The airway microbiome in cystic fibrosis and implications for treatment

Commensal-derived short-chain fatty acids disrupt lipid membrane homeostasis in Staphylococcus aureus

The role of commensal anaerobic bacteria in chronic respiratory infections is unclear, yet they can exist in abundances comparable to canonical pathogens in vivo. Their contributions to the metabolic landscape of the host environment may influence pathogen behavior by competing for nutrients and creating inhospitable conditions via toxic metabolites. Here, we reveal a mechanism by which the anaerobe-derived short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) propionate and butyrate negatively affect Staphylococcus aureus physiology by disrupting branched chain fatty acid (BCFA) metabolism. In turn, BCFA impairment results in impaired growth, diminished expression of the agr quorum sensing system, as well as increased sensitivity to membrane-targeting antimicrobials. Altered BCFA metabolism also reduces S. aureus fitness in competition with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, suggesting that airway microbiome composition and the metabolites they produce and exchange directly impact pathogen succession over time. The pleiotropic effects of these SCFAs on S. aureus fitness and their ubiquity as metabolites in animals also suggests that they may be effective as sensitizers to traditional antimicrobial agents when used in combination.

Helicobacter pylori infection in infant rhesus macaque monkeys is associated with an altered lung and oral microbiome

It is estimated that more than half of the world population has been infected with Helicobacter pylori. Most newly acquired H. pylori infections occur in children before 10 years of age. We hypothesized that early life H. pylori infection could influence the composition of the microbiome at mucosal sites distant to the stomach. To test this hypothesis, we utilized the infant rhesus macaque monkey as an animal model of natural H. pylori colonization to determine the impact of infection on the lung and oral microbiome during a window of postnatal development. From a cohort of 4-7 month-old monkeys, gastric biopsy cultures identified 44% of animals infected by H. pylori. 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of lung washes and buccal swabs from animals showed distinct profiles for the lung and oral microbiome, independent of H. pylori infection. In order of relative abundance, the lung microbiome was dominated by the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Fusobacteriota, Campilobacterota and Actinobacteriota while the oral microbiome was dominated by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, and Fusobacteriota. In comparison to the oral cavity, the lung was composed of more genera and species that significantly differed by H. pylori status, with a total of 6 genera and species that were increased in H. pylori negative infant monkey lungs. Lung, but not plasma IL-8 concentration was also associated with gastric H. pylori load and lung microbial composition. We found the infant rhesus macaque monkey lung harbors a microbiome signature that is distinct from that of the oral cavity during postnatal development. Gastric H. pylori colonization and IL-8 protein were linked to the composition of microbial communities in the lung and oral cavity. Collectively, these findings provide insight into how H. pylori infection might contribute to the gut-lung axis during early childhood and modulate future respiratory health.

Helicobacter pylori Infection in Infant Rhesus Macaque Monkeys is Associated with an Altered Lung and Oral Microbiome

Background

It is estimated that more than half of the world population has been infected with Helicobacter pylori. Most newly acquired H. pylori infections occur in children before 10 years of age. We hypothesized that early life H. pylori infection could influence the composition of the microbiome at mucosal sites distant to the stomach. To test this hypothesis, we utilized the infant rhesus macaque monkey as an animal model of natural H. pylori colonization to determine the impact of infection on the lung and oral microbiome during a window of postnatal development.

Results

From a cohort of 4-7-month-old monkeys, gastric biopsy cultures identified 44% of animals infected by H. pylori. 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing of lung washes and buccal swabs from animals showed distinct profiles for the lung and oral microbiome, independent of H. pylori infection. In relative order of abundance, the lung microbiome was dominated by the phyla Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, Fusobacteriota, Campilobacterota and Actinobacteriota while the oral microbiome was dominated by Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Bacteroidota, and Fusobacteriota. Relative to the oral cavity, the lung was composed of more genera and species that significantly differed by H. pylori status, with a total of 6 genera and species that were increased in H. pylori negative infant monkey lungs. Lung, but not plasma IL-8 concentration was also associated with gastric H. pylori load and lung microbial composition.

Conclusions

We found the infant rhesus macaque monkey lung harbors a microbiome signature that is distinct from that of the oral cavity during postnatal development. Gastric H. pylori colonization and IL-8 protein were linked to the composition of microbial communities in the lung and oral cavity. Collectively, these findings provide insight into how H. pylori infection might contribute to the gut-lung axis during early childhood and modulate future respiratory health.

Supplemental Oxygen Alters the Airway Microbiome in Cystic Fibrosis

Features of the airway microbiome in persons with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) are correlated with disease progression. Microbes have traditionally been classified for their ability to tolerate oxygen. It is unknown whether supplemental oxygen, a common medical intervention, affects the airway microbiome of pwCF. We hypothesized that hyperoxia significantly impacts the pulmonary microbiome in cystic fibrosis. In this study, we cultured spontaneously expectorated sputum from pwCF in artificial sputum medium under 21%, 50%, and 100% oxygen conditions using a previously validated model system that recapitulates microbial community composition in uncultured sputum. Culture aliquots taken at 24, 48, and 72 h, along with uncultured sputum, underwent shotgun metagenomic sequencing with absolute abundance values obtained with the use of spike-in bacteria. Raw sequencing files were processed using the bioBakery pipeline to determine changes in taxonomy, predicted function, antimicrobial resistance genes, and mobile genetic elements. Hyperoxia reduced absolute microbial load, species richness, and diversity. Hyperoxia reduced absolute abundance of specific microbes, including facultative anaerobes such as Rothia and some Streptococcus species, with minimal impact on canonical CF pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. The effect size of hyperoxia on predicted functional pathways was stronger than that on taxonomy. Large changes in microbial cooccurrence networks were noted. Hyperoxia exposure perturbs airway microbial communities in a manner well tolerated by key pathogens. Supplemental oxygen use may enable the growth of lung pathogens and should be further studied in the clinical setting. IMPORTANCE The airway microbiome in persons with cystic fibrosis (pwCF) is correlated with lung function and disease severity. Supplemental oxygen use is common in more advanced CF, yet its role in perturbing airway microbial communities is unknown. By culturing sputum samples from pwCF under normal and elevated oxygen conditions, we found that increased oxygen led to reduced total numbers and diversity of microbes, with relative sparing of common CF pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Supplemental oxygen use may enable the growth of lung pathogens and should be further studied in the clinical setting.

Strain-specific interspecies interactions between co-isolated pairs of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from patients with tracheobronchitis or bronchial colonization

Dual species interactions in co-isolated pairs of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from patients with tracheobronchitis or bronchial colonization were examined. The genetic and phenotypic diversity between the isolates was high making the interactions detected strain-specific. Despite this, and the clinical origin of the strains, some interactions were common between some co-isolated pairs. For most pairs, P. aeruginosa exoproducts affected biofilm formation and reduced growth in vitro in its S. aureus counterpart. Conversely, S. aureus did not impair biofilm formation and stimulated swarming motility in P. aeruginosa. Co-culture in a medium that mimics respiratory mucus promoted coexistence and favored mixed microcolony formation within biofilms. Under these conditions, key genes controlled by quorum sensing were differentially regulated in both species in an isolate-dependent manner. Finally, co-infection in the acute infection model in Galleria mellonella larvae showed an additive effect only in the co-isolated pair in which P. aeruginosa affected less S. aureus growth. This work contributes to understanding the complex interspecies interactions between P. aeruginosa and S. aureus by studying strains isolated during acute infection.

