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Labuschagne Naidoo RB, Steel HC, Theron AJ, Anderson R, Tintinger GR, Rossouw TM. Persistently Elevated Expression of Systemic, Soluble Co-Inhibitory Immune Checkpoint Molecules in People Living with HIV before and One Year after Antiretroviral Therapy. Pathogens 2024; 13:540. [PMID: 39057767 PMCID: PMC11279922 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13070540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Increasing drug resistance and the absence of a cure necessitates exploration of novel treatment strategies for people living with HIV (PLWH). Targeting of soluble co-inhibitory immune checkpoint molecules (sICMs) represents a novel, potentially effective strategy in the management of HIV. METHODS In this retrospective, longitudinal, observational study, the plasma levels of five prominent co-inhibitory sICMs-CTLA-4, LAG-3, PD-1 and its ligand PD-L1, as well as TIM-3-were quantified in 68 PLWH-before and one year after antiretroviral therapy (ART)-and compared with those of 15 healthy control participants. RESULTS Relative to control participants, PLWH had substantially elevated pre-treatment levels of all five co-inhibitory sICMs (p < 0.0001-p < 0.0657), which, over the 12-month period of ART, remained significantly higher than those of controls (p < 0.0367-p < 0.0001). PLWH with advanced disease, reflected by a CD4+ T cell count <200 cells/mm3 before ART, had the lowest levels of CTLA-4 and LAG-3, while participants with pre-treatment HIV viral loads ≥100,000 copies/mL had higher pre-treatment levels of TIM-3, which also persisted at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS Plasma levels of CTLA-4, LAG-3, PD-1, PD-L1 and TIM-3 were significantly elevated in treatment-naïve PLWH and remained so following one year of virally-suppressive ART, possibly identifying LAG-3 and TIM-3 in particular as potential targets for adjuvant immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn-Brooke Labuschagne Naidoo
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Steve Biko Academic Hospital, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (R.-B.L.N.); (G.R.T.)
| | - Helen C. Steel
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (H.C.S.); (A.J.T.); (R.A.)
| | - Annette J. Theron
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (H.C.S.); (A.J.T.); (R.A.)
| | - Ronald Anderson
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (H.C.S.); (A.J.T.); (R.A.)
| | - Gregory R. Tintinger
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria and Steve Biko Academic Hospital, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (R.-B.L.N.); (G.R.T.)
| | - Theresa M. Rossouw
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa; (H.C.S.); (A.J.T.); (R.A.)
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Sabbatino F, Pagliano P, Sellitto C, Stefanelli B, Corbi G, Manzo V, De Bellis E, Liguori L, Salzano FA, Pepe S, Filippelli A, Conti V. Different Prognostic Role of Soluble PD-L1 in the Course of Severe and Non-Severe COVID-19. J Clin Med 2023; 12:6812. [PMID: 37959277 PMCID: PMC10649852 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12216812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the link between COVID-19 and patient immune characteristics is crucial. We previously demonstrated that high levels of the soluble Programmed Death-Ligand1 (sPD-L1) at the beginning of the infection correlated with low lymphocyte number and high C-reactive protein (CRP), longer length of stay (LOS), and death. This study investigated whether sPD-L1 can be a prognosis biomarker during COVID-19. Severe and non-severe COVID-19 patients were enrolled at the University Hospital of Salerno. During hospitalization, at admission, and after 12-14 days, patients' data were collected, and sPD-L1 levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The peripheral lymphocyte number negatively correlated with the time of negativization (p = 0.006), length of stay (LOS) (p = 0.032), and CRP (p = 0.004), while sPD-L1 positively correlated with LOS (p = 0.015). Patients with increased sPD-L1 and lymphocyte number showed a shorter LOS than those with decreased sPD-L1 and lymphocyte number (p = 0.038) and those with increased sPD-L1 and decreased lymphocyte number (p = 0.025). Moreover, patients with increased sPD-L1 and decreased CRP had a shorter LOS than those with increased sPD-L1 and CRP (p = 0.034) and those with decreased sPD-L1 and CRP (p = 0.048). In conclusion, while at an early phase of COVID-19, sPD-L1 promotes an immune escape, later, it might act to dampen an excessive immune response, proving its role in COVID-19 prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Sabbatino
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Oncology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi D’Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Pasquale Pagliano
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Infectious Disease Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi D’Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Carmine Sellitto
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d’Aragona University Hospital, Via San Leonardo 1, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Berenice Stefanelli
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
| | - Graziamaria Corbi
- Department of Translational Medical Sciences, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Valentina Manzo
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d’Aragona University Hospital, Via San Leonardo 1, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Emanuela De Bellis
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
| | - Luigi Liguori
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples “Federico II”, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Francesco Antonio Salzano
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Otolaryngology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi D’Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Stefano Pepe
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Oncology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi D’Aragona University Hospital, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Amelia Filippelli
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d’Aragona University Hospital, Via San Leonardo 1, 84131 Salerno, Italy
| | - Valeria Conti
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry “Scuola Medica Salernitana”, University of Salerno, 84081 Baronissi, Italy; (F.S.); (P.P.); (C.S.); (B.S.); (V.M.); (E.D.B.); (F.A.S.); (S.P.); (A.F.); (V.C.)
