Molecular and clinical risk factors for recurrence of skull base chordomas: gain on chromosome 2p, expression of brachyury, and lack of irradiation negatively correlate with patient prognosis

Treatment of Clival Chordomas: A 20-Year Experience and Systematic Literature Review

Clival chordomas are rare but aggressive skull base tumors that pose significant treatment challenges and portend dismal prognosis. The aim of this study was to highlight the advantages and limitations of available treatments, to furnish prognostic indicators, and to shed light on novel therapeutic strategies. We conducted a retrospective study of clival chordomas that were surgically treated at our institution from 2003 to 2022; for comparison purposes, we provided a systematic review of published surgical series and, finally, we reviewed the most recent advancements in molecular research. A total of 42 patients underwent 85 surgeries; median follow-up was 15.8 years, overall survival rate was 49.9% at 10 years; meanwhile, progression-free survival was 26.6% at 10 years. A significantly improved survival was observed in younger patients (<50 years), in tumors with Ki67 ≤ 5% and when adjuvant radiotherapy was performed. To conclude, clival chordomas are aggressive tumors in which surgery and radiotherapy play a fundamental role while molecular targeted drugs still have an ancillary position. Recognizing risk factors for recurrence and performing a molecular characterization of more aggressive lesions may be the key to future effective treatment.

Mayo Clinic Clival Chordoma Case Series: Impact of Endoscopic Training on Clinical Care

The management of clival chordoma in our group shifted around 2013 to mostly endoscopic, and proton beam was introduced for our multidisciplinary team. Consecutive patients who had surgical resection from 1987 to 2021 were reviewed. A total of 58 patients (39 patients after 2013) were analyzed. The mean tumor size was 3.7 cm, and the most common location was the upper clivus (43%). Compared to before 2013, after 2013, the endoscopic endonasal approach was more common (90%, p < 0.001), and more gross or near total resections (64%, p = 0.002) were attained. Ten cases (17%) were revision surgeries referred from elsewhere, and three cases (5%) underwent additional surgery elsewhere before adjuvant radiation. The postoperative cerebrospinal fluid leak occurred in 7%. Post-operative new cranial nerve deficits occurred in 32% before 2013, compared to 2.6% after 2013 (p = 0.004). For cases before 2013, 10 patients (53%) recurred during the median follow-up of 144 months (mean, 142 months), whereas for cases after 2013, seven patients (18%) recurred with a median follow-up of 35 months (mean, 42 months). 5-year progression-free survival was 58%, and 5-year overall survival was 87%. A specialized multidisciplinary team improved the resection rate compared to a historical cohort with an excellent morbidity profile.

A correlation analysis of sacrococcygeal chordoma imaging and clinical characteristics with the prognostic factors

Objective

To investigate the imaging and clinical risk factors related to the postoperative recurrence of sacrococcygeal chordoma.

Methods

63 patients of sacrococcygeal chordoma proved by operation and pathology in our hospital from January 2009 to December 2019 were retrospectively analyzed in the related factors of imaging manifestations, pathological type, and extent of surgical resection. The recurrence of sacrococcygeal chordoma was followed up. Univariate Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and multivariate Cox regression analysis were used to analyze the related factors of recurrence.

Results

On plain radiographs and CT scans, chordoma primarily manifested as osteolytic bone loss and uneven soft tissue mass, with typical calcification or ossification (56.1 percent). Numerous chunk nodules with clearly high signal levels and short signal intervals were seen as the “pebble” in MRI characteristics on T2WI. The follow-up period ranged from 20 to 130 months, with a median time of 47.5 months. There were 14 recurrences (22. 2%) during the follow-up period. 13 patients with recurrence underwent surgery again, and 5 of them recurred after surgery (recurrence time range 3 to 97 months, median 38. 5 months). 6 (42.8%), 8 (57. 1%), and 13 (92. 9%) of the 14 patients with recurrence recurred within 2, 3, and 5 years after surgery, respectively. Univariate Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that occurred with local infiltration, Low differentiated chordoma, partial resection had a high postoperative recurrence rate, and all differences were statistically significant (P<0.05). Multi-factor Cox regression analysis showed whether local infiltration occurred and the degree of tumor resection were independent risk factors for tumor recurrence.

Conclusion

Sacrococcygeal chordoma has a high tendency of recurrence, and the likelihood of recurrence is higher in tumor occurred with local infiltration, non-complete tumor resection and low differentiated chordoma, which can be considered to shorten the review cycle and complete tumor resection as much as possible during surgery.

OligoTRAFTACs: A generalizable method for transcription factor degradation

Targeted transcription factor degradation using oligonucleotide-based transcription factor targeting chimeras (TRAFTACs).

Histopathological investigation of the 1p/19q-codeleted gliomas resected following alkylating agent chemotherapy

PURPOSE

Lower grade gliomas with 1p/19q codeletion are often responsive to chemotherapy, and several of these have been treated using upfront chemotherapy and subsequent resection following tumor volume decrease. This study aimed to elucidate the histological changes and the mechanism of recurrence after alkylating agent chemotherapy in 1p/19-codeleted gliomas.

METHODS

Fourteen 1p/19q-codeleted gliomas resected following tumor volume decrease after alkylating agent chemotherapy were included and compared with their pre-chemotherapy specimens. Histological changes were investigated using hematoxylin-eosin staining, and changes in proliferative activity, status of glioma stem cells (GSCs), and tumor-infiltrating macrophages were assessed using immunohistochemistry for Ki-67/MIB-1, CD68 as a pan-macrophage/monocyte marker, CD163 as a presumed marker of M2 polarity, and nestin and CD133 as markers of GSCs.

RESULTS

The most frequent histological findings following chemotherapy included a sparse glial background and abundant foamy cell infiltration. The Ki-67/MIB-1 index decreased and the number of CD68 + cells increased after chemotherapy. The increasing rate of CD68 + cells in the post-/pre-chemotherapy specimens was inversely correlated with patient prognosis but not tumor response. The number of CD163 + cells, M2/M1 + M2 ratio, and the ratio of GSCs to total tumor cells increased after chemotherapy, and those in the post-chemotherapy specimens were negatively correlated with patient prognosis. There was a correlation between the M2/M1 + M2 ratio and the ratio of GSCs in both pre- and post-chemotherapy specimens.

CONCLUSION

GSCs in conjunction with M2 macrophages constitute the mechanism of resistance to and recurrence after alkylating agent chemotherapy in 1p/19q-codeleted gliomas.

Genes Predicting Survival of Chordoma Patients

BACKGROUND

A chordoma is a slow-growing, invasive neoplasm in the neuraxis that is thought to arise from notochordal cells. At 10-year follow-up, the average survival rate is 50%, though individual prognosis varies substantially. We aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the genes and proteins expressed in these tumors and their prognostic value to facilitate prognostication for patients with chordoma.