Porphyromonas pasteri and Prevotella nanceiensis in the sputum microbiota are associated with increased decline in lung function in individuals with cystic fibrosis

Although anaerobic bacteria exist in abundance in cystic fibrosis (CF) airways, their role in disease progression is poorly understood. We hypothesized that the presence and relative abundance of the most prevalent, live, anaerobic bacteria in sputum of adults with CF were associated with adverse clinical outcomes. This is the first study to prospectively investigate viable anaerobic bacteria present in the sputum microbiota and their relationship with long-term outcomes in adults with CF. We performed 16S rRNA analysis using a viability quantitative PCR technique on sputum samples obtained from a prospective cohort of 70 adults with CF and collected clinical data over an 8 year follow-up period. We examined the associations of the ten most abundant obligate anaerobic bacteria present in the sputum with annual rate of FEV₁ change. The presence of Porphyromonas pasteri and Prevotella nanceiensis were associated with a greater annual rate of FEV₁ change; −52.3 ml yr⁻¹ (95 % CI-87.7;−16.9), –67.9 ml yr⁻¹ (95 % CI-115.6;−20.1), respectively. Similarly, the relative abundance of these live organisms were associated with a greater annual rate of FEV₁ decline of −3.7 ml yr⁻¹ (95 % CI: −6.1 to −1.3, P=0.003) and −5.3 ml yr⁻¹ (95 % CI: −8.7 to −1.9, P=0.002) for each log₂ increment of abundance, respectively. The presence and relative abundance of certain anaerobes in the sputum of adults with CF are associated with a greater rate of long-term lung function decline. The pathogenicity of anaerobic bacteria in the CF airways should be confirmed with further longitudinal prospective studies with a larger cohort of participants.

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae infection impedes Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization and persistence in mouse respiratory tract

Patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) experience lifelong respiratory infections which are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. These infections are polymicrobial in nature, and the predominant bacterial species undergo a predictable series of changes as patients age. Young patients have populations dominated by opportunists that are typically found within the microbiome of the human nasopharynx, such as nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi); these are eventually supplanted and the population within the CF lung is later dominated by pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa). In this study, we investigated how initial colonization with NTHi impacts colonization and persistence of Pa in the respiratory tract. Analysis of polymicrobial biofilms in vitro by confocal microscopy revealed that NTHi promoted greater levels of Pa biofilm volume and diffusion. However, sequential respiratory infection of mice with NTHi followed by Pa resulted in significantly lower Pa as compared to infection with Pa alone. Coinfected mice also had reduced airway tissue damage and lower levels of inflammatory cytokines as compared with Pa infected mice. Similar results were observed after instillation of heat-inactivated NTHi bacteria or purified NTHi lipooligosaccharide (LOS) endotoxin prior to Pa introduction. Based on these results, we conclude that NTHi significantly reduces susceptibility to subsequent Pa infection, most likely due to priming of host innate immunity rather than a direct competitive interaction between species. These findings have potential significance with regard to therapeutic management of early life infections in patients with CF.

Impact of Anaerobic Antibacterial Spectrum on Cystic Fibrosis Airway Microbiome Diversity and Pulmonary Function

BACKGROUND

The role of anaerobic organisms in the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung microbiome is unclear. Our objectives were to investigate the effect of broad (BS) versus narrow (NS) spectrum antianaerobic antibiotic activity on lung microbiome diversity and pulmonary function, hypothesizing that BS antibiotics would cause greater change in microbiome diversity without a significant improvement in lung function.

METHODS

Pulmonary function tests and respiratory samples were collected prospectively in persons with CF before and after treatment for pulmonary exacerbations. Treatment antibiotics were classified as BS or NS. Gene sequencing data from 16S rRNA were used for diversity analysis and bacterial genera classification. We compared the effects of BS versus NS on diversity indices, lung function and anaerobic/aerobic ratios. Statistical significance was determined by multilevel mixed-effects generalized linear models and mixed-effects regression models.

RESULTS

Twenty patients, 6-20 years of age, experienced 30 exacerbations. BS therapy had a greater effect on beta diversity than NS therapy when comparing time points before antibiotics to after and at recovery. After antibiotics, the NS therapy group had a greater return toward baseline forced expiratory volume at 1 second and forced expiratory flow 25%-75% values than the BS group. The ratio of anaerobic/aerobic organisms showed a predominance of anaerobes in the NS group with aerobes dominating in the BS group.

CONCLUSIONS

BS antianaerobic therapy had a greater and possibly longer lasting effect on the lung microbiome of persons with CF, without achieving the recovery of pulmonary function seen with the NS therapy. Specific antibiotic therapies may affect disease progression by changing the airway microbiome.

Emerging cellular and molecular interactions between the lung microbiota and lung diseases

With the discovery of the lung microbiota, its study in both pulmonary health and disease has become a vibrant area of emerging research interest. Thus far, most studies have described the lung microbiota composition in lung disease quite well, and some of these studies indicated alterations in lung microbial communities related to the onset and development of lung disease and vice versa. However, the underlying mechanisms, particularly the cellular and molecular links, are still largely unknown. In this review, we highlight the current progress in the complex cellular and molecular mechanisms by which the lung microbiome interacts with immune homeostasis and pulmonary disease pathogenesis to advance our understanding of the elaborate function of the lung microbiota in lung disease. We hope that this work can attract more attention to this still-young yet very promising field to facilitate the identification of new therapeutic targets and provide more innovative therapies. Additional accurate standard-based methodologies and technological breakthroughs are critical to propel the field forward to ultimately achieve the goal of maintaining respiratory health.

Pathophysiology of Bronchiectasis

Bronchiectasis is a complex, heterogeneous disorder defined by both a radiological abnormality of permanent bronchial dilatation and a clinical syndrome. There are multiple underlying causes including severe infections, mycobacterial disease, autoimmune conditions, hypersensitivity disorders, and genetic conditions. The pathophysiology of disease is understood in terms of interdependent concepts of chronic infection, inflammation, impaired mucociliary clearance, and structural lung damage. Neutrophilic inflammation is characteristic of the disease, with elevated levels of harmful proteases such as neutrophil elastase associated with worse outcomes. Recent data show that neutrophil extracellular trap formation may be the key mechanism leading to protease release and severe bronchiectasis. Despite the dominant of neutrophilic disease, eosinophilic subtypes are recognized and may require specific treatments. Neutrophilic inflammation is associated with elevated bacterial loads and chronic infection with organisms such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Loss of diversity of the normal lung microbiota and dominance of proteobacteria such as Pseudomonas and Haemophilus are features of severe bronchiectasis and link to poor outcomes. Ciliary dysfunction is also a key feature, exemplified by the rare genetic syndrome of primary ciliary dyskinesia. Mucus symptoms arise through goblet cell hyperplasia and metaplasia and reduced ciliary function through dyskinesia and loss of ciliated cells. The contribution of chronic inflammation, infection, and mucus obstruction leads to progressive structural lung damage. The heterogeneity of the disease is the most challenging aspect of management. An understanding of the pathophysiology of disease and their biomarkers can help to guide personalized medicine approaches utilizing the concept of "treatable traits."

Microbiota analysis optimization for human bronchoalveolar lavage fluid

BACKGROUND

It is now possible to comprehensively characterize the microbiota of the lungs using culture-independent, sequencing-based assays. Several sample types have been used to investigate the lung microbiota, each presenting specific challenges for preparation and analysis of microbial communities. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) enables the identification of microbiota specific to the lower lung but commonly has low bacterial density, increasing the risk of false-positive signal from contaminating DNA. The objectives of this study were to investigate the extent of contamination across a range of sample densities representative of BALF and identify features of contaminants that facilitate their removal from sequence data and aid in the interpretation of BALF sample 16S sequencing data.