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, San Giovanni di Dio e Ruggi d’Aragona University Hospital, Via San Leonardo 1, 84131 Salerno, Italy
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Kiriyama Y, Nochi H. Regulation of PD-L1 Expression by Nuclear Receptors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9891. [PMID: 37373038 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The suppression of excessive immune responses is necessary to prevent injury to the body, but it also allows cancer cells to escape immune responses and proliferate. Programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) is a co-inhibitory molecule that is present on T cells and is the receptor for programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1). The binding of PD-1 to PD-L1 leads to the inhibition of the T cell receptor signaling cascade. PD-L1 has been found to be expressed in many types of cancers, such as lung, ovarian, and breast cancer, as well as glioblastoma. Furthermore, PD-L1 mRNA is widely expressed in normal peripheral tissues including the heart, skeletal muscle, placenta, lungs, thymus, spleen, kidney, and liver. The expression of PD-L1 is upregulated by proinflammatory cytokines and growth factors via a number of transcription factors. In addition, various nuclear receptors, such as androgen receptor, estrogen receptor, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor γ, and retinoic-acid-related orphan receptor γ, also regulate the expression of PD-L1. This review will focus on the current knowledge of the regulation of PD-L1 expression by nuclear receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshimitsu Kiriyama
- Kagawa School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima 769-2193, Kagawa, Japan
- Institute of Neuroscience, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima 769-2193, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Hiromi Nochi
- Kagawa School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokushima Bunri University, Tokushima 769-2193, Kagawa, Japan
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Chiu CY, Schou MD, McMahon JH, Deeks SG, Fromentin R, Chomont N, Wykes MN, Rasmussen TA, Lewin SR. Soluble immune checkpoints as correlates for HIV persistence and T cell function in people with HIV on antiretroviral therapy. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1123342. [PMID: 37056754 PMCID: PMC10086427 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1123342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction In people with HIV (PWH) both off and on antiretroviral therapy (ART), the expression of immune checkpoint (IC) proteins is elevated on the surface of total and HIV-specific T-cells, indicating T-cell exhaustion. Soluble IC proteins and their ligands can also be detected in plasma, but have not been systematically examined in PWH. Since T-cell exhaustion is associated with HIV persistence on ART, we aimed to determine if soluble IC proteins and their ligands also correlated with the size of the HIV reservoir and HIV-specific T-cell function. Methods We used multiplex bead-based immunoassay to quantify soluble programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1), cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4), lymphocyte activation gene-3 (LAG-3), T cell immunoglobulin domain and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3), PD-1 Ligand 1 (PD-L1) and PD-1 Ligand 2 (PD-L2) in plasma from PWH off ART (n=20), on suppressive ART (n=75) and uninfected controls (n=20). We also quantified expression of membrane-bound IC and frequencies of functional T-cells to Gag and Nef peptide stimulation on CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells using flow cytometry. The HIV reservoir was quantified in circulating CD4+ T-cells using qPCR for total and integrated HIV DNA, cell-associated unspliced HIV RNA and 2LTR circles. Results Soluble (s) PD-L2 level was higher in PWH off and on ART compared to uninfected controls. Higher levels of sPD-L2 correlated with lower levels of HIV total DNA and higher frequencies of gag-specific CD8+ T-cells expressing CD107a, IFNγ or TNFα. In contrast, the concentration of sLAG-3 was similar in uninfected individuals and PWH on ART, but was significantly elevated in PWH off ART. Higher levels of sLAG-3 correlated with higher levels of HIV total and integrated DNA, and lower frequency of gag-specific CD4+ T cells expressing CD107a. Similar to sLAG-3, levels of sPD-1 were elevated in PWH off ART and normalized in PWH on ART. sPD-1 was positively correlated with the frequency of gag-specific CD4+ T cells expressing TNF-a and the expression of membrane-bound PD-1 on total CD8+ T-cells in PWH on ART. Discussion Plasma soluble IC proteins and their ligands correlate with markers of the HIV reservoir and HIV-specific T-cell function and should be investigated further in in large population-based studies of the HIV reservoir or cure interventions in PWH on ART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Y. Chiu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Maya D. Schou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - James H. McMahon