METHODS

A systematic search of clinical studies that investigated expressed factors related to chordoma survival was performed in PubMed. Data extracted included RNA and protein expression data and prognostic value (in terms of overall survival, progression-free survival, disease-free survival, and recurrence-free survival) from univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

This review included 78 original studies that collectively evaluated 134 expressed factors. Of these molecular factors, 96 by univariate analysis and 32 by multivariate analysis had a predictive value for patient survival. Of the molecular factors studied in multivariate analyses, 26 factors had a negative effect while 6 had a positive effect on patient survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Identification of molecular factors that are associated with survival contributes to better prognostication of patients with chordoma. Given the rarity of chordoma, often only univariate analyses can be performed. Robust multivariate analyses are scarcer but provide independently significant prognostic factors. The data presented in this review can aid in prognostication for the individual patient and facilitate the development of targeted therapies.

Chordoma: A Review and Differential Diagnosis

CONTEXT.—

Chordomas are uncommon malignant neoplasms with notochordal differentiation encountered by neuropathologists, bone/soft tissue pathologists, and general surgical pathologists. These lesions most commonly arise in the axial skeleton. Optimal therapy typically involves complete surgical resection, which is often technically difficult owing to the anatomic location, leading to a high rate of recurrence. Lesions have been generally resistant to radiation and chemotherapy; however, experimental studies involving targeted therapy and immunotherapy are currently underway.

OBJECTIVE.—

To summarize the clinical and pathologic findings of the various types of chordoma (conventional chordoma, dedifferentiated chordoma, and poorly differentiated chordoma), the differential diagnosis, and recent advances in molecular pathogenesis and therapeutic modalities that are reliant on accurate diagnosis.

DATA SOURCES.—

Literature review based on PubMed searches containing the term "chordoma" that address novel targeted and immunomodulatory therapeutic modalities; ongoing clinical trials involved in treating chordoma with novel therapeutic modalities identified through the Chordoma Foundation and ClinicalTrials.gov; and the authors' practice experience combined with various authoritative texts concerning the subject.

CONCLUSIONS.—

Chordoma is a clinically and histologically unique malignant neoplasm, and numerous diagnostic considerations must be excluded to establish the correct diagnosis. Treatment options have largely been centered on surgical excision with marginal results; however, novel therapeutic options including targeted therapy and immunotherapy are promising means to improve prognosis.

Molecular investigation of brain tumors progressing during pregnancy or postpartum period: the association between tumor type, their receptors, and the timing of presentation

OBJECTIVE

Brain tumors often become clinically evident during pregnancy; however, the mechanism has not been well elucidated. Purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of molecular genetic factors on the progression of brain tumors during pregnancy or the postpartum period.

METHODS

Twelve cases of brain tumors that presented during pregnancy or postpartum period were included: five gliomas, three meningiomas, two vestibular schwannomas, and two chordomas. Tumor samples were investigated by metaphase comparative genomic hybridization and immunohistochemistry, for chromosomal copy number aberration (CNA) and receptor expression of sex hormones and growth factors.

RESULTS

The results were correlated with the timing of tumor presentation in relation to the stage of pregnancy. EGFR, VEGFR-1/2, AR, and c-Myc were expressed in gliomas, PgR, ER, HER-2, VEGFR-1, EGF and VEGFR2 in meningiomas, VEGFR-1 in vestibular schwannomas, and EGFR, VEGFR-1/2, and c-Myc in chordomas. The CNAs of the tumors varied. Four of the five gliomas presented in the 2nd trimester, all three meningiomas in the 3rd trimester or postpartum period, and both of the two schwannomas in the late 2nd trimester. Expression of VEGFR-1/2 and EGFR was observed regardless of the timing of tumor presentation, whereas female hormone receptors and HER-2 were exclusively found in meningiomas. Interestingly, one anaplastic astrocytoma (IDH mut, non-codeleted) that progressed from precedent grade 2 tumor harbored amplification of the MYC locus.

CONCLUSION

Progression of brain tumors during pregnancy is associated with various growth factors as well as sex hormones. The timing of presentation is likely dependent on molecular receptors specific to each tumor type.

Patterns of brachyury expression in chordomas

INTRODUCTION

Chordomas are rare malignant midline tumors, presumed to arise from notochordal remnants. This was further suggested by the discovery of the brachyury in chordomas pathogenesis. Its immunohistochemical expression has become the principal adjunct in the diagnosis of chordomas. However, studies about brachyury expression in chordomas are not fully comparable, mainly because they use different primary antibodies. Thus, the aim of this study is to investigate the expression of brachyury expression in a series of chordomas in conjunction to clinicopathological characteristics and to review the relevant literature providing all the details needed in the immunohistochemical study of brachyury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective study of 62 chordomas, diagnosed over a 22-year period. No dedifferentiated or poorly differentiated cases were included. A monoclonal primary antibody (clone A-4) was used and brachyury expression was evaluated by the H-score. Clinicopathological parameters studied were age, sex, tumor localization, decalcification status and tissue age. Fetal notochords were used for comparison.

RESULTS

Mean H-score of nuclear brachyury expression was 129.8. The tissue age significantly influenced brachyury expression, the older samples expressing less brachyury. Decalcification demonstrated a trend to weaken brachyury expression. Clinical characteristics were not correlated with the patterns of brachyury expression. Notochords were negative. Literature review reveals several polyclonal antibodies used and a positivity of 75%-100% in chordomas with even more variable results in notochords.

CONCLUSION

In chordomas, as in other tumor types, an uniformization of studies about brachyury expression is needed, by considering the clone used, and the decalcification and the age of the sample, given the growing importance of brachyury in diagnosis and therapeutic steps.

Chordoma-Current Understanding and Modern Treatment Paradigms

Chordoma is a low-grade notochordal tumor of the skull base, mobile spine and sacrum which behaves malignantly and confers a poor prognosis despite indolent growth patterns. These tumors often present late in the disease course, tend to encapsulate adjacent neurovascular anatomy, seed resection cavities, recur locally and respond poorly to radiotherapy and conventional chemotherapy, all of which make chordomas challenging to treat. Extent of surgical resection and adequacy of surgical margins are the most important prognostic factors and thus patients with chordoma should be cared for by a highly experienced, multi-disciplinary surgical team in a quaternary center. Ongoing research into the molecular pathophysiology of chordoma has led to the discovery of several pathways that may serve as potential targets for molecular therapy, including a multitude of receptor tyrosine kinases (e.g., platelet-derived growth factor receptor [PDGFR], epidermal growth factor receptor [EGFR]), downstream cascades (e.g., phosphoinositide 3-kinase [PI3K]/protein kinase B [Akt]/mechanistic target of rapamycin [mTOR]), brachyury—a transcription factor expressed ubiquitously in chordoma but not in other tissues—and the fibroblast growth factor [FGF]/mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase [MEK]/extracellular signal-regulated kinase [ERK] pathway. In this review article, the pathophysiology, diagnosis and modern treatment paradigms of chordoma will be discussed with an emphasis on the ongoing research and advances in the field that may lead to improved outcomes for patients with this challenging disease.