RESULTS

Using three mock communities across a range of densities ranging from 8E+ 02 to 8E+ 09 16S copies/ml, we assessed taxonomic accuracy and precision by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and the proportion of reads arising from contaminants. Sequencing accuracy, precision, and the relative abundance of mock community members decreased with sample input density, with a significant drop-off below 8E+ 05 16S copies/ml. Contaminant OTUs were commonly inversely correlated with sample input density or not reproduced between technical replicates. Removal of taxa with these features or physical concentration of samples prior to sequencing improved both sequencing accuracy and precision for samples between 8E+ 04 and 8E+ 06 16S copies/ml. For the lowest densities, below 8E+ 03 16S copies/ml BALF, accuracy and precision could not be significantly improved using these approaches. Using clinical BALF samples across a large density range, we observed that OTUs with features of contaminants identified in mock communities were also evident in low-density BALF samples.

CONCLUSION

Relative abundance data and community composition generated by 16S sequencing of BALF samples across the range of density commonly observed in this sample type should be interpreted in the context of input sample density and may be improved by simple pre- and post-sequencing steps for densities above 8E+ 04 16S copies/ml.

The microbiome in bronchiectasis

Bronchiectasis is increasing in prevalence worldwide, yet current treatments available are limited to those alleviating symptoms and reducing exacerbations. The pathogenesis of the disease and the inflammatory, infective and molecular drivers of disease progression are not fully understood, making the development of novel treatments challenging. Understanding the role bacteria play in disease progression has been enhanced by the use of next-generation sequencing techniques such as 16S rRNA sequencing. The microbiome has not been extensively studied in bronchiectasis, but existing data show lung bacterial communities dominated by Pseudomonas, Haemophilus and Streptococcus, while exhibiting intraindividual stability and large interindividual variability. Pseudomonas- and Haemophilus-dominated microbiomes have been shown to be linked to severe disease and frequent exacerbations. Studies completed to date are limited in size and do not fully represent all clinically observed disease subtypes. Further research is required to understand the microbiomes role in bronchiectasis disease progression. This review discusses recent developments and future perspectives on the lung microbiome in bronchiectasis.

Early detection of non-tuberculous mycobacteria in children with cystic fibrosis using induced sputum at annual review

AIM

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) have emerged as an important pathogen in cystic fibrosis (CF). Early detection and treatment of NTM can preserve lung function and maintain good lung health. Many children with CF are not regular sputum producers and cough swabs cannot routinely be used to diagnose NTM. We aimed to test the hypothesis that performing sputum induction at routine annual review results in earlier identification of NTM in non-sputum producing children with CF.

METHOD

We conducted a 5-year prospective observational cohort study involving children with CF aged 5-17 years who had sputum induction with hypertonic saline for microbiological surveillance including NTM at their annual review.

RESULTS

Forty-two children (19 males, mean age 11.4 years ± 3.6, mean FEV₁ % predicted 94.7 ± 20.6) participated in the study. Forty-one induced sputum samples from 29 children yielded bacterial pathogens. Six samples from six children (14% of the cohort) yielded NTM never previously isolated from the patient. We also detected three isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and one isolate each of Burkholderia cepacia complex and Meticillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), all of which were first time isolates.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that annual induced sputum for microbiological surveillance is useful for early detection of NTM and other important respiratory pathogens, particularly in non-expectorating children. This may lead to earlier identification and help inform initiation of eradication treatment in children with NTM. Children can also be cohorted earlier, before they potentially infect other children in the clinic.

Neutrophilic proteolysis in the cystic fibrosis lung correlates with a pathogenic microbiome

BACKGROUND

Studies of the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung microbiome have consistently shown that lung function decline is associated with decreased microbial diversity due to the dominance of opportunistic pathogens. However, how this phenomenon is reflected in the metabolites and chemical environment of lung secretions remains poorly understood.

METHODS

Here we investigated the microbial and molecular composition of CF sputum samples using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing and untargeted tandem mass spectrometry to determine their interrelationships and associations with clinical measures of disease severity.

RESULTS

The CF metabolome was found to exist in two states: one from patients with more severe disease that had higher molecular diversity and more Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the other from patients with better lung function having lower metabolite diversity and fewer pathogenic bacteria. The two molecular states were differentiated by the abundance and diversity of peptides and amino acids. Patients with severe disease and more pathogenic bacteria had higher levels of peptides. Analysis of the carboxyl terminal residues of these peptides indicated that neutrophil elastase and cathepsin G were responsible for their generation, and accordingly, these patients had higher levels of proteolytic activity from these enzymes in their sputum. The CF pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa was correlated with the abundance of amino acids and is known to primarily feed on them in the lung.

CONCLUSIONS

In cases of severe CF lung disease, proteolysis by host enzymes creates an amino acid-rich environment that P. aeruginosa comes to dominate, which may contribute to the pathogen's persistence by providing its preferred carbon source.

Optimization of In Vitro Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare Growth Assays for Therapeutic Development

Infection with nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) is a complication of lung disease in immunocompromised patients, including those with human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and cystic fibrosis (CF). The most widespread, disease-causing NTM is Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC), which colonizes the lungs as a combination of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, and other mycobacterial species. While combination drug therapy exists for MAC colonization, there is no cure. Therapeutic development to treat MAC has been difficult because of the slow-growing nature of the bacterial complex, limiting the ability to characterize the bacteria’s growth in response to new therapeutics. The development of a technology that allows observation of both the MAC predominant strains and MAC could provide a means to develop new therapeutics to treat NTM. We have developed a new methodology in which M. avium and M. intracellulare can be optimally grown in short term culture to study each strain independently and in combination, as a monitor of growth kinetics and efficient therapeutic testing protocols.

Exact variance component tests for longitudinal microbiome studies

In metagenomic studies, testing the association between microbiome composition and clinical outcomes translates to testing the nullity of variance components. Motivated by a lung human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) microbiome project, we study longitudinal microbiome data by using variance component models with more than two variance components. Current testing strategies only apply to models with exactly two variance components and when sample sizes are large. Therefore, they are not applicable to longitudinal microbiome studies. In this paper, we propose exact tests (score test, likelihood ratio test, and restricted likelihood ratio test) to (a) test the association of the overall microbiome composition in a longitudinal design and (b) detect the association of one specific microbiome cluster while adjusting for the effects from related clusters. Our approach combines the exact tests for null hypothesis with a single variance component with a strategy of reducing multiple variance components to a single one. Simulation studies demonstrate that our method has a correct type I error rate and superior power compared to existing methods at small sample sizes and weak signals. Finally, we apply our method to a longitudinal pulmonary microbiome study of HIV-infected patients and reveal two interesting genera Prevotella and Veillonella associated with forced vital capacity. Our findings shed light on the impact of the lung microbiome on HIV complexities. The method is implemented in the open-source, high-performance computing language Julia and is freely available at https://github.com/JingZhai63/VCmicrobiome.