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University and the Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Steven G. Deeks
- Department of Medicine, University California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Rémi Fromentin
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Nicolas Chomont
- Centre de Recherche du Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Microbiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Thomas A. Rasmussen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sharon R. Lewin
- Department of Infectious Diseases, The University of Melbourne at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Monash University and the Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Victorian Infectious Diseases Service, Royal Melbourne Hospital at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Upregulation of PD-1 Expression and High sPD-L1 Levels Associated with COVID-19 Severity. J Immunol Res 2022; 2022:9764002. [PMID: 35971391 PMCID: PMC9375698 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9764002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
COVID-19 has several mechanisms that can lead to lymphocyte depletion/exhaustion. The checkpoint inhibitor molecule programmed death protein 1 (PD-1) and its programmed death-ligand 1 (PDL-1) play an important role in inhibiting cellular activity as well as the depletion of these cells. In this study, we evaluated PD-1 expression in TCD4+, TCD8+, and CD19+ lymphocytes from SARS-CoV-2-infected patients. A decreased frequency of total lymphocytes and an increased PD-1 expression in TCD4+ and CD19+ lymphocytes were verified in severe/critical COVID-19 patients. In addition, we found a decreased frequency of total monocytes with an increased PD-1 expression on CD14+ monocytes in severe/critical patients in association with the time of infection. Moreover, we observed an increase in sPD-L1 circulant levels associated with the severity of the disease. Overall, these data indicate an important role of the PD-1/PDL-1 axis in COVID-19 and may provide a severity-associated biomarker and therapeutic target during SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Active PD-L1 incorporation within HIV virions functionally impairs T follicular helper cells. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010673. [PMID: 35788752 PMCID: PMC9286290 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The limited development of broadly neutralizing antibodies (BnAbs) during HIV infection is classically attributed to an inadequate B-cell help brought by functionally impaired T follicular helper (Tfh) cells. However, the determinants of Tfh-cell functional impairment and the signals contributing to this condition remain elusive. In the present study, we showed that PD-L1 is incorporated within HIV virions through an active mechanism involving p17 HIV matrix protein. We subsequently showed that in vitro produced PD-L1high but not PD-L1low HIV virions, significantly reduced Tfh-cell proliferation and IL-21 production, ultimately leading to a decreased of IgG1 secretion from GC B cells. Interestingly, Tfh-cell functions were fully restored in presence of anti-PD-L1/2 blocking mAbs treatment, demonstrating that the incorporated PD-L1 proteins were functionally active. Taken together, the present study unveils an immunovirological mechanism by which HIV specifically exploits the regulatory potential of PD-L1 to suppress the immune system during the course of HIV infection. During HIV infection, the development of effective BnAbs remains a rare phenomenon, occurring in only 15–20% of HIV-infected individuals after years of infection. Although multiple mechanisms may be involved, recent studies have suggested that functional impairment of Tfh cells, through immune checkpoint (IC)/IC-Ligand (IC-L) interactions, may lead to a decrease in B-cell help leading to low BnAbs production. Our laboratory recently showed that PD-L1 was predominantly expressed on lymph node (LN) migratory dendritic cells located predominantly in extra-follicular areas, implying that the source of IC-L contributing to Tfh-cell functional impairment may be independent of cellular expression of IC-L. These observations prompted us to investigate the potential contribution of IC-L incorporated within HIV virion envelope to Tfh-cell functional impairment. We subsequently demonstrated that PD-L1 was incorporated into a large fraction of HIV virions in the plasma of viremic HIV-infected individuals. Interestingly, PD-L1 remains active when incorporated into HIV virions envelope and could impaired Tfh-cell proliferation, resulting in decreased IgG1 production by B cells in vitro. These findings demonstrate an unsuspected mechanism contributing to the regulation of Tfh-cell function, which may contribute to the low production of BnAbs by B cells during HIV infection.