Peri-operative prognostic factors for primary skull base chordomas: results from a single-center cohort

BACKGROUND

Skull base chordomas (SBC) are rare malignant tumors and few factors have been found to be reliable markers for clinical decision making and survival prognostication. The aim of the present work was to identify specific prognostic factors potentially useful for the management of SBC patients.

METHODS

A retrospective review of all the patients diagnosed and treated for SBC at the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico "Carlo Besta" between January 1992 and December 2017 has been performed. Survival analysis was performed and a logistic regression model was used. Statistically significant predictors were rated based on their log odds in order to preliminarily build a personalized grading scale-the Peri-Operative Chordoma Scale (POCS).

RESULTS

Fifty-nine primary chordoma patients were included. The average follow-up from the first treatment was 82.6 months (95% CI, 65.5-99.7). POCS was built over PFS and MR contrast enhancement (intense vs mild/no, value 4), preoperative motor deficit (yes vs no, value 3), and the development of any postoperative complications (yes vs no, value 2). POCS ranges between 0 and 9, with higher scores being associated with reduced likelihood of survival and progression-free state.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that preoperative clinical symptoms (motor deficits), surgical features (extent of tumor resection and surgeon's experience), development of postoperative complications, and KPS decline represent significant prognostic factors. The degree of MR contrast enhancement significantly correlated to both OS and PFS. We also preliminarily developed the POCS as a prognostic grading scale which may help neurosurgeons in the personalized management of patients undergoing potential adjuvant therapies.

Skull base chordomas review of current treatment paradigms

Background

Chordomas are locally invasive neoplasms, arising from notochordal remnants and can appear anywhere along the axial skeleton. Local recurrences are common, and distant metastases may occur years after the initial presentation.

Methods

Literature review of current treatment strategies for chordomas of the skull base.

Results

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment and complete resection has paramount importance for prognosis.

When complete resection is not achieved recurrent disease is common. The anatomical complexity of the skull base makes resection complex. Endonasal endoscopic approaches to the clivus has become increasingly favored in recent years although addressing reconstruction of the skull base to prevent CSF leak may be challenging.

Evidence suggests that radiotherapy should not be considered as a primary single modality when trying to achieve cure of the disease. Nonetheless, immediate post-operative radiotherapy improves survival. Many strategies have been suggested to preserve sensitive vital structures in the skull base during treatment but as for survival there is no evidence of advantage when comparing adjuvant therapy with photon radiotherapy, gamma knife surgery, proton beam therapy, and carbon ion radiation therapy.

There is no evidence to support cytotoxic chemotherapy in the treatment of chordomas but targeted therapies have started to show promise. Several optional molecular targets exist. Brachyury is overexpressed in 95% of chordomas but not in other mesenchymal neoplasms. However, its precise role in chordoma pathogenesis is currently unclear, and its cellular location in the nucleus makes it difficult to target. The inhibition of brachyury in chordoma cell lines induces growth arrest and apoptosis. This does not have clinical application to date. There are retrospective results with different molecular targeted therapies for advanced chordomas with some effectiveness.

Conclusion

Despite improvements made in the past 10 years in our knowledge of chordoma biology, available therapies still offer a limited benefit. There is an unmet need for new therapeutic options for patients with advanced disease. Therefore, patients with advanced disease should be encouraged to participate in clinical trials when and where available.

Clinicopathological and Prognostic Characteristics in Extra-Axial Chordomas: An Integrative Analysis of 86 Cases and Comparison With Axial Chordomas

BACKGROUND

Currently, clinical characteristics and prognostic factors of extra-axial chordoma (EAC) remain poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize clinicopathological characteristics in a large EAC cohort and investigate their correlation with survival. We also attempted to compare these outcomes with axial chordoma (AC).

METHODS

Medline and Embase searches (from inception to February 28, 2018) were conducted to identify eligible studies as per predefined criteria. The local database at our center was also retrospectively reviewed to include additional patients.

RESULTS

Forty-three studies from the literature and 86 patients from our local institute were identified, resulting in a total of 86 EAC patients and 75 AC patients for analysis. Overall, EAC had similar characteristics to AC, except for having higher CAM5.2 expression, common lobular growth pattern, and better prognosis. Whereas wide surgical resection was consistently associated with favorable survival in both EAC and AC cohorts on univariate analyses, most parameters showed differential prognostic implications between the 2 groups. Significant prognostic factors for local recurrence-free survival on multivariate analysis included type of surgery in both cohorts and tumor Brachyury expression and adjuvant radiotherapy in AC cohort. Multivariate analysis of overall survival demonstrated that type of surgery, tumor Brachyury expression, and duration of symptoms were significant predictors in the AC cohort, whereas none of the analyzed parameters were predictive of overall survival for the EAC group.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest potentially distinct biological behaviors between EAC and AC and may provide useful information to better understand the prognostic characteristics and improve the outcome prediction of EAC patients.

Gene expression profile and bioinformatics analysis revealed key molecular characteristics of chordoma-before and after TNF- a treatment

BACKGROUND

Chordoma is a rare malignant tumor with limited treatment. Recent studies have shown that the proliferation and invasion ability of chordoma after Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) treatment is enhanced, which may activate the gene pathway involved in the development of chordoma. This study tends to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) before and after treatment of TNF-α in chordoma cell line, providing a new target for future molecular therapy of chordoma.

METHODS

The gene expression profile of GSE101867 was downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database, and the differentially expressed genes were obtained using GEO2R. Based on the CLUEGO plugin in Cytoscape, DEGs functionality and enrichment analysis. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed using Cytoscape based on data collected from the STRING online dataset. The Hub genes are selected from the CytoHubba, the first 20 genes that coexist with the KEGG tumor-related pathway.

RESULTS

A total of 560 genes, including 304 up-regulated genes and 256 down-regulated genes, were selected as DEGs. Obviously, GO analysis shows that up-regulated and down-regulated DEGs are mainly enriched in biological processes such as synaptic tissue, cell adhesion, extracellular matrix organization and skeletal system development. DEGs are mainly enriched in tumor-associated pathways such as Pi3k-akt Signal path, Rap1 signal path. Three key genes were identified: PDGFRB, KDR, FGF2. All of these genes are involved in the tumor-associated pathways described previously.

CONCLUSION

This study is helpful in understanding the molecular characteristics of chordoma development. Hub genes PDGFRB, KDR, FGF2 and pi3k-akt signaling pathway, Rap1 signaling pathway will become a new target for the future treatment of chordoma.

Identification of the Different Roles and Potential Mechanisms of T Isoforms in the Tumor Recurrence and Cell Cycle of Chordomas

Purpose

The roles of T (brachyury) isoforms in chordomas remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the different roles and mechanisms of them in chordomas.

Patients and methods

The expression of T isoforms mRNAs in 57 chordomas was assessed, and a prognosis analysis was conducted. Cell apoptosis, proliferation and cell cycle assays were performed after specific T isoform mRNA knockdown. Whole-transcriptome sequencing, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, Gene Ontology analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis and competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) analysis were conducted.

