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Jangi S, Hsia K, Zhao N, Kumamoto CA, Friedman S, Singh S, Michaud DS. Dynamics of the Gut Mycobiome in Patients With Ulcerative Colitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2024; 22:821-830.e7. [PMID: 37802272 PMCID: PMC10960711 DOI: 10.1016/j.cgh.2023.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Intestinal fungi have been implicated in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis (UC). However, it remains unclear if fungal composition is altered during active versus quiescent disease. METHODS We analyzed clinical and metagenomic data from the Study of a Prospective Adult Research Cohort with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (SPARC IBD), available via the IBD Plexus Program of the Crohn's & Colitis Foundation. We evaluated the fungal composition of fecal samples from 421 patients with UC during clinical activity and remission. Within a longitudinal subcohort (n = 52), we assessed for dynamic taxonomic changes across alterations in clinical activity over time. We examined if fungal amplicon sequence variants and fungal-bacterial relationships were altered during activity versus remission. Finally, we classified activity in UC using a supervised machine learning random forest model trained on fungal abundance data. RESULTS During clinical activity, the relative abundance of genus Candida was increased 3.5-fold (P-adj < 1 × 10-4) compared with during remission. Patients with longitudinal reductions in clinical activity demonstrated parallel reductions in Candida relative abundance (P < .05). Candida relative abundance correlated with Parabacteroides diastonis, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Bacteroides dorei relative abundance (P < .05) during remission; however, these correlations were disrupted during activity. Fungal abundance data successfully classified patients with active or quiescent UC (area under the curve ∼0.80), with Candida relative abundance critical to the success of the model. CONCLUSIONS Clinical activity in UC is associated with an increased relative abundance of Candida, cross-sectionally and dynamically over time. The role of fecal Candida as a target for therapeutics in UC should be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushrut Jangi
- Department of Medicine, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts.
| | - Katie Hsia
- Department of Medicine, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Naisi Zhao
- Public Health and Community Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Carol A Kumamoto
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Sonia Friedman
- Department of Medicine, Tufts Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Siddharth Singh
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, California
| | - Dominique S Michaud
- Public Health and Community Medicine, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
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Sendid B, Cornu M, Cordier C, Bouckaert J, Colombel JF, Poulain D. From ASCA breakthrough in Crohn's disease and Candida albicans research to thirty years of investigations about their meaning in human health. Autoimmun Rev 2024; 23:103486. [PMID: 38040100 DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2023.103486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibodies (ASCA) are human antibodies that can be detected using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay involving a mannose polymer (mannan) extracted from the cell wall of the yeast S. cerevisiae. The ASCA test was developed in 1993 with the aim of differentiating the serological response in two forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. The test, which is based on the detection of anti-oligomannosidic antibodies, has been extensively performed worldwide and there have been hundreds of publications on ASCA. The earlier studies concerned the initial diagnostic indications of ASCA and investigations then extended to many human diseases, generally in association with studies on intestinal microorganisms and the interaction of the micro-mycobiome with the immune system. The more information accumulates, the more the mystery of the meaning of ASCA deepens. Many fundamental questions remain unanswered. These questions concern the heterogeneity of ASCA, the mechanisms of their generation and persistence, the existence of self-antigens, and the relationship between ASCA and inflammation and autoimmunity. This review aims to discuss the gray areas concerning the origin of ASCA from an analysis of the literature. Structured around glycobiology and the mannosylated antigens of S. cerevisiae and Candida albicans, this review will address these questions and will try to clarify some lines of thought. The importance of the questions relating to the pathophysiological significance of ASCA goes far beyond IBD, even though these diseases remain the preferred models for their understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boualem Sendid
- INSERM U1285, CNRS UMR 8576, Glycobiology in Fungal Pathogenesis and Clinical Applications, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; Pôle de Biologie-Pathologie-Génétique, Institut de Microbiologie, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
| | - Marjorie Cornu
- INSERM U1285, CNRS UMR 8576, Glycobiology in Fungal Pathogenesis and Clinical Applications, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; Pôle de Biologie-Pathologie-Génétique, Institut de Microbiologie, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Camille Cordier
- INSERM U1285, CNRS UMR 8576, Glycobiology in Fungal Pathogenesis and Clinical Applications, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; Pôle de Biologie-Pathologie-Génétique, Institut de Microbiologie, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, CHU Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Julie Bouckaert
- CNRS UMR 8576, Computational Molecular Systems Biology, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Jean Frederic Colombel
- Department of Gastroenterology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Daniel Poulain
- INSERM U1285, CNRS UMR 8576, Glycobiology in Fungal Pathogenesis and Clinical Applications, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France.