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Circulating Levels of PD-L1, TIM-3 and MMP-7 Are Promising Biomarkers to Differentiate COVID-19 Patients That Require Invasive Mechanical Ventilation. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12030445. [PMID: 35327637 PMCID: PMC8946215 DOI: 10.3390/biom12030445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Many COVID-19 patients require invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) while others, even with acute respiratory failure, do not (NIMV). Therefore, we aimed to evaluate serum levels of MMP-7 and molecules related to exhausted T-cells as potential biomarkers to differentiate between IMV and NIMV patients. Methods: 105 patients diagnosed with COVID-19 and confirmed by RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2 were divided into two groups according to the requirement for IMV. Serum levels of sPD-L1, sPD-L2, sTIM-3, sGal-9 and sMMP-7 were quantified by ELISA and correlated with clinical data. Twelve patients were followed up after eight months to compare the levels of the biomarkers between acute disease and post-COVID-19. Results: IMV patients experienced a lower PaO2/FiO2 (p < 0.0001) and a longer hospital stay (p < 0.0001), and exhibited higher levels of sPD-L1 (p < 0.05), sTIM-3 (p < 0.01) and sMMP-7 (p < 0.0001) when compared with NIMV patients. According to a ROC analysis, sMMP-7 had the highest sensitivity (78%) and specificity (76%) with a cut point of 4.5 ng/mL, followed by sTIM-3 and sPD-L1. Eight months post-COVID-19, IMV patients displayed a significant decrease in the initially high levels of sPD-L1, sTIM-3 and sGal-9, while sPD-L2 was increased, and sMMP-7 was unchanged. Conclusion: Circulating levels of sPD-L1, sTIM-3 and sMMP-7 are potential biomarkers of disease severity to distinguish patients requiring IMV. MMP-7 could also be a marker for the persistence of lung lesions post-COVID-19.
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Li W, Syed F, Yu R, Yang J, Xia Y, Relich RF, Russell PM, Zhang S, Khalili M, Huang L, Kacena MA, Zheng X, Yu Q. Soluble Immune Checkpoints Are Dysregulated in COVID-19 and Heavy Alcohol Users With HIV Infection. Front Immunol 2022; 13:833310. [PMID: 35281051 PMCID: PMC8904355 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.833310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoints (ICPs) consist of paired receptor-ligand molecules that exert inhibitory or stimulatory effects on immune defense, surveillance, regulation, and self-tolerance. ICPs exist in both membrane and soluble forms in vivo and in vitro. Imbalances between inhibitory and stimulatory membrane-bound ICPs (mICPs) in malignant cells and immune cells in the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) have been well documented. Blockades of inhibitory mICPs have emerged as an immense breakthrough in cancer therapeutics. However, the origin, structure, production regulation, and biological significance of soluble ICPs (sICPs) in health and disease largely remains elusive. Soluble ICPs can be generated through either alternative mRNA splicing and secretion or protease-mediated shedding from mICPs. Since sICPs are found in the bloodstream, they likely form a circulating immune regulatory system. In fact, there is increasing evidence that sICPs exhibit biological functions including (1) regulation of antibacterial immunity, (2) interaction with their mICP compartments to positively or negatively regulate immune responses, and (3) competition with their mICP compartments for binding to the ICP blocking antibodies, thereby reducing the efficacy of ICP blockade therapies. Here, we summarize current data of sICPs in cancer and infectious diseases. We particularly focus on sICPs in COVID-19 and HIV infection as they are the two ongoing global pandemics and have created the world's most serious public health challenges. A "storm" of sICPs occurs in the peripheral circulation of COVID-19 patients and is associated with the severity of COVID-19. Similarly, sICPs are highly dysregulated in people living with HIV (PLHIV) and some sICPs remain dysregulated in PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy (ART), indicating these sICPs may serve as biomarkers of incomplete immune reconstitution in PLHIV on ART. We reveal that HIV infection in the setting of alcohol misuse exacerbates sICP dysregulation as PLHIV with heavy alcohol consumption have significantly elevated plasma levels of many sICPs. Thus, both stimulatory and inhibitory sICPs are present in the bloodstream of healthy people and their balance can be disrupted under pathophysiological conditions such as cancer, COVID-19, HIV infection, and alcohol misuse. There is an urgent need to study the role of sICPs in immune regulation in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Fahim Syed
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Richard Yu
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Ying Xia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Ryan F. Relich
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Patrick M. Russell
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Shanxiang Zhang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Mandana Khalili
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Laurence Huang
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Melissa A. Kacena
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
| | - Xiaoqun Zheng