Results

As revealed in this study, the T-long isoform was a significant risk factor (hazard ratio [HR], 1.09; P=0.018) and the T-short isoform was a protective factor (HR, 0.24; P=0.012) associated with tumor recurrence. After T-long isoform knockdown, the cell cycle was arrested at G0/G1 phase and cell proliferation was significantly inhibited. A bioinformatic analysis revealed that the upregulation of H19, P21 and GADD45B; downregulation of SKP2 and CDK2; and accompanying changes in the P53 signaling pathway consistently contributed to G0/G1 arrest. After T-short isoform knockdown, the cell cycle was arrested at G2/M phase and cell apoptosis tended to increase slightly (P=0.067). The upregulation of YWHAZ and downregulation of E2F1 and its target genes might contribute to cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and apoptosis. In addition, the ceRNA network, consisting of long noncoding RNAs, mRNAs and microRNAs, was established.

Conclusion

The T-long isoform was a risk factor and the T-short isoform was a protective factor for chordoma recurrence. In addition, the cell cycle was the main target of T isoforms knockdown, and the changes in the downstream transcriptome may contribute to the different effects of specific T isoform knockdown on the changes in the cell cycle distributions and apoptosis and proliferation of chordoma cells.

Phase I Trial of a Modified Vaccinia Ankara Priming Vaccine Followed by a Fowlpox Virus Boosting Vaccine Modified to Express Brachyury and Costimulatory Molecules in Advanced Solid Tumors

LESSONS LEARNED

Modified vaccinia Ankara-Bavarian Nordic (MVA-BN)-Brachyury followed by fowlpox virus-BN-Brachyury was well tolerated upon administration to patients with advanced cancer. Sixty-three percent of patients developed CD4+ and/or CD8+ T-cell responses to brachyury after vaccination. BN-Brachyury vaccine also induced T-cell responses against CEA and MUC1, which are cascade antigens, that is, antigens not encoded in the vaccines.

BACKGROUND

Brachyury, a transcription factor, plays an integral role in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, and tumor resistance to chemotherapy. It is expressed in many tumor types, and rarely in normal tissues, making it an ideal immunologic target. Bavarian Nordic (BN)-Brachyury consists of vaccination with modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) priming followed by fowlpox virus (FPV) boosting, each encoding transgenes for brachyury and costimulatory molecules.

METHODS

Patients with metastatic solid tumors were treated with two monthly doses of MVA-brachyury s.c., 8 × 10⁸ infectious units (IU), followed by FPV-brachyury s.c., 1 × 10⁹ IU, for six monthly doses and then every 3 months for up to 2 years. The primary objective was to determine safety and tolerability.

RESULTS

Eleven patients were enrolled from March 2018 to July 2018 (one patient was nonevaluable). No dose-limiting toxicities were observed. The most common treatment-related adverse event was grade 1/2 injection-site reaction observed in all patients. Best overall response was stable disease in six patients, and the 6-month progression-free survival rate was 50%. T cells against brachyury and cascade antigens CEA and MUC1 were detected in the majority of patients.

CONCLUSION

BN-Brachyury vaccine is well tolerated and induces immune responses to brachyury and cascade antigens and demonstrates some evidence of clinical benefit.

Inhibition Of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 Beta Suppresses The Growth And Survival Of Skull Base Chordoma Cells By Downregulating Brachyury Expression

Purpose

Chordomas are locally aggressive tumors arising from notochordal remnants. Brachyury, a protein coded by T-gene, is crucial for chordoma cell proliferation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (GSK3β) activity on brachyury expression and on the growth and survival of skull base chordoma cells.

Patients and methods

In this study, 16 paraffin-embedded specimens of primary skull base chordomas were analyzed for the expression of phosphorylated GSK3β and brachyury using immunohistochemistry. The UM-Chor1 cell line derived from a clival chordoma was treated with AR-A014418 (AR), an inhibitor of GSK3β, and brachyury expression was analyzed by qRT-PCR and Western blotting. The possible mechanism by which brachyury regulates the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway was investigated by immunocytochemistry. The effects of AR on cell proliferation as well as sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs were also examined.

Results

The results suggested that phosphorylated GSK3β and brachyury were upregulated in chordoma tissues. The GSK3β inhibitor (AR) decreased brachyury expression and suppressed the growth and survival of the chordoma cells, possibly via regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Moreover, AR increased the sensitivity of chordoma cells to chemotherapeutic drugs in vitro.

Conclusion

This study provides evidence for the clinical development of the GSK3β inhibitor (AR-A014418) as a potential chemotherapeutic adjuvant for the treatment of chordoma.

Magnetic resonance imaging texture analyses in lower-grade gliomas with a commercially available software: correlation of apparent diffusion coefficient and T2 skewness with 1p/19q codeletion

Preoperative prediction of molecular information of lower-grade gliomas (LrGGs) helps to determine the overall treatment strategy as well as the initial surgical strategy. This study aimed to detect magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) texture parameters to predict the molecular signature of LrGGs using a commercially available software and routine MR images. Forty-three patients treated at Keio University Hospital who had World Health Organization grade II or III gliomas were included. All patients having preoperative T1- and T2-weighted, fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR) and diffusion-weighted (DW) images were also included. Texture analyses of T2, FLAIR, and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) histograms were performed using a commercially available software. Texture parameters including kurtosis, skewness, and entropy were investigated to determine any correlation with the presence or absence of isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) mutations, 1p/19q codeletion, and O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation. ADC skewness and T2 skewness were significantly associated with 1p/19q codeletion status. ADC skewness of ≥ 0.25 predicted 1p/19q codeletion with a sensitivity and specificity of 80% and 65.2%, respectively (AUC = 0.728). T2 skewness of ≥ - 0.11 predicted 1p/19q codeletion with a sensitivity and specificity of 80% and 91.3%, respectively, (AUC = 0.866). None of the texture parameters were associated with IDH mutation and MGMT promoter methylation. MRI texture analysis using a commercially available software demonstrated that T2 skewness could predict 1p/19q codeletion with high sensitivity and specificity, suggesting a clinical utility.

The clinical outcomes for chordomas in the cranial base and spine: A single center experience

Owing to the special growth pattern of chordomas and the limited treatment options currently available, the treatment of chordoma still remains difficult. In this study, we hope to further clarify the relationship between surgical treatment and radiotherapy of chordoma and disease progression.All patients with a primary histopathological diagnosis of clival or spinal chordomas recorded in our institution between 1976 and 2017 were examined.A total of 60 patients (location: skull base/clival, n = 24; vertebral column, n = 5; sacrum, n = 31) had a mean follow-up time of 7.7 years (range 12 months-35 years). Compared with patients who received subtotal resection (n = 5, 5-year and 10-year survival = 61% and 39%, respectively), the annual survival rate of patients who received total resection (n = 55, 5-year and 10-year survival = 67%, respectively) was significantly higher. The overall 10-year survival rate (58%) of patients treated with surgery alone was significantly different from those treated with a combination of surgery and radiation (73%). The long-term prognosis of sacral chordoma was the worst (10-year survival rate = 48%).The best treatment strategy for improved long-term survival in chordoma was a combination of surgical resection and radiation therapy. Adjuvant radiotherapy for chordoma significantly improves disease-free survival, although the long-term survival benefit remains to be determined. A worse prognosis and poor long-term survival are seen in sacral chordomas.