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Yadav A, Yadav R, Sharma V, Dutta U. A comprehensive guide to assess gut mycobiome and its role in pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Indian J Gastroenterol 2024; 43:112-128. [PMID: 38409485 DOI: 10.1007/s12664-023-01510-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is an immune mediated chronic inflammatory disorder of gastrointestinal tract, which has underlying multifactorial pathogenic determinants such as environmental factors, susceptibility genes, gut microbial dysbiosis and a dysregulated immune response. Human gut is a frequent inhabitant of complex microbial ecosystem encompassing bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi and other microorganisms that have an undisputable role in maintaining balanced homeostasis. All of these microbes interact with immune system and affect human gut physiology either directly or indirectly with interaction of each other. Intestinal fungi represent a smaller but crucial component of the human gut microbiome. Besides interaction with bacteriome and virome, it helps in balancing homoeostasis between pathophysiological and physiological processes, which is often dysregulated in patients with IBD. Understanding of gut mycobiome and its clinical implications are still in in its infancy as opposed to bacterial component of gut microbiome, which is more often focused. Modulation of gut mycobiome represents a novel and promising strategy in the management of patients with IBD. Emerging mycobiome-based therapies such as diet interventions, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), probiotics (both fungal and bacterial strains) and antifungals exhibit substantial effects in calibrating the gut mycobiome and restoring dysbalanced immune homeostasis by restoring the core gut mycobiome. In this review, we summarized compositional and functional diversity of the gut mycobiome in healthy individuals and patients with IBD, gut mycobiome dysbiosis in patients with IBD, host immune-fungal interactions and therapeutic role of modulation of intestinal fungi in patients with IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Yadav
- Department of Gastroenterology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 160 012, India
| | - Renu Yadav
- Department of Microbiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, 110 029, India
| | - Vishal Sharma
- Department of Gastroenterology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 160 012, India
| | - Usha Dutta
- Department of Gastroenterology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, 160 012, India.
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Gilliland A, Chan JJ, De Wolfe TJ, Yang H, Vallance BA. Pathobionts in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Origins, Underlying Mechanisms, and Implications for Clinical Care. Gastroenterology 2024; 166:44-58. [PMID: 37734419 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2023.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
The gut microbiota plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of both forms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), namely, Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Although evidence suggests dysbiosis and loss of beneficial microbial species can exacerbate IBD, many new studies have identified microbes with pathogenic qualities, termed "pathobionts," within the intestines of patients with IBD. The concept of pathobionts initiating or driving the chronicity of IBD has largely focused on the putative aggravating role that adherent invasive Escherichia coli may play in CD. However, recent studies have identified additional bacterial and fungal pathobionts in patients with CD and UC. This review will highlight the characteristics of these pathobionts and their implications for IBD treatment. Beyond exploring the origins of pathobionts, we discuss those associated with specific clinical features and the potential mechanisms involved, such as creeping fat (Clostridium innocuum) and impaired wound healing (Debaryomyces hansenii) in patients with CD as well as the increased fecal proteolytic activity (Bacteroides vulgatus) seen as a biomarker for UC severity. Finally, we examine the potential impact of pathobionts on current IBD therapies, and several new approaches to target pathobionts currently in the early stages of development. Despite recognizing that pathobionts likely contribute to the pathogenesis of IBD, more work is needed to define their modes of action. Determining whether causal relationships exist between pathobionts and specific disease characteristics could pave the way for improved care for patients, particularly for those not responding to current IBD therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Gilliland
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Jocelyn J Chan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Travis J De Wolfe
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Hyungjun Yang
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Bruce A Vallance
