1
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Siebner HR, Funke K, Aberra AS, Antal A, Bestmann S, Chen R, Classen J, Davare M, Di Lazzaro V, Fox PT, Hallett M, Karabanov AN, Kesselheim J, Beck MM, Koch G, Liebetanz D, Meunier S, Miniussi C, Paulus W, Peterchev AV, Popa T, Ridding MC, Thielscher A, Ziemann U, Rothwell JC, Ugawa Y. Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the brain: What is stimulated? - A consensus and critical position paper. Clin Neurophysiol 2022; 140:59-97. [PMID: 35738037 PMCID: PMC9753778 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2022.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 69.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial (electro)magnetic stimulation (TMS) is currently the method of choice to non-invasively induce neural activity in the human brain. A single transcranial stimulus induces a time-varying electric field in the brain that may evoke action potentials in cortical neurons. The spatial relationship between the locally induced electric field and the stimulated neurons determines axonal depolarization. The induced electric field is influenced by the conductive properties of the tissue compartments and is strongest in the superficial parts of the targeted cortical gyri and underlying white matter. TMS likely targets axons of both excitatory and inhibitory neurons. The propensity of individual axons to fire an action potential in response to TMS depends on their geometry, myelination and spatial relation to the imposed electric field and the physiological state of the neuron. The latter is determined by its transsynaptic dendritic and somatic inputs, intrinsic membrane potential and firing rate. Modeling work suggests that the primary target of TMS is axonal terminals in the crown top and lip regions of cortical gyri. The induced electric field may additionally excite bends of myelinated axons in the juxtacortical white matter below the gyral crown. Neuronal excitation spreads ortho- and antidromically along the stimulated axons and causes secondary excitation of connected neuronal populations within local intracortical microcircuits in the target area. Axonal and transsynaptic spread of excitation also occurs along cortico-cortical and cortico-subcortical connections, impacting on neuronal activity in the targeted network. Both local and remote neural excitation depend critically on the functional state of the stimulated target area and network. TMS also causes substantial direct co-stimulation of the peripheral nervous system. Peripheral co-excitation propagates centrally in auditory and somatosensory networks, but also produces brain responses in other networks subserving multisensory integration, orienting or arousal. The complexity of the response to TMS warrants cautious interpretation of its physiological and behavioural consequences, and a deeper understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of TMS will be critical for advancing it as a scientific and therapeutic tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hartwig R Siebner
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg, Copenhagen, Denmark; Institute for Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Klaus Funke
- Department of Neurophysiology, Medical Faculty, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Aman S Aberra
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Andrea Antal
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sven Bestmann
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Chen
- Krembil Brain Institute, University Health Network and Division of Neurology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Joseph Classen
- Department of Neurology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Marco Davare
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Vincenzo Di Lazzaro
- Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, via Álvaro