Prospective validation of a molecular prognostication panel for clival chordoma

OBJECTIVE

There are currently no reliable means to predict the wide variability in behavior of clival chordoma so as to guide clinical decision-making and patient education. Furthermore, there is no method of predicting a tumor's response to radiation therapy.

METHODS

A molecular prognostication panel, consisting of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) of the chromosomal loci 1p36 and 9p21, as well as immunohistochemistry for Ki-67, was prospectively evaluated in 105 clival chordoma samples from November 2007 to April 2016. The results were correlated with overall progression-free survival after surgery (PFSS), as well as progression-free survival after radiotherapy (PFSR).

RESULTS

Although Ki-67 and the percentages of tumor cells with 1q25 hyperploidy, 1p36 deletions, and homozygous 9p21 deletions were all found to be predictive of PFSS and PFSR in univariate analyses, only 1p36 deletions and homozygous 9p21 deletions were shown to be independently predictive in a multivariate analysis. Using a prognostication calculator formulated by a separate multivariate Cox model, two 1p36 deletion strata (0%-15% and > 15% deleted tumor cells) and three 9p21 homozygous deletion strata (0%-3%, 4%-24%, and ≥ 25% deleted tumor cells) accounted for a range of cumulative hazard ratios of 1 to 56.1 for PFSS and 1 to 75.6 for PFSR.

CONCLUSIONS

Homozygous 9p21 deletions and 1p36 deletions are independent prognostic factors in clival chordoma and can account for a wide spectrum of overall PFSS and PFSR. This panel can be used to guide management after resection of clival chordomas.

Surgical Resection and Adjuvant Radiation Therapy in the Treatment of Skull Base Chordomas

OBJECTIVE

Chordomas are rare tumors of notochordal origin that are known to be locally aggressive and are often treated with surgical resection followed by adjuvant radiation therapy (RT). The accepted standard of treatment for chordomas of the mobile spine, which includes en-bloc resection with wide margins, cannot be easily applied to the chordomas of the skull base because of their proximity to critical neurovascular structures. We describe our experience with the role of surgery and adjuvant RT in the treatment of chordomas over 16 years.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective chart review on patients with diagnoses of clival chordoma between the years 2000 and 2015 at Northwestern Memorial Hospital. We reviewed presenting symptoms, tumor location and size, extent of resection, complications, recurrence, adjuvant treatment, and follow-up duration.

RESULTS

A total of 20 patients underwent 32 surgeries. Of the 20 initial surgeries, 80% underwent gross total resection, and 20% had subtotal resection. The mean follow-up time was 60.75 months. Mean tumor volume was 23.07 cm³. Most common presenting signs and symptoms were headaches (70%), cranial nerve palsies (45%), and diplopia (55%). Diplopia was defined as complaints of double vision without any objective evidence of a cranial nerve palsy. Median time to progression was 57 months, and median overall survival was 136 months. Initial tumor volume and the need for a second dose of RT either as sole or as adjuvant treatment of a recurrence had a statistically significant effect on progression-free survival (P = 0.009, 0.009). None of the factors studied had a statistically significant effect on overall survival.

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment of chordomas remain challenging and requires multimodal treatment strategies spanning different specialties. Initial tumor size and need for second dose of RT for recurrence appear to play a significant role in progression-free survival. Adjuvant RT after gross total resection may play a role in improved progression-free and overall survival in patients with clival chordomas.

Histopathological investigation of glioblastomas resected under bevacizumab treatment

To date, no clinical observations have been reported for histopathological changes in human gliomas under antiangiogenic treatment.

We collected six glioblastomas resected under bevacizumab treatment. Histopathological investigation was performed by hematoxilyn-eosin staining and immunohistochemistry for CD34, VEGF, VEGFR1/2, HIF-1α, CA9, and nestin as compared to eleven control glioblastomas to assess the differences in histological features, microvessel density, expression of VEGF and its receptors, tumor oxygenation, and status of glioma stem-like cells.

In the six tumors resected under bevacizumab, microvascular proliferation was absent, and microvessel density had significantly decreased compared with that of the controls. The expressions of VEGF and its receptors were downregulated in two cases of partial response. HIF-1α or CA9 expression was decreased in five of the six tumors, whereas the decreased expression of these markers was noted in only one of the 11 control glioblastomas. The expression of nestin significantly decreased in the six tumors compared with that of the controls, with the remaining nestin-positive cells being relatively concentrated around vessels.

We provide the first clinicopathological evidence that antiangiogenic therapy induces the apparent normalization of vascular structure, decrease of microvessel density, and improvement of tumor oxygenation in glioblastomas. These in situ observations will help to optimize therapy.

Histopathological vascular investigation of the peritumoral brain zone of glioblastomas

To date, no histopathological vascular investigation focusing on peritumoral brain zone (PBZ) has been reported for glioblastoma. We analyzed 10 newly diagnosed cases of glioblastomas. For these PBZs, histopathological investigation was performed by hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining and immunohistochemistry was analyzed for CD31, CD34, Factor VIII, VEGF, VEGFR-1/2, Ki67, p53 and nestin. Although it was difficult to identify PBZ by H&E, Ki67 and p53 staining, there were apparent differences in nestin staining among PBZ, tumor core (TC), and normal zone (NZ). Therefore, in this study, we divided PBZ from TC and NZ by nestin staining. Differences in histological features, microvessel density, expression of VEGF and its receptors were assessed for PBZ, TC and NZ. The microvessel density, as determined by counting CD31, CD34 and VEGF receptors, and VEGF-A expression were lower in PBZ than TC. The expression patterns for CD31, CD34 and VEGF receptors in vessels show dissociation in PBZ. In addition, the vascular characteristics of the PBZ may correlate with findings of radiographic imaging. We provide the first clinicopathological evidence that PBZ exhibits unique angiogenic characteristics. These in situ observations will help to elucidate the mechanisms of tumor recurrence.

"Paradoxical" findings of tumor vascularity and oxygenation in recurrent glioblastomas refractory to bevacizumab

Anti-angiogenic therapy induces the apparent normalization of vascular structure, decreases microvessel density (MVD), and improves tumor oxygenation in glioblastomas (GBMs). Six initial and recurrent tumor pairs after bevacizumab (Bev) treatment were compared with GBMs from nine patients resected under neoadjuvant Bev treatment with regard to histological characteristics; MVD; MIB-1 index; and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors, hypoxia markers (hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha, carbonic anhydrase 9), and nestin as a marker of glioma stem-like cells. In recurrent tumors post-Bev treatment, while the MVD remained low compared with the paired initial tumors (pre-Bev tumors), the expression of hypoxic markers were increased and were even higher in expression compared with the paired pre-Bev tumors in three of the six cases. MIB-1 indices were similar among the initial GBMs, neoadjuvant group, and recurrent tumors post-Bev treatment. The nestin-positive cell ratio of the post-Bev recurrent tumors was as high as that of the pre-Bev tumors. The expression of VEGF and VEGFR1 was increased in the post-Bev recurrent tumors in three and four cases, respectively, compared with the paired pre-Bev tumors. In the majority of Bev-refractory GBMs, tumor hypoxia was present with a paradoxical decrease in MVD. These findings suggest that re-activation of tumor angiogenesis is not initially involved in the acquisition of resistance to Bev.