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, BC Children's Hospital and the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Catalán-Serra I, Thorsvik S, Beisvag V, Bruland T, Underhill D, Sandvik AK, Granlund AVB. Fungal Microbiota Composition in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients: Characterization in Different Phenotypes and Correlation With Clinical Activity and Disease Course. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2023:izad289. [PMID: 38103028 DOI: 10.1093/ibd/izad289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is growing evidence of the role of the mycobiome in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Variations within phenotypes and activity and with prognosis have been poorly studied. METHODS A total of 111 individuals were prospectively enrolled: 89 IBD patients (52 ulcerative colitis and 37 Crohn's disease [CD]) and 22 healthy individuals. Disease characteristics were collected and a fecal calprotectin >100 μg/mg was considered indicative of activity. A subset of patients was followed for 6 ± 2 years. Disease course was designated as either complicated or uncomplicated based on the need of intensified medication and/or surgery. ITS sequencing was performed targeting the ITS1 region. RESULTS We found lower Ascomycota/Basidiomycota ratio in IBD. Patients showed a marked increase in Candida dublinensis and Ca albicans and were depleted of Aspergillus rubrobrunneus and Penicillium brevicompactum (P ≤ .001) Saccharomyces was predominant in total colitis and Penicillium in proctitis. Several Penicillium species were depleted in total colitis vs proctitis. Ileal CD patients were enriched in Debaromyces hansenii and depleted of Ca tropicalis (P ≤ .001). Ca albicans was overrepresented in inflammatory (B1) vs fibrostenosing (B2) CD. Ca dublinensis was more abundant in active patients and correlated positively with fecal calprotectin and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, while S pastorianus correlated inversely with activity. Ca sake was associated with complicated disease and increased abundance of Cryptococcus carnescens with the need for surgery in CD. CONCLUSIONS This study shows important differences in the mycobiome in IBD and within phenotypes. Selected fungal species were associated with complicated disease and the need of surgery in CD. This work adds to our understanding of the role of fungi in IBD, with potential clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Catalán-Serra
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Levanger Hospital, Nord-Trøndelag Hospital Trust, Levanger, Norway
| | - Silje Thorsvik
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Vidar Beisvag
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Torunn Bruland
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic of Medicine, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - David Underhill
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Research Division of Immunology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- F. Widjaja Foundation Inflammatory Bowel and Immunobiology Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Arne Kristian Sandvik
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic of Medicine, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Atle van Beelen Granlund
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, NTNU-Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Clinic of Medicine, St. Olav's University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
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Meade S, Liu Chen Kiow J, Massaro C, Kaur G, Squirell E, Bressler B, Lunken G. Gut microbiome-associated predictors as biomarkers of response to advanced therapies in inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review. Gut Microbes 2023; 15:2287073. [PMID: 38044504 PMCID: PMC10730146 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2023.2287073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Loss of response to therapy in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) has led to a surge in research focusing on precision medicine. Three systematic reviews have been published investigating the associations between gut microbiota and disease activity or IBD therapy. We performed a systematic review to investigate the microbiome predictors of response to advanced therapy in IBD. Unlike previous studies, our review focused on predictors of response to therapy; so the included studies assessed microbiome predictors before the proposed time of response or remission. We also provide an update of the available data on mycobiomes and viromes. We highlight key themes in the literature that may serve as future biomarkers of treatment response: the abundance of fecal SCFA-producing bacteria and opportunistic bacteria, metabolic pathways related to butyrate synthesis, and non-butyrate metabolomic predictors, including bile acids (BAs), amino acids, and lipids, as well as mycobiome predictors of response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Meade
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jeremy Liu Chen Kiow
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Cristian Massaro
- Department of Pediatrics, Univerisity of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Gurpreet Kaur
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Univerisity of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Squirell
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Brian Bressler
- Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Genelle Lunken
- IBD Centre of BC, Vancouver, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, Univerisity of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, Canada
