrombosis when indicated.

A poor correlation exists between oscillometric and radial arterial blood pressure as measured by the Philips MP90 monitor

In anesthesia and critical care, invasive arterial blood pressure monitoring is the gold standard against which other methods of monitoring are compared. In this assessment of the Philips MP90 monitor, the objective was to determine whether or not oscillometric measurements were within the accuracy standards set by the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI) and the British Hypertension Society (BHS). Three hundred and one invasive and noninvasive paired measurements were obtained from eleven adult patients on the neurosurgical service at Stanford University Medical Center. Bland-Altman plots were created to assess agreement between the two measurement systems. Paired correlation analysis, bias and precision calculations were performed. Oscillometric blood pressure measurements correlated with arterial measurements yielding Pearson r values of 0.68, 0.67 and 0.62 for systolic, diastolic and mean pressures, respectively (P < 0.01.) Mean differences with 95% confidence intervals were -3.8 mmHg +/- 13.6, -2.4 mmHg +/- 10.0, and 4.0 mmHg +/- 13.1 for systolic, diastolic and mean pressures, respectively. The mean difference for these measurements was <or=5 mmHg as stipulated by the AAMI guidelines, but the standard deviation was greater than the 8 mmHg allowed by the AAMI guidelines. When the BHS guidelines were applied, the device merited a grade "D" for systolic and mean arterial pressure, and a grade "C" for diastolic pressure, with the highest possible grade level being "A." There was a poor correlation between noninvasive and invasive measurements of arterial blood pressure as measured with a cuff and radial arterial cannula using the Philips MP90 monitor. These inaccuracies could lead to unnecessary interventions, or lack of appropriate interventions in anesthetic management. Further study is needed to specify the absolute inaccuracy of the monitor, and to determine if accuracy between the two methods varies with patient co-morbidities, surgical procedures, or anesthetic management.