Viral-Bacterial Co-infections in the Cystic Fibrosis Respiratory Tract

A majority of the morbidity and mortality associated with the genetic disease Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is due to lung disease resulting from chronic respiratory infections. The CF airways become chronically colonized with bacteria in childhood, and over time commensal lung microbes are displaced by bacterial pathogens, leading to a decrease in microbial diversity that correlates with declining patient health. Infection with the pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a major predictor of morbidity and mortality in CF, with CF individuals often becoming chronically colonized with P. aeruginosa in early adulthood and thereafter having an increased risk of hospitalization. Progression of CF respiratory disease is also influenced by infection with respiratory viruses. Children and adults with CF experience frequent respiratory viral infections with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), rhinovirus, influenza, parainfluenza, and adenovirus, with RSV and influenza infection linked to the greatest decreases in lung function. Along with directly causing severe respiratory symptoms in CF populations, the impact of respiratory virus infections may be more far-reaching, indirectly promoting bacterial persistence and pathogenesis in the CF respiratory tract. Acquisition of P. aeruginosa in CF patients correlates with seasonal respiratory virus infections, and CF patients colonized with P. aeruginosa experience increased severe exacerbations and declines in lung function during respiratory viral co-infection. In light of such observations, efforts to better understand the impact of viral-bacterial co-infections in the CF airways have been a focus of clinical and basic research in recent years. This review summarizes what has been learned about the interactions between viruses and bacteria in the CF upper and lower respiratory tract and how co-infections impact the health of individuals with CF.

Hypoxia arising from concerted oxygen consumption by neutrophils and microorganisms in biofilms

Infections associated with microbial biofilms are often found to involve hypoxic or anoxic conditions within the biofilm or its vicinity. To shed light on the phenomenon of local oxygen depletion, mathematical reaction-diffusion models were derived that integrated the two principal oxygen sinks, microbial respiration and neutrophil consumption. Three simple one-dimensional problems were analyzed approximating biofilm near an air interface as in a dermal wound or mucus layer, biofilm on an implanted medical device, or biofilm aggregates dispersed in mucus or tissue. In all three geometries considered, hypoxia at the biofilm-neutrophil interface or within the biofilm was predicted for a subset of plausible parameter values. The finding that oxygen concentration at the biofilm-neutrophil juncture can be diminished to hypoxic levels is biologically relevant because oxygen depletion will reduce neutrophil killing ability. The finding that hypoxia can readily establish in the interior of the biofilm is biologically relevant because this change will alter microbial metabolism and persistence.

Non-coding RNA in cystic fibrosis

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are an abundant class of RNAs that include small ncRNAs, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) and pseudogenes. The human ncRNA atlas includes thousands of these specialised RNA molecules that are further subcategorised based on their size or function. Two of the more well-known and widely studied ncRNA species are microRNAs (miRNAs) and lncRNAs. These are regulatory RNAs and their altered expression has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of human diseases. Failure to express a functional cystic fibrosis (CF) transmembrane receptor (CFTR) chloride ion channel in epithelial cells underpins CF. Secondary to the CFTR defect, it is known that other pathways can be altered and these may contribute to the pathophysiology of CF lung disease in particular. For example, quantitative alterations in expression of some ncRNAs are associated with CF. In recent years, there has been a series of published studies exploring ncRNA expression and function in CF. The majority have focussed principally on miRNAs, with just a handful of reports to date on lncRNAs. The present study reviews what is currently known about ncRNA expression and function in CF, and discusses the possibility of applying this knowledge to the clinical management of CF in the near future.

Antisense Inhibitors Retain Activity in Pulmonary Models of Burkholderia Infection

The Burkholderia cepacia complex is a group of Gram-negative bacteria that are opportunistic pathogens in immunocompromised individuals, such as those with cystic fibrosis (CF) or chronic granulomatous disease (CGD). Burkholderia are intrinsically resistant to many antibiotics and the lack of antibiotic development necessitates novel therapeutics. Peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers are antisense molecules that inhibit bacterial mRNA translation. Targeting of PPMOs to the gene acpP, which is essential for membrane synthesis, lead to defects in the membrane and ultimately bactericidal activity. Exploration of additional PPMO sequences identified the ATG and Shine-Dalgarno sites as the most efficacious for targeting acpP. The CF lung is a complex microenvironment, but PPMO inhibition was still efficacious in an artificial model of CF sputum. PPMOs had low toxicity in human CF cells at doses that were antibacterial. PPMOs also reduced the bacterial burden in the lungs of immunocompromised CyBB mice, a model of CGD. Finally, the use of multiple PPMOs was efficacious in inhibiting the growth of both Burkholderia and Pseudomonas in an in vitro model of coinfection. Due to the intrinsic resistance of Burkholderia to traditional antibiotics, PPMOs represent a novel and viable approach to the treatment of Burkholderia infections.

Variance Component Selection With Applications to Microbiome Taxonomic Data

High-throughput sequencing technology has enabled population-based studies of the role of the human microbiome in disease etiology and exposure response. Microbiome data are summarized as counts or composition of the bacterial taxa at different taxonomic levels. An important problem is to identify the bacterial taxa that are associated with a response. One method is to test the association of specific taxon with phenotypes in a linear mixed effect model, which incorporates phylogenetic information among bacterial communities. Another type of approaches consider all taxa in a joint model and achieves selection via penalization method, which ignores phylogenetic information. In this paper, we consider regression analysis by treating bacterial taxa at different level as multiple random effects. For each taxon, a kernel matrix is calculated based on distance measures in the phylogenetic tree and acts as one variance component in the joint model. Then taxonomic selection is achieved by the lasso (least absolute shrinkage and selection operator) penalty on variance components. Our method integrates biological information into the variable selection problem and greatly improves selection accuracies. Simulation studies demonstrate the superiority of our methods versus existing methods, for example, group-lasso. Finally, we apply our method to a longitudinal microbiome study of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infected patients. We implement our method using the high performance computing language Julia. Software and detailed documentation are freely available at https://github.com/JingZhai63/VCselection.

Bolus Weekly Vitamin D3 Supplementation Impacts Gut and Airway Microbiota in Adults With Cystic Fibrosis: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

CONTEXT

Disruption of gut microbiota may exacerbate severity of cystic fibrosis (CF). Vitamin D deficiency is a common comorbidity in patients with CF that may influence composition of the gut microbiota.

OBJECTIVES

Compare microbiota of vitamin D-sufficient and -insufficient CF patients and assess impact of a weekly high-dose vitamin D3 bolus regimen on gut and airway microbiome in adults with CF and vitamin D insufficiency (25-hydroxyvitamin D < 30 ng/mL).

DESIGN

Forty-one subjects with CF were classified into two groups: vitamin D insufficient (n = 23) and vitamin D sufficient (n = 18). Subjects with vitamin D insufficiency were randomized to receive 50,000 IU of oral vitamin D3 or placebo weekly for 12 weeks. Sputum and stool samples were obtained pre- and postintervention and 16S ribosomal RNA genes sequenced using Illumina MiSeq technology.

RESULTS

Gut microbiota differed significantly based on vitamin D status with Gammaproteobacteria, which contain numerous, potentially pathogenic species enriched in the vitamin D-insufficient group. Principal coordinates analysis showed differential gut microbiota composition within the vitamin D-insufficient patients following 12 weeks treatment with placebo or vitamin D3 (permutation multivariate analysis of variance = 0.024), with Lactococcus significantly enriched in subjects treated with vitamin D3, whereas Veillonella and Erysipelotrichaceae were significantly enriched in patients treated with placebo.

CONCLUSION

This exploratory study suggests that vitamin D insufficiency is associated with alterations in microbiota composition that may promote inflammation and that supplementation with vitamin D has the potential to impact microbiota composition. Additional studies to determine the impact of vitamin D on microbiota benefit clinical outcomes in CF are warranted.