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Carlson SL, Mathew L, Savage M, Kok K, Lindsay JO, Munro CA, McCarthy NE. Mucosal Immunity to Gut Fungi in Health and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:1105. [PMID: 37998910 PMCID: PMC10672531 DOI: 10.3390/jof9111105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiome is a diverse microbial community composed of bacteria, viruses, and fungi that plays a major role in human health and disease. Dysregulation of these gut organisms in a genetically susceptible host is fundamental to the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). While bacterial dysbiosis has been a predominant focus of research for many years, there is growing recognition that fungal interactions with the host immune system are an important driver of gut inflammation. Candida albicans is likely the most studied fungus in the context of IBD, being a near universal gut commensal in humans and also a major barrier-invasive pathogen. There is emerging evidence that intra-strain variation in C. albicans virulence factors exerts a critical influence on IBD pathophysiology. In this review, we describe the immunological impacts of variations in C. lbicans colonisation, morphology, genetics, and proteomics in IBD, as well as the clinical and therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean L. Carlson
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
- Gastroenterology Department, Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London E1 1BB, UK
| | - Liya Mathew
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
| | - Michael Savage
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
| | - Klaartje Kok
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
- Gastroenterology Department, Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London E1 1BB, UK
| | - James O. Lindsay
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
- Gastroenterology Department, Royal London Hospital, Barts Health NHS Trust, London E1 1BB, UK
| | - Carol A. Munro
- Aberdeen Fungal Group, Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3FX, UK
| | - Neil E. McCarthy
- Centre for Immunobiology, The Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 2AT, UK
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Olaisen M, Richard ML, Beisvåg V, Granlund AVB, Røyset ES, Rué O, Martinsen TC, Sandvik AK, Sokol H, Fossmark R. The ileal fungal microbiota is altered in Crohn's disease and is associated with the disease course. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:868812. [PMID: 36237548 PMCID: PMC9551188 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.868812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Fungal microbiota's involvement in the pathogenesis of Crohn's disease (CD) is incompletely understood. The terminal ileum is a predilection site both for primary involvement and recurrences of CD. We, therefore, assessed the mucosa-associated mycobiota in the inflamed and non-inflamed ileum in patients with CD. Methods The mucosa-associated mycobiota was assessed by ITS2 sequencing in a total of 168 biopsies sampled 5 and 15 cm proximal of the ileocecal valve or ileocolic anastomosis in 44 CD patients and 40 healthy controls (HC). CD patients with terminal ileitis, with endoscopic inflammation at 5 cm and normal mucosa at 15 cm and no history of upper CD involvement, were analyzed separately. The need for additional CD treatment the year following biopsy collection was recorded. Results CD patients had reduced mycobiota evenness, increased Basidiomycota/Ascomycota ratio, and reduced abundance of Chytridiomycota compared to HC. The mycobiota of CD patients were characterized by an expansion of Malassezia and a depletion of Saccharomyces, along with increased abundances of Candida albicans and Malassezia restricta. Malassezia was associated with the need for treatment escalation during follow-up. Current anti-TNF treatment was associated with lower abundances of Basidiomycota. The alpha diversity of the inflamed and proximal non-inflamed mucosa within the same patients was similar. However, the inflamed mucosa had a more dysbiotic composition with increased abundances of Candida sake and reduced abundances of Exophiala equina and Debaryomyces hansenii. Conclusions The ileal mucosa-associated mycobiota in CD patients is altered compared to HC. The mycobiota in the inflamed and proximal non-inflamed ileum within the same patients harbor structural differences which may play a role in the CD pathogenesis. Increased abundance of Malassezia was associated with an unfavorable disease course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Olaisen
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Mathias L. Richard
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Paris Center for Microbiome Medicine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, Paris, France
| | - Vidar Beisvåg
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Central Administration, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Atle van Beelen Granlund
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Elin S. Røyset
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Pathology, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Olivier Rué
- INRAE, MaIAGE, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- INRAE, BioinfOmics, MIGALE Bioinformatics Facility, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - Tom Christian Martinsen
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Arne Kristian Sandvik
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
- Centre of Molecular Inflammation Research, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Harry Sokol
- INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Université Paris-Saclay, Jouy-en-Josas, France
- Paris Center for Microbiome Medicine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, Paris, France
- Gastroenterology Department, INSERM, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, CRSA, AP-HP, Saint Antoine Hospital, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
| | - Reidar Fossmark
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, St. Olav's Hospital - Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
- *Correspondence: Reidar Fossmark
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