Brachyury gene copy number gain and activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway: association with upregulation of oncogenic Brachyury expression in skull base chordoma

OBJECTIVE Chordoma is a slow-growing but clinically malignant tumor, and the prognosis remains poor in many cases. There is a strong impetus to develop more effective targeted molecular therapies. On this basis, the authors investigated the potential of Brachyury, a transcription factor involved in notochord development, as a candidate molecular target for the treatment of chordoma. METHODS Brachyury gene copy number and expression levels were evaluated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction in 27 chordoma samples, and the transcriptomes of Brachyury high-expression tumors (n = 4) and Brachyury low-expression tumors (n = 4) were analyzed. A chordoma cell line (U-CH2) was used to investigate the signaling pathways that regulate Brachyury expression. RESULTS All chordoma specimens expressed Brachyury, and expression levels varied widely. Patients with higher Brachyury expression had significantly shorter progression-free survival (5 months, n = 11) than those with lower expression (13 months, n = 16) (p = 0.03). Somatic copy number gain was confirmed in 12 of 27 (44%) cases, and copy number was positively correlated with Brachyury expression (R = 0.61, p < 0.001). Expression of PI3K/Akt pathway genes was upregulated in Brachyury high-expression tumors, and suppression of PI3K signaling led to reduced Brachyury expression and inhibition of cell growth in the U-CH2 chordoma cell line. CONCLUSIONS Activation of the PI3K/Akt pathway and Brachyury copy number gain are strongly associated with Brachyury overexpression, which appears to be a key event in chordoma growth regulation. These findings suggest that targeting Brachyury and PI3K/Akt signaling may be an effective new approach for treating chordoma.

Validation of reference genes in human chordoma

Background:

Chordoma are rare slow-growing tumors of the axial skeleton, which are thought to arise from remnants of the notochord. Little is known about the underlying mechanisms that drive this tumor. However, the assessment of gene expression levels by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) is hampered due to a lack of validated reference genes. Using an unstable reference gene in qRT-PCR may lead to irreproducible results.

Methods:

The expression of 12 candidate reference genes (ACTB, B2M, T, EF1a, GAPDH, HPRT, KRT8, KRT19, PGK1, RS27a, TBP, and YWHAZ) was analyzed by qRT-PCR in flash frozen chordoma samples from 18 patients. GeNorm and NormFinder algorithms were used to rank the stability of the genes.

Results:

From most to least stably expressed, the top six genes found by geNorm were PGK1, YWHAZ, ACTB, HPRT, EF1A, and TBP. When analyzed by NormFinder, the top six genes were ACTB, YWHAZ, PGK1, B2M, TBP, and HPRT. GAPDH alone, which is often used as a reference gene in chordoma gene expression studies, is not stable enough for reliable results.

Conclusion:

In gene expression studies of human chordomas, PGK1, ACTB, and YWHAZ are more stably expressed, and therefore, are preferred reference genes over the most often used reference gene so far, GAPDH.

Genetic aberrations and molecular biology of skull base chordoma and chondrosarcoma

Chordomas and chondrosarcomas are two major malignant bone neoplasms located at the skull base. These tumors are rarely metastatic, but can be locally invasive and resistant to conventional chemotherapies and radiotherapies. Accordingly, therapeutic approaches for the treatment of these tumors can be difficult. Additionally, their location at the skull base makes them problematic. Although accurate diagnosis of these tumors is important because of their distinct prognoses, distinguishing between these tumor types is difficult due to overlapping radiological and histopathological findings. However, recent accumulation of molecular and genetic studies, including extracranial location analysis, has provided us clues for accurate diagnosis. In this report, we review the genetic aberrations and molecular biology of these two tumor types. Among the abundant genetic features of these tumors, brachyury immunohistochemistry and direct sequencing of IDH1/2 are simple and useful techniques that can be used to distinguish between these tumors. Although it is still unclear why these tumors, which have such distinct genetic backgrounds, show similar histopathological findings, comparison of their genetic backgrounds could provide essential information.

Comprehensive genetic characterization of rosette-forming glioneuronal tumors: independent component analysis by tissue microdissection

A rosette-forming glioneuronal tumor (RGNT) is a rare mixed neuronal-glial tumor characterized by biphasic architecture of glial and neurocytic components. The number of reports of genetic analyses of RGNTs is few. Additionally, the genetic background of the unique biphasic pathological characteristics of such mixed neuronal-glial tumors remains unclear. To clarify the genetic background of RGNTs, we performed separate comprehensive genetic analyses of glial and neurocytic components of five RGNTs, by tissue microdissection. Two missense mutations in FGFR1 in both components of two cases, and one mutation in PIK3CA in both components of one case, were detected. In the latter case with PIK3CA mutation, the additional FGFR1 mutation was detected only in the glial component. Moreover, the loss of chromosome 13q in only the neurocytic component was observed in one other case. Their results suggested that RGNTs, which are tumors harboring two divergent differentiations that arose from a single clone, have a diverse genetic background. Although previous studies have suggested that RGNTs and pilocytic astrocytomas (PAs) represent the same tumor entity, their results confirm that the genetic background of RGNTs is not identical to that of PA.

Molecular-genetic and clinicopathological prognostic factors in patients with gliomas showing total 1p19q loss: gain of chromosome 19p and histological grade III negatively correlate with patient's prognosis

Although 1p19q codeleted gliomas are the most favorable molecular subgroup of lower-grade gliomas, there are cases with early recurrence or short survival. The objective of this study was to elucidate molecular-genetic and clinicopathological prognostic factors in patients with gliomas showing total 1p19q loss. The study included 57 consecutive patients with codeleted gliomas who were operated at Keio University Hospital between 1990 and 2010. These patients were assessed for chromosomal copy number aberrations, promoter methylation status of the O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase gene (MGMT), and demographic and clinicopathological prognostic factors in diffuse gliomas. No significant difference was observed in the overall survival (OS) of the patients with respect to age (≥40 years vs. <40 years), degree of resection, maximum tumor diameter (≥5 cm vs. <5 cm), histological subtype, and MGMT promoter methylation status. Gain of chromosome 19p and grade III histology were associated with shorter OS (P = 0.019, 0.061, respectively). Gain of 19p and histological grade III might be negative prognostic factors for the patients with gliomas showing total 1p19q loss. Further investigation is warranted to confirm these notions.