Initial acquisition and succession of the cystic fibrosis lung microbiome is associated with disease progression in infants and preschool children

The cystic fibrosis (CF) lung microbiome has been studied in children and adults; however, little is known about its relationship to early disease progression. To better understand the relationship between the lung microbiome and early respiratory disease, we characterized the lower airways microbiome using bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) samples obtained from clinically stable CF infants and preschoolers who underwent bronchoscopy and chest computed tomography (CT). Cross-sectional samples suggested a progression of the lower airways microbiome with age, beginning with relatively sterile airways in infancy. By age two, bacterial sequences typically associated with the oral cavity dominated lower airways samples in many CF subjects. The presence of an oral-like lower airways microbiome correlated with a significant increase in bacterial density and inflammation. These early changes occurred in many patients, despite the use of antibiotic prophylaxis in our cohort during the first two years of life. The majority of CF subjects older than four harbored a pathogen dominated airway microbiome, which was associated with a further increase in inflammation and the onset of structural lung disease, despite a negligible increase in bacterial density compared to younger patients with an oral-like airway microbiome. Our findings suggest that changes within the CF lower airways microbiome occur during the first years of life and that distinct microbial signatures are associated with the progression of early CF lung disease.

Changes in the lung bacteriome in relation to antipseudomonal therapy in children with cystic fibrosis

The lung in cystic fibrosis (CF) is home to numerous pathogens that shorten the lives of patients. The aim of the present study was to assess changes in the lung bacteriome following antibiotic therapy targeting Pseudomonas aeruginosa in children with CF. The study included nine children (9-18 years) with CF who were treated for their chronic or intermittent positivity for Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The bacteriomes were determined in 16 pairs of sputa collected at the beginning and at the end of a course of intravenous antibiotic therapy via deep sequencing of the variable region 4 of the 16S rRNA gene, and the total bacterial load and selected specific pathogens were assessed using quantitative real-time PCR. The effect of antipseudomonal antibiotics was observable as a profound decrease in the total 16S rDNA load (p = 0.001) as well as in a broad range of individual taxa including Staphylococcus aureus (p = 0.03) and several members of the Streptococcus mitis group (S. oralis, S. mitis, and S. infantis) (p = 0.003). Improvements in forced expiratory volume (FEV₁) were associated with an increase in Granulicatella sp. (p = 0.004), whereas a negative association was noted between the total bacterial load and white blood cell count (p = 0.007). In conclusion, the data show how microbial communities differ in reaction to antipseudomonal treatment, suggesting that certain rare species may be associated with clinical parameters. Our work also demonstrates the utility of absolute quantification of bacterial load in addition to the 16S rDNA profiling.

Effect of Advanced HIV Infection on the Respiratory Microbiome

RATIONALE

Previous work found the lung microbiome in healthy subjects infected with HIV was similar to that in uninfected subjects. We hypothesized the lung microbiome from subjects infected with HIV with more advanced disease would differ from that of an uninfected control population.

OBJECTIVES

To measure the lung microbiome in an HIV-infected population with advanced disease.

METHODS

16s RNA gene sequencing was performed on acellular bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from 30 subjects infected with HIV with advanced disease (baseline mean CD4 count, 262 cells/mm(3)) before and up to 3 years after starting highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and compared with 22 uninfected control subjects.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The lung microbiome in subjects infected with HIV with advanced disease demonstrated decreased alpha diversity (richness and diversity) and greater beta diversity compared with uninfected BAL. Differences improved with HAART, but still persisted up to 3 years after starting therapy. Population dispersion in the group infected with HIV was significantly greater than in the uninfected cohort and declined after treatment. There were differences in the relative abundance of some bacteria between the two groups at baseline and after 1 year of therapy. After 1 year on HAART, HIV BAL contained an increased abundance of Prevotella and Veillonella, bacteria previously associated with lung inflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

The lung microbiome in subjects infected with HIV with advanced disease is altered compared with an uninfected population both in diversity and bacterial composition. Differences remain up to 3 years after starting HAART. We speculate an altered lung microbiome in HIV infection may contribute to chronic inflammation and lung complications seen in the HAART era.

Understanding the Entanglement: Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) in Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive disorder caused by mutations in the gene that codes for the CF trans-membrane conductance regulator. These mutations result in abnormal secretions viscous airways of the lungs, favoring pulmonary infection and inflammation in the middle of neutrophil recruitment. Recently it was described that neutrophils can contribute with disease pathology by extruding large amounts of nuclear material through a mechanism of cell death known as Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) into the airways of patients with CF. Additionally, NETs production can contribute to airway colonization with bacteria, since they are the microorganisms most frequently found in these patients. In this review, we will discuss the implication of individual or mixed bacterial infections that most often colonize the lung of patients with CF, and the NETs role on the disease.

Lung microbiome in human immunodeficiency virus infection

The lung microbiome plays a significant role in normal lung function and disease. Because microbial colonization is likely influenced by immunodeficiency, one would speculate that infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) alters the lung microbiome. Furthermore, how this alteration might impact pulmonary complications now seen in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), which has shifted from opportunistic infections to diseases associated with chronic inflammation, is not known. There have been limited publications on the lung microbiome in HIV infection, many of them emanating from the Lung HIV Microbiome Project. Current evidence suggests that the lung microbiome in healthy HIV-infected individuals with preserved CD4 counts is similar to uninfected individuals. However, in individuals with more advanced disease, there is an altered alveolar microbiome characterized by a loss of richness and evenness (alpha diversity) within individuals. Furthermore, as a group the taxa making up the HIV-infected and uninfected lung microbiome are different (differences in beta diversity), and the HIV-infected population is more spread out (greater dispersion) than the uninfected population. These differences decline with ART, but even after effective therapy the alveolar microbiome in HIV-infected individuals contains increased amounts of signature bacteria, some of which have previously been associated with chronic lung inflammation. Furthermore, more recent investigations into the lung virome in HIV infection suggest that perturbations in lung viral communities also exist in HIV infection, and that these too are associated with evidence of lung inflammation. Thus, it is likely both microbiome and virome alterations in HIV infection contribute to lung inflammation in these individuals, which has important implications on the changing spectrum of pulmonary complications in patients living with HIV.

Cystic fibrosis lung environment and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection

Background

The airways of patients with cystic fibrosis (CF) are highly complex, subject to various environmental conditions as well as a distinct microbiota. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is recognized as one of the most important pulmonary pathogens and the predominant cause of morbidity and mortality in CF. A multifarious interplay between the host, pathogens, microbiota, and the environment shapes the course of the disease. There have been several excellent reviews detailing CF pathology, Pseudomonas and the role of environment in CF but only a few reviews connect these entities with regards to influence on the overall course of the disease. A holistic understanding of contributing factors is pertinent to inform new research and therapeutics.

Discussion

In this article, we discuss the deterministic alterations in lung physiology as a result of CF. We also revisit the impact of those changes on the microbiota, with special emphasis on P. aeruginosa and the influence of other non-genetic factors on CF. Substantial past and current research on various genetic and non-genetic aspects of cystic fibrosis has been reviewed to assess the effect of different factors on CF pulmonary infection. A thorough review of contributing factors in CF and the alterations in lung physiology indicate that CF lung infection is multi-factorial with no isolated cause that should be solely targeted to control disease progression. A combinatorial approach may be required to ensure better disease outcomes.