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children’s Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Qigui Yu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, United States
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Association of PD-L1 gene polymorphisms and circulating sPD-L1 levels with HBV infection susceptibility and related liver disease progression. Gene 2022; 806:145935. [PMID: 34478821 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2021.145935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 08/24/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Soluble molecules of programmed death ligand 1 (sPD-L1) are known to modulate T-cell depletion, an important mechanism of hepatitis B virus (HBV) persistence and liver disease progression. In addition, PD-L1 polymorphisms in the 3'-UTR can influence PD-L1 expression and have been associated with cancer risk, although not definitively. The purpose of this study was to investigate the association of PD-L1 polymorphisms and circulating levels of sPD-L1 in HBV infection and live disease progression. In this study, five hundred fifty-one HBV infected patients of the three clinically well-defined subgroups chronic hepatitis B (CHB, n = 186), liver cirrhosis (LC, n = 142) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC, n = 223) and 240 healthy individuals (HC) were enrolled. PD-L1 polymorphisms (rs2297136 and rs4143815) were genotyped by in-house validated ARMS assays. Logistic regression models were applied in order to determine the association of PD-L1 polymorphisms with HBV infection as well as with progression of related liver diseases. Plasma sPD-L1 levels were quantified by ELISA assays. The PD-L1 rs2297136 AA genotype was associated with HBV infection susceptibility (HBV vs. HC: OR = 1.6; 95%CI = 1.1-2.3; p = 0.0087) and disease progression (LC vs. CHB: OR = 1.8; 95%CI = 1.1-2.9; p = 0.018). Whereas, the rs2297136 GG genotype was a protective factor for HCC development. Plasma sPD-L1 levels were significantly high in HBV patients (p < 0.0001) and higher in the LC followed by CHB and HCC groups. High sPD-L1 levels correlated with increased liver enzymes and with advanced liver disease progression (Child-pugh C > B > A, p < 0.0001) and BCLC classification (BCLC D > C > B > A, p = 0.031). We could, for the first time, conclude that PD-L1 rs2297136 polymorphism and plasma sPD-L1 protein levels associate with HBV infection and HBV-related liver disease progression.
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Picón C, Tejeda-Velarde A, Fernández-Velasco JI, Comabella M, Álvarez-Lafuente R, Quintana E, Sainz de la Maza S, Monreal E, Villarrubia N, Álvarez-Cermeño JC, Domínguez-Mozo MI, Ramió-Torrentà L, Rodríguez-Martín E, Roldán E, Aladro Y, Medina S, Espiño M, Masjuan J, Matute-Blanch C, Muñoz-San Martín M, Espejo C, Guaza C, Muriel A, Costa-Frossard L, Villar LM. Identification of the Immunological Changes Appearing in the CSF During the Early Immunosenescence Process Occurring in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2021; 12:685139. [PMID: 34322119 PMCID: PMC8311928 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.685139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) suffer with age an early immunosenescence process, which influence the treatment response and increase the risk of infections. We explored whether lipid-specific oligoclonal IgM bands (LS-OCMB) associated with highly inflammatory MS modify the immunological profile induced by age in MS. This cross-sectional study included 263 MS patients who were classified according to the presence (M+, n=72) and absence (M-, n=191) of LS-OCMB. CSF cellular subsets and molecules implicated in immunosenescence were explored. In M- patients, aging induced remarkable decreases in absolute CSF counts of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, including Th1 and Th17 cells, and of B cells, including those secreting TNF-alpha. It also increased serum anti-CMV IgG antibody titers (indicative of immunosenescence) and CSF CHI3L1 levels (related to astrocyte activation). In contrast, M+ patients showed an age-associated increase of TIM-3 (a biomarker of T cell exhaustion) and increased values of CHI3L1, independently of age. Finally, in both groups, age induced an increase in CSF levels of PD-L1 (an inductor of T cell tolerance) and activin A (part of the senescence-associated secretome and related to inflammaging). These changes were independent of the disease duration. Finally, this resulted in augmented disability. In summary, all MS patients experience with age a modest induction of T-cell tolerance and an activation of the innate immunity, resulting in increased disability. Additionally, M- patients show clear decreases in CSF lymphocyte numbers, which could increase the risk of infections. Thus, age and immunological status are important for tailoring effective therapies in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Picón
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Brain Science, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Amalia Tejeda-Velarde
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - José Ignacio Fernández-Velasco
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Comabella
- Servei de Neurologia-Neuroimmunologia, Centre d’ Esclerosi Múltiple de Catalunya (Cemcat), Vall d’ Hebron Institut de Recerca, Hospital Universitari Vall d’ Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Roberto Álvarez-Lafuente
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), REEM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ester Quintana
- Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Dr. Josep Trueta, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IDIBGI), Girona, Medical Sciences Department, Universitat de Girona, REEM, Girona, Spain
| | | | - Enric Monreal
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, REEM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Noelia Villarrubia
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | | | - María Inmaculada Domínguez-Mozo
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, Madrid, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos (IdISSC), REEM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lluís Ramió-Torrentà
- Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Dr. Josep Trueta, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IDIBGI), Girona, Medical Sciences Department, Universitat de Girona, REEM, Girona, Spain
| | - Eulalia Rodríguez-Martín
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ernesto Roldán
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Yolanda Aladro
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario de Getafe, REEM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Medina
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mercedes Espiño
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Jaime Masjuan
- Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, REEM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Clara Matute-Blanch
- Servei de Neurologia-Neuroimmunologia, Centre d’ Esclerosi Múltiple de Catalunya (Cemcat), Vall d’ Hebron Institut de Recerca, Hospital Universitari Vall d’ Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Muñoz-San Martín
- Neuroimmunology and Multiple Sclerosis Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Dr. Josep Trueta, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Girona (IDIBGI), Girona, Medical Sciences Department, Universitat de Girona, REEM, Girona, Spain
| | - Carmen Espejo
- Servei de Neurologia-Neuroimmunologia, Centre d’ Esclerosi Múltiple de Catalunya (Cemcat), Vall d’ Hebron Institut de Recerca, Hospital Universitari Vall d’ Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Guaza
- Neuroimmunology Group, Functional and Systems Neurobiology Department, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Alfonso Muriel
- Clinical Biostatistics Unit, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, IRYCIS, CIBERESP, Nursing Department, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Luisa María Villar
- Department of Immunology, Hospital Universitario Ramón y Cajal, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigacón Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Red Española de Esclerosis Múltiple (REEM), Madrid, Spain
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Bailly C, Thuru X, Quesnel B. Soluble Programmed Death Ligand-1 (sPD-L1): A Pool of Circulating Proteins Implicated in Health and Diseases. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:3034. [PMID: 34204509 PMCID: PMC8233757 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13123034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Upon T-cell receptor stimulation, the Programmed cell Death-1 receptor (PD-1) expressed on T-cells can interact with its ligand PD-L1 expressed at the surface of cancer cells or antigen-presenting cells. Monoclonal antibodies targeting PD-1 or PD-L1 are routinely used for the treatment of cancers, but their clinical efficacy varies largely across the variety of tumor types. A part of the variability is linked to the existence of several forms of PD-L1, either expressed on the plasma membrane (mPD-L1), at the surface of secreted cellular exosomes (exoPD-L1), in cell nuclei (nPD-L1), or as a circulating, soluble protein (sPD-L1). Here, we have reviewed the different origins and roles of sPD-L1 in humans to highlight the biochemical and functional heterogeneity of the soluble protein. sPD-L1 isoforms can be generated essentially by two non-exclusive processes: (i) proteolysis of m/exoPD-L1 by metalloproteases, such as metalloproteinases (MMP) and A disintegrin and metalloproteases (ADAM), which are capable of shedding membrane PD-L1 to release an active soluble form, and (ii) the alternative splicing of PD-L1 pre-mRNA, leading in some cases to the release of sPD-L1 protein isoforms lacking the transmembrane domain. The expression and secretion of sPD-L1 have been observed in a large variety of pathologies, well beyond cancer, notably in different pulmonary diseases, chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and viral diseases. The expression and role of sPD-L1 during pregnancy are also evoked. The structural heterogeneity of sPD-L1 proteins, and associated functional/cellular plurality, should be kept in mind when considering sPD-L1 as a biomarker or as a drug target. The membrane, exosomal and soluble forms of PD-L1 are all integral parts of the highly dynamic PD-1/PD-L1 signaling pathway, essential for immune-tolerance or immune-escape.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Xavier Thuru
- Plasticity and Resistance to Therapies, UMR9020-UMR1277-Canther-Cancer Heterogeneity, CHU Lille, Inserm, CNRS, University of Lille, 59000 Lille, France; (X.T.); (B.Q.)
| | - Bruno Quesnel
- Plasticity and Resistance to Therapies, UMR9020-UMR1277-Canther-Cancer Heterogeneity, CHU Lille, Inserm, CNRS, University of Lille, 59000 Lille, France; (X.T.); (B.Q.)
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