Recent advances in understanding and managing chordomas

Chordomas are rare primary bone tumors arising from embryonic remnants of the notochord. They are slow-growing, locally aggressive, and destructive and typically involve the axial skeleton. Genetic studies have identified several mutations implicated in the pathogenesis of these tumors. Treatment poses a challenge given their insidious progression, degree of local invasion at presentation, and high recurrence rate. They tend to respond poorly to conventional chemotherapy and radiation. This makes radical resection the mainstay of their treatment. Recent advances in targeted chemotherapy and focused particle beam radiation, however, have improved the management and prognosis of these tumors.

miR-219-5p inhibits proliferation and clonogenicity in chordoma cells and is associated with tumor recurrence

Chordoma is a rare malignant bone tumor that is usually localized to the skull base, vertebral column and sacrum. The transcription factor brachyury, which is encoded by the T gene, has a critical role in the development and progression of chordoma, although the mechanisms underlying brachyury regulation remain unclear. The aim of the current study was to identify and characterize microRNAs (miRs) that regulate brachyury expression in chordoma. MicroRNAs that target brachyury were predicted using miRanda and TargetScan. Using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, miR-219-5p was shown to be significantly downregulated in chordoma tissues and the U-CH2 chordoma cell lines. A dual-luciferase reporter assay was used to validate the inhibitory effect of miR-219-5p on brachyury mRNA expression. The expression level of brachyury was downregulated in U-CH2 cells following transfection with miR-219-5p mimics and upregulated following transfection with the miR-219-5p inhibitor. The effects of miR-219-5p on the proliferation and clonogenicity of chordoma cells were assessed using cell counting kit-8, EdU and clone formation assays. These in vitro results indicated that miR-219-5p may have an important role in regulating the cell proliferation and clonogenicity of human chordoma cells, potentially by targeting brachyury. Furthermore, the associations between the expression levels of miR-219-5p and various clinicopathological factors were analyzed, and miR-219-5p expression was shown to correlate with tumor extent and recurrence. These results suggested that miR-219-5p functions as a tumor suppressor in chordoma and, therefore, that miR-219-50 may be a potential target for therapeutic intervention.

Factors for tumor progression in patients with skull base chordoma

Skull base chordoma is a rare and fatal disease, recurrence of which is inevitable, albeit variable. We aimed to investigate the clinicopathologic features of disease progression, identify prognostic factors, and construct a nomogram for predicting progression in individual patients. Data of 229 patients with skull base chordoma treated by one institution between 2005 and 2014 were retrieved and grouped as primary and recurrent. Kaplan-Meier survival of progression was estimated, taking competing risks into account. Multivariable Cox regression was used to investigate survival predictors. The primary group consisted by 183 cases, gained more benefits on 5-year progression-free survival (PFS) (51%) and mean PFS time (66.9 months) than the recurrent group (46 cases), in which 5-year postrecurrent PFS was 14%, and mean postrecurrent PFS time was 29.5 months. In the primary group, visual deficits, pathological subtypes, extent of bone invasion, preoperative Karnofsky performance scale (KPS) score, and variation in perioperative KPS were identified as independent predictors of PFS. A nomogram to predict 3-year and 5-year PFS consisted of these factors, was well calibrated and had good discriminative ability (adjusted Harrell C statistic, 0.68). In the recurrent group, marginal resection (P = 0.018) and adjuvant radiotherapy (P = 0.043) were verified as protective factors associated with postrecurrent PFS. Factors for tumor progression demonstrated some differences between primary and recurrent cases. The nomogram appears useful for risk stratification of tumor progression in primary cases. Further studies will be necessary to identify the rapid-growth histopathological subtype as an independent predictor of rapid progression.

A Parapharyngeal Soft Tissue Chordoma Presenting with Synchronous Cervical Lymph Node Metastasis: An Unusual Presentation

A 63 year old male presented with a three month history of dysphagia, neck swelling and an oropharyngeal swelling on examination. Initial fine needle aspiration cytology and magnetic resonance imaging (done at a peripheral hospital) suggested a salivary gland neoplasm with lymph node metastasis. An infra-temporal approach was employed to excise the tumour mass and a modified radical neck dissection undertaken to remove the cervical metastasis. Histopathological examination with immunohistochemistry confirmed this to be a soft tissue chordoma. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first documented report of an extra-axial soft tissue chordoma presenting with synchronous metastatic disease. Though rare, this adds to the list of differential diagnoses for complex parapharyngeal lesions. A multidisciplinary approach between head and neck surgery, histopathology, radiology and sarcoma teams is paramount for arriving at the correct diagnosis and to deliver optimal treatment.

Chordoma: an update on the pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms

Chordoma is a rare low-grade primary malignant skeletal tumor, which is presumed to derive from notochord remnants. The pathogenesis of chordoma has not been fully elucidated. However, recent advances in the molecular biology studies have identified brachyury underlying the initiation and progression of chordoma cells. More efforts have been made on accumulating evidence of the notochordal origin of chordoma, discovering signaling pathways and identifying crucial targets in chordomagenesis. In this review, we summarize the most recent research findings and focus on the pathophysiology and molecular mechanisms of chordoma.

Pediatric Chordomas: A Population-Based Clinical Outcome Study Involving 86 Patients from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Result (SEER) Database (1973-2011)

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Primary chordomas, rare cancers arising from the notochord remnants, are extremely rare in the pediatric population. This study examined a large cohort of primary chordoma patients to determine factors impacting prognosis and survival.

METHODS

Demographic and clinical data on 1,358 primary chordoma patients (86 pediatric patients ≤19 years of age and 1,272 adult patients ≥20 years of age) were abstracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Result (SEER) database (1973-2011).

RESULTS

Pediatric primary chordomas present most often as small tumors <4 cm in the cranium of male Caucasians. Despite the majority of primary chordomas presenting with locoregional involvement (90.4%), pediatric patients had more distant disease (14.8 vs. 9.2%, p < 0.05). Survival among pediatric patients having surgery only was significantly longer than for adults (22.5 vs. 14.3 years, p < 0.001). Overall survival was longer (17.2 vs. 12.6 years) and overall mortality was lower in pediatric patients (38.4 vs. 49.8%), but cancer-specific mortality was higher (37.2 vs. 28.6%, p < 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

Pediatric primary chordomas present most often as small tumors <4 cm in the cranium of male Caucasians. Despite having a higher rate of metastasis, they have prolonged survival compared to adults. Surgical resection significantly improves survival in pediatric primary chordoma patients, and should be considered as first-line therapy in all eligible children.

Genetic characterization of skull base chondrosarcomas

OBJECT

Although chondrosarcomas rarely arise in the skull base, chondrosarcomas and chordomas are the 2 major malignant bone neoplasms occurring at this location. The distinction of these 2 tumors is important, but this distinction is occasionally problematic because of radiological and histological overlap. Unlike chordoma and extracranial chondrosarcoma, no case series presenting a whole-genome analysis of skull base chondrosarcomas (SBCSs) has been reported. The goal of this study is to clarify the genetic characteristics of SBCSs and contrast them with those of chordomas.