Conclusion

CF lung infection is a complex disease and requires a broad multidisciplinary approach to improve CF disease outcomes. A holistic understanding of the underlying mechanisms and non-genetic contributing factors in CF is central to development of new and targeted therapeutic strategies.

Ecological networking of cystic fibrosis lung infections

In the context of a polymicrobial infection, treating a specific pathogen poses challenges because of unknown consequences on other members of the community. The presence of ecological interactions between microbes can change their physiology and response to treatment. For example, in the cystic fibrosis lung polymicrobial infection, antimicrobial susceptibility testing on clinical isolates is often not predictive of antibiotic efficacy. Novel approaches are needed to identify the interrelationships within the microbial community to better predict treatment outcomes. Here we used an ecological networking approach on the cystic fibrosis lung microbiome characterized using 16S rRNA gene sequencing and metagenomics. This analysis showed that the community is separated into three interaction groups: Gram-positive anaerobes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Staphylococcus aureus. The P. aeruginosa and S. aureus groups both anti-correlate with the anaerobic group, indicating a functional antagonism. When patients are clinically stable, these major groupings were also stable, however, during exacerbation, these communities fragment. Co-occurrence networking of functional modules annotated from metagenomics data supports that the underlying taxonomic structure is driven by differences in the core metabolism of the groups. Topological analysis of the functional network identified the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis as a keystone for the microbial community, which can be targeted with the antibiotic fosmidomycin. This study uses ecological theory to identify novel treatment approaches against a polymicrobial disease with more predictable outcomes.

Metabolomic biomarkers predictive of early structural lung disease in cystic fibrosis

Neutrophilic airway inflammation plays a role in early structural lung disease in cystic fibrosis, but the mechanisms underlying this pathway are incompletely understood.Metabolites associated with neutrophilic inflammation were identified by discovery metabolomics on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid supernatant from 20 preschool children (2.9±1.3 years) with cystic fibrosis. Targeted mass-spectrometric detection of relevant metabolites was then applied to 34 children (3.5±1.5 years) enrolled in the Australian Respiratory Early Surveillance Team for Cystic Fibrosis (AREST CF) who underwent chest computed tomography and bronchoalveolar lavage from two separate lobes during 42 visits. Relationships between metabolites and localised structural lung disease were assessed using multivariate analyses.Discovery metabolomics identified 93 metabolites associated with neutrophilic inflammation, including pathways involved in metabolism of adenyl purines, amino acids and small peptides, cellular energy and lipids. In targeted mass spectrometry, products of adenosine metabolism, protein catabolism and oxidative stress were associated with structural lung disease and predicted future bronchiectasis, and activities of enzymes associated with adenosine metabolism were elevated in the samples with early disease.Metabolomics analyses revealed metabolites and pathways altered with neutrophilic inflammation and destructive lung disease. These pathways can serve as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for early cystic fibrosis lung disease.

When being alone is enough: noncanonical functions of canonical bacterial quorum-sensing systems

A number of bacterial pathogens are capable of detecting the presence of other bacteria located within their surrounding niche through a process of bacterial signaling and cell-to-cell communication commonly referred to as quorum sensing (QS). QS systems are commonly now described in the context of collective behaviors exhibited by groups of bacteria coordinating diverse arrays of physiological functions to enhance survival of the community. However, QS systems have also been implicated in a variety of processes distinct from the measure of bacterial cell density. This review will highlight noncanonical adaptations of canonical QS systems that have evolved to enable bacteria to detect nonself individuals within a population or to detect occupation of confined spaces.

Data Mining of Lung Microbiota in Cystic Fibrosis Patients

The major therapeutic strategy used to treat exacerbated cystic fibrosis (CF) is antibiotic treatment. As this approach easily generates antibiotic-resistant strains of opportunistic bacteria, optimized antibiotic therapies are required to effectively control chronic and recurrent bacterial infections in CF patients. A promising future for the proper use of antibiotics is the management of lung microbiota. However, the impact of antibiotic treatments on CF microbiota and vice versa is not fully understood. This study analyzed 718 sputum samples from 18 previous studies to identify differences between CF and uninfected lung microbiota and to evaluate the effects of antibiotic treatments on exacerbated CF microbiota. A reference-based OTU (operational taxonomic unit) picking method was used to combine analyses of data generated using different protocols and platforms. Findings show that CF microbiota had greater richness and lower diversity in the community structure than uninfected control (NIC) microbiota. Specifically, CF microbiota showed higher levels of opportunistic bacteria and dramatically lower levels of commensal bacteria. Antibiotic treatment affected exacerbated CF microbiota notably but only transiently during the treatment period. Limited decrease of the dominant opportunistic bacteria and a dramatic decrease of commensal bacteria were observed during the antibiotic treatment for CF exacerbation. Simultaneously, low abundance opportunistic bacteria were thriving after the antibiotic treatment. The inefficiency of the current antibiotic treatment against major opportunistic bacteria and the detrimental effects on commensal bacteria indicate that the current empiric antibiotic treatment on CF exacerbation should be reevaluated and optimized.

Clinical Next Generation Sequencing Outperforms Standard Microbiological Culture for Characterizing Polymicrobial Samples

BACKGROUND

Humans suffer from infections caused by single species or more complex polymicrobial communities. Identification of infectious bacteria commonly employs microbiological culture, which depends upon the in vitro propagation and isolation of viable organisms. In contrast, detection of bacterial DNA using next generation sequencing (NGS) allows culture-independent microbial profiling, potentially providing important new insights into the microbiota in clinical specimens.

METHODS

NGS 16S rRNA gene sequencing (NGS16S) was compared with culture using (a) synthetic polymicrobial samples for which the identity and abundance of organisms present were precisely defined and (b) primary clinical specimens.

RESULTS

Complex mixtures of at least 20 organisms were well resolved by NGS16S with excellent reproducibility. In mixed bacterial suspensions (10⁷ total genomes), we observed linear detection of a target organism over a 4-log concentration range (500-3 × 10⁶ genomes). NGS16S analysis more accurately recapitulated the known composition of synthetic samples than standard microbiological culture using nonselective media, which distorted the relative abundance of organisms and frequently failed to identify low-abundance pathogens. However, extended quantitative culture using selective media for each of the component species recovered the expected organisms at the proper abundance, validating NGS16S results. In an analysis of sputa from cystic fibrosis patients, NGS16S identified more clinically relevant pathogens than standard culture.

CONCLUSIONS

Biases in standard, nonselective microbiological culture lead to a distorted characterization of polymicrobial mixtures. NGS16S demonstrates enhanced reproducibility, quantification, and classification accuracy compared with standard culture, providing a more comprehensive, accurate, and culture-free analysis of clinical specimens.

Infection Prevention and Control Guideline for Cystic Fibrosis: 2013 Update

The 2013 Infection Prevention and Control (IP&C) Guideline for Cystic Fibrosis (CF) was commissioned by the CF Foundation as an update of the 2003 Infection Control Guideline for CF. During the past decade, new knowledge and new challenges provided the following rationale to develop updated IP&C strategies for this unique population:

1.The need to integrate relevant recommendations from evidence-based guidelines published since 2003 into IP&C practices for CF. These included guidelines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)/Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC), the World Health Organization (WHO), and key professional societies, including the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). During the past decade, new evidence has led to a renewed emphasis on source containment of potential pathogens and the role played by the contaminated healthcare environment in the transmission of infectious agents. Furthermore, an increased understanding of the importance of the application of implementation science, monitoring adherence, and feedback principles has been shown to increase the effectiveness of IP&C guideline recommendations.

2.Experience with emerging pathogens in the non-CF population has expanded our understanding of droplet transmission of respiratory pathogens and can inform IP&C strategies for CF. These pathogens include severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus and the 2009 influenza A H1N1. Lessons learned about preventing transmission of methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) and multidrug-resistant gram-negative pathogens in non-CF patient populations also can inform IP&C strategies for CF.

The talking language in some major Gram-negative bacteria

Cell-cell interaction or quorum sensing (QS) is a vital biochemical/physiological process in bacteria that is required for various physiological functions, including nutrient uptake, competence development, biofilm formation, sporulation, as well as for toxin secretion. In natural environment, bacteria live in close association with other bacteria and interaction among them is crucial for survival. The QS-regulated gene expression in bacteria is a cell density-dependent process and the initiation process depends on the threshold level of the signaling molecule, N-acyl-homoserine lactone (AHL). The present review summarizes the QS signal and its respective circuit in Gram-negative bacteria. Most of the human pathogens belong to Gram-negative group, and only a few of them cause disease through QS system. Thus, inhibition of pathogenic bacteria is important. Use of antibiotics creates a selective pressure (antibiotics act as natural selection factor to promote one group of bacteria over another group) for emerging multidrug-resistant bacteria and will not be suitable for long-term use. The alternative process of inhibition of QS in bacteria using different natural and synthetic molecules is called quorum quenching. However, in the long run, QS inhibitors or blockers may also develop resistance, but obviously it will solve some sort of problems. In this review, we also have stated the mode of action of quorum-quenching molecule. The understanding of QS network in pathogenic Gram-negative bacteria will help us to solve many health-related problems in future.

Understanding persistent bacterial lung infections: clinical implications informed by the biology of the microbiota and biofilms

The infections found in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis, and bronchiectasis share a number of clinical similarities, the most striking of which is bacterial persistence despite the use of antibiotics. These infections have been clinically described using culture-based methods usually performed on sputum samples, and treatment has been directed towards the bacteria found in this manner. Unfortunately the clinical response to antibiotics is frequently not predictable based on these cultures, and the role of these cultured organisms in disease progression has been debated. The past 20 years have seen a revolution in the techniques used to describe bacterial populations and their growth patterns. These techniques have revealed these persistent lung infections are vastly more complicated than described by traditional, and still widely relied upon, sputum cultures. A better understanding of the initiation and evolution of these infections, and better clinical tools to describe them, will dramatically alter the way patients are cared for. While clinical tests to more accurately describe these infections are not yet available, the better appreciation of these infections afforded by current science should enlighten practitioners as to the care of their patients with these diseases.

The respiratory microbiota during health and disease: a paediatric perspective

Recent studies investigating the relationship between the microbiota and disease are demonstrating novel concepts that could significantly alter the way we treat disease and promote health in the future. It is suggested that the microbiota acquired during childhood may shape the microbial community and affect immunological responses for later life, and could therefore be important in the susceptibility towards disease. Several diseases, including asthma, pneumonia, and otitis media, are associated with changes in composition and diversity of the respiratory microbiota. This review summarises current literature, focusing on the composition and development of the respiratory microbiota in children and its relationship with respiratory diseases.

Biomarkers in Paediatric Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease

Biomarkers in cystic fibrosis are used i. for the measurement of cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator function in order to diagnose cystic fibrosis, and ii. to assess aspects of lung disease severity (e.g. inflammation, infection). Effective biomarkers can aid disease monitoring and contribute to the development of new therapies. The tests of cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator function each have unique strengths and weaknesses, and biomarkers of inflammation, infection and tissue destruction have the potential to enhance the management of cystic fibrosis through the early detection of disease processes. The development of biomarkers of cystic fibrosis lung disease, in particular airway inflammation and infection, is influenced by the challenges of obtaining relevant samples from infants and children for whom early detection and treatment of disease might have the greatest long term benefits.

Potential of metabolomics to reveal Burkholderia cepacia complex pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance

The Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) is a collection of closely related, genetically distinct, ecologically diverse species known to cause life-threatening infections in cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. By virtue of a flexible genomic structure and diverse metabolic activity, Bcc bacteria employ a wide array of virulence factors for pathogenesis in CF patients and have developed resistance to most of the commonly used antibiotics. However, the mechanism of pathogenesis and antibiotic resistance is still not fully understood. This mini review discusses the established and potential virulence determinants of Bcc and some of the contemporary strategies including transcriptomics and proteomics used to identify these traits. We also propose the application of metabolic profiling, a cost-effective modern-day approach to achieve new insights.

Hypoxia down-regulates expression of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in bronchial epithelial cells via TGF-β1

Background

Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) is a protein with anti-protease and antimicrobial properties that is constitutively secreted from the airway epithelium. The importance of maintaining a balance between proteases and anti-proteases, and robust innate defence mechanisms in the airways, is exemplified by inflammatory lung conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis (CF). Both conditions present with a high protease burden in the airways which leads to tissue destruction. These patients also have an impaired innate immune system in the lungs with bacterial colonization and frequent airway infections. Moreover, both diseases are associated with airway hypoxia due to inflammation and mucus plugs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the role of hypoxia on SLPI production from the airway epithelium.

Methods

Primary human bronchial epithelial cells were grown in sub-immersed cultures or as differentiated epithelium in air liquid interface cultures. Cells were incubated at 21% O₂ (normoxia) or 1% O₂ (hypoxia), and the release of SLPI was analysed with ELISA. RT-PCR was used to study the expression of SLPI and transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1).

Results

Hypoxia decreased the constitutive production of SLPI by bronchial epithelial cells. The multifunctional cytokine TGF-β1, which is known to affect SLPI expression, showed increased expression in hypoxic bronchial epithelial cells. When bronchial epithelial cells were exposed to exogenous TGF-β1 during normoxia, the SLPI production was down-regulated. Addition of TGF-β1-neutralizing antibodies partially restored SLPI production during hypoxia, showing that TGF-β1 is an important regulator of SLPI during hypoxic conditions.

Conclusions

The mechanism described here adds to our knowledge of the pathogenesis of severe pulmonary diseases associated with hypoxia, e.g. COPD and CF. The hypoxic down-regulation of SLPI may help explain the protease/anti-protease imbalance associated with these conditions and vulnerability to airway infections. Furthermore, it provides an interesting target for the treatment and prevention of exacerbation in these patients.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12890-015-0016-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The innate immune function of airway epithelial cells in inflammatory lung disease

The airway epithelium is now considered to be central to the orchestration of pulmonary inflammatory and immune responses, and is also key to tissue remodelling. It acts as the first barrier in the defence against a wide range of inhaled challenges, and is critically involved in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses to these challenges. Recent progress in our understanding of the developmental regulation of this tissue, the differentiation pathways, recognition of pathogens and antimicrobial responses is now exploited to help understand how epithelial cell function and dysfunction contributes to the pathogenesis of a variety of inflammatory lung diseases. Herein, advances in our knowledge of the biology of airway epithelium, as well as its role and (dys)function in asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary fibrosis and cystic fibrosis will be discussed.