METHODS

The authors analyzed 7 SBCS specimens for chromosomal copy number alterations (CNAs) using comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). They also examined IDH1 and IDH2 mutations and brachyury expression.

RESULTS

In CGH analyses, the authors detected CNAs in 6 of the 7 cases, including chromosomal gains of 8q21.1, 19, 2q22-q32, 5qcen-q14, 8q21-q22, and 15qcen-q14. Mutation of IDH1 was found with a high frequency (5 of 7 cases, 71.4%), of which R132S was most frequently mutated. No IDH2 mutations were found, and immunohistochemical staining for brachyury was negative in all cases.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first whole-genome study of an SBSC case series. Their findings suggest that these tumors are molecularly consistent with a subset of conventional central chondrosarcomas and different from skull base chordomas.

Molecular-genetic and clinical characteristics of gliomas with astrocytic appearance and total 1p19q loss in a single institutional consecutive cohort

The prognostic significance of 1p19q loss in astrocytic gliomas has been inconclusive.We collected 57 gliomas with total 1p19q loss from among 218 cases of WHO grade-II/III gliomas operated at Keio University Hospital between 1990 and 2010. These tumors were classified as oligodendroglial or "astrocytic" by a WHO-criteria-based institutional diagnosis. Chromosomal copy number aberrations (CNAs), IDH 1/2 mutations, MGMT promoter methylation, and expression of p53 and ATRX were assessed. Survival outcome was compared between the two histological groups.Of the 57 codeleted gliomas, 37, 16, and four were classified as oligodendroglial, "astrocytic", and unclassified, respectively. Comparative genomic hybridization revealed that although chromosome 7q/7 gain was more frequent in "astrocytic" gliomas, other CNAs occurred at a similar frequency in both groups. None of the "astrocytic" gliomas showed p53 accumulation, and ATRX loss was found in three of the 15 "astrocytic" gliomas. The estimated overall survival (OS) curves in the patients with codeleted oligodendroglial and "astrocytic" gliomas overlapped, and the median OS was 187 and 184 months, respectively. Histopathological re-assessment by a single pathologist showed consistent results.Gliomas with total 1p19q loss with "astrocytic" features have molecular and biological characteristics comparable to those of oligodendroglial tumors.

Brachyury: A sensitive marker, but not a prognostic factor, for skull base chordomas

Patients with skull base chordomas have a poor prognosis, and the role of the protein expression of brachyury in chordomas remains to be fully elucidated. The present study used immunohistochemistry to analyze 57 cases of skull base chordoma, and analyzed the clinical data of the patients. The results demonstrated that the protein expression of brachyury was negative in 8.8% (5/57) of the cases. The weak/positive, positive and strong/positive rates were 5.3% (3/57), 21.1% (12/57) and 64.9% (37/57), respectively. The association between the expression of brachyury and recurrence was not statistically significant. Kaplan‑Meier analysis revealed that the degree of surgery, rather than the expression of brachyury, was associated with tumor recurrence (P=0.001). In conclusion, the results of the present study demonstrated that the expression of Brachyury offers a sensitive marker, but not a risk factor, for skull base chordomas, and radical surgery is recommended.

Novel targeted therapies in chordoma: an update

Chordomas are rare, locally aggressive skull base neoplasms known for local recurrence and not-infrequent treatment failure. Current evidence supports the role of maximal safe surgical resection. In addition to open skull-base approaches, the endoscopic endonasal approach to clival chordomas has been reported with favorable albeit early results. Adjuvant radiation is prescribed following complete resection, alternatively for gross residual disease or at the time of recurrence. The modalities of adjuvant radiation therapy reported vary widely and include proton-beam, carbon-ion, fractionated photon radiotherapy, and photon and gamma-knife radiosurgery. As of now, no direct comparison is available, and high-level evidence demonstrating superiority of one modality over another is lacking. While systemic therapies have yet to form part of any first-line therapy for chordomas, a number of targeted agents have been evaluated to date that inhibit specific molecules and their respective pathways known to be implicated in chordomas. These include EGFR (erlotinib, gefitinib, lapatinib), PDGFR (imatinib), mTOR (rapamycin), and VEGF (bevacizumab). This article provides an update of the current multimodality treatment of cranial base chordomas, with an emphasis on how current understanding of molecular pathogenesis provides a framework for the development of novel targeted approaches.

Experimental study on differences in clivus chordoma bone invasion: an iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis

Although a bone tumor, significant differences in the extent of bone invasion exist in skull base chordoma, which directly affect the extent of surgical resection, and have an impact on its prognosis. However, the underlying mechanism of the phenomenon is not clearly understood. Therefore, we used an iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomics strategy to identify potential molecular signatures, and to find predictive markers of discrepancy in bone invasion of clivus chordoma. According to bone invasive classification criteria, 35 specimens of clivus chordoma were calssified to be either endophytic type (Type I) or exophytic type (Type II). An initial screening of six specimens of endophytic type and six of exophytic was performed, and 250 differentially expressed proteins were identified. Through the GO and IPA analysis, we found evidence that the expression of inflammatory activity-associated proteins up-regulated in endophytic type, whereas the expression of cell motility-associated proteins up-regulated in exophytic ones. Moreover, TGFβ1 and mTOR signal pathway seemed to be related with bone invasion. Thus, TGFβ1, PI3K, Akt, mTOR, and PTEN were validated in the following 23 samples by immune histochemistry and Western blot. The expression levels of TGFβ1 and PTEN were significantly lower in the endophytic type than in the exophytic ones. It was found that TGFβ1 may play an important role in its bone invasion. The mechanisms may be related with conducting an increased inflammatory cell response and a decline in cytoskeletal protein expression. PTEN is confirmed to be associated with the degree of bone invasion. The PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway might be associated with the bone invasion, but still needs a larger sample size to be verified These results, for the first time, not only demonstrate the biological changes that occur in different growth patterns from the perspective of proteomics, but also provide novel markers that may help to reveal the mechanisms behind clivus chordomas.

T-box transcription factor Brachyury in lung cancer cells inhibits macrophage infiltration by suppressing CCL2 and CCL4 chemokines

Both intra-tumor macrophage and T-box transcription factor Brachyury (T) have been proved to play important roles in tumor progression and metastasis. However, it is still unknown whether T could regulate the infiltration of macrophages. Here, we report that the Brachyury expression in human lung tumors was inversely correlated with the infiltration of macrophages. Brachyury suppressed the capability of human lung cancer cells to attract macrophages. Using PCR array, we found that Brachyury inhibited expression of several chemokines, including CCL2, CCL4, and CXCL10. Accordingly, knockdown of CCL2 and CCL4 in lung cancer cells suppressed macrophage invasion under coculture conditions. Furthermore, we found that Brachyury expression was inversely correlated with CCL2 and CCL4 expression in human lung tumors. Taken together, our findings shed light on the novel role of Brachyury in regulation of macrophage infiltration.