The microbiome of the upper airways: focus on chronic rhinosinusitis

Upper airway diseases including allergic rhinitis, chronic rhinosinusitis with or without polyps, and cystic fibrosis are characterized by substantially different inflammatory profiles. Traditionally, studies on the association of specific bacterial patterns with inflammatory profiles of diseases had been dependent on bacterial culturing. In the past 30 years, molecular biology methods have allowed bacterial culture free studies of microbial communities, revealing microbiota much more diverse than previously recognized including those found in the upper airway. At presence, the study of the pathophysiology of upper airway diseases is necessary to establish the relationship between the microbiome and inflammatory patterns to find their clinical reflections and also their possible causal relationships. Such investigations may elucidate the path to therapeutic approaches in correcting an imbalanced microbiome. In the review we summarized techniques used and the current knowledge on the microbiome of upper airway diseases, the limitations and pitfalls, and identified areas of interest for further research.

Novosphingobium and its potential role in chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases: insights from microbiome studies

Bacterial infection of lung airways underlies some of the main complications of COPD, significantly impacting disease progression and outcome. Colonization by bacteria may further synergize, amplify, or trigger pathways of tissue damage started by cigarette smoke, contributing to the characteristic airway inflammation and alveolar destruction of COPD. We sought to elucidate the presence and types of lung bacterial populations in different stages of COPD, aimed at revealing important insights into the pathobiology of the disease. Sequencing of the bacterial small subunit ribosomal RNA gene in 55 well-characterized clinical lung samples, revealed the presence of Novosphingobium spp. (>2% abundance) in lungs of patients with GOLD 3-GOLD 4 COPD, cystic fibrosis and a subset of control individuals. Novosphingobium-specific quantitative PCR was concordant with the sequence data and high levels of Novosphingobium spp. were quantifiable in advanced COPD, but not from other disease stages. Using a mouse model of subacute lung injury due to inhalation of cigarette smoke, bronchoalveolar lavage neutrophil and macrophage counts were significantly higher in mice challenged intratracheally with N. panipatense compared to control mice (p<0.01). Frequencies of neutrophils and macrophages in lung tissue were increased in mice challenged with N. panipatense at room air compared to controls. However, we did not observe an interaction between N. panipatense and subacute cigarette smoke exposure in the mouse. In conclusion, Novosphingobium spp. are present in more severe COPD disease, and increase inflammation in a mouse model of smoke exposure.

Human pharyngeal microbiome may play a protective role in respiratory tract infections

The human pharyngeal microbiome, which resides at the juncture of digestive and respiratory tracts, may have an active role in the prevention of respiratory tract infections, similar to the actions of the intestinal microbiome against enteric infections. Recent studies have demonstrated that the pharyngeal microbiome comprises an abundance of bacterial species that interacts with the local epithelial and immune cells, and together, they form a unique micro-ecological system. Most of the microbial species in microbiomes are obligate symbionts constantly adapting to their unique surroundings. Indigenous commensal species are capable of both maintaining dominance and evoking host immune responses to eliminate invading species. Temporary damage to the pharyngeal microbiome due to the impaired local epithelia is also considered an important predisposing risk factor for infections. Therefore, reinforcement of microbiome homeostasis to prevent invasion of infection-prone species would provide a novel treatment strategy in addition to antibiotic treatment and vaccination. Hence continued research efforts on evaluating probiotic treatment and developing appropriate procedures are necessary to both prevent and treat respiratory infections.

Increasing nontuberculous mycobacteria infection in cystic fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) are emerging infections in the CF population.

AIMS

To assess NTM infection prevalence and associated features in our CF clinic population.

METHODS

Patient records, 2002-2011, were reviewed for NTM infection. FEV1, pancreatic function, sputum microbiology, and serum cytokines were compared in patients with and without NTM infection.

RESULTS

Incidence rate of NTM infection increased from 0 in 2002 to 8.7% in 2011 (p<0.001). NTM infection prevalence increased 3-fold from 5% (4/79) in 2003 to 14.5% (16/110) in 2011 (p=0.05). Prevalence of chronic NTM lung disease has decreased somewhat since a peak in 2009, with institution of aggressive triple therapy. Of NTM-infected compared to uninfected patients, 88.2% vs. 60.3% had a known 'severe' CFTR genotype (p=0.04), 88.2% vs. 58.9% were pancreatic insufficient (p=0.02); 70.6% vs. 43.8% had chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa (p=0.06); 75% vs. 32% had Aspergillus infection (p=0.007) and 23.5% vs 2.7% had allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (p=0.01). Patients infected with Mycobacterium abscessus had increased TGF-β, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4 and IL-5 levels (p<0.05). There was no difference in cytokine levels for all NTM infected compared to uninfected patients. M. abscessus comprised 46% of all NTM infections. Comparing M. abscessus versus other NTM, duration was 10.5 (1-118) months versus 1 (1-70) month, median (range) (p=0.004); lung disease occurred in 69% versus 17% (p=0.0004), with sputum conversion in 4/11 versus 5/6, respectively (NS).

CONCLUSIONS

NTM incidence and prevalence have increased dramatically in our CF clinic, associated with a severe CF genotype and phenotype. M. abscessus, the most prevalent NTM, caused prolonged infection despite therapy. There has been some decrease in the prevalence of NTM lung disease since 2009.

Development and antimicrobial susceptibility studies of in vitro monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilm models with Aspergillus fumigatus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Background

Mixed microbial infections of the respiratory tracts with P. aeruginosa and A. fumigatus capable of producing biofilms are commonly found in cystic fibrosis patients. The primary objective of this study was to develop an in vitro model for P. aeruginosa and A. fumigatus polymicrobial biofilm to study the efficacy of various antimicrobial drugs alone and in combinations against biofilm-embedded cells. Simultaneous static cocultures of P. aeruginosa and sporelings were used for the development of in vitro P. aeruginosa-A. fumigatus polymicrobial biofilm in SD broth in 24-well cell culture plates at 35°C, and the biofilm formation was monitored microscopically and spectrophotometrically. Using P. aeruginosa-A. fumigatus sporelings cocultures we examined the effects of various antimicrobial drugs alone and in combination against polymicrobial biofilm by CFU and tetrazolium reduction assays.

Results

In simultaneous static cocultures P. aeruginosa cells killed A. fumigatus conidia, whereas the bacterial cells showed no substantial fungicidal effect on sporelings grown for 12 h or longer at 35°C. Monospecies cultures of P. aeruginosa produced loosely adhered monomicrobial biofilm and addition of 10% bovine serum to the growth medium inhibited the formation of monomicrobial biofilm by P. aeruginosa whereas it produced tightly adhered polymicrobial biofilm in the presence of A. fumigatus mycelial growth. A. fumigatus produced firmly adherent monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilms. A comparison of CFU and MTT assays showed that the latter is unsuitable for studying the effectiveness of antimicrobial treatment against polymicrobial biofilm. Tobramycin alone and in combination with posaconazole was highly effective against monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilms of P. aeruginosa whereas cefepime alone and in combination with posaconazole showed excellent activity against monomicrobial biofilm of P. aeruginosa but was less effective against polymicrobial biofilm. Monomicrobial and polymicrobial biofilms of A. fumigatus showed similar susceptibility to posaconazole with and without the antibacterial drug.

Conclusions

Simultaneous static coculture of A. fumigatus sporelings grown for 12 h or longer was superior to ungerminated conidia with P. aeruginosa for the development of A. fumigatus-P. aeruginosa biofilm. P. aeruginosa-A. fumigatus polymicrobial biofilm shows differential susceptibility to antimicrobial drugs whereas the susceptibility of A. fumigatus to antimicrobial drugs was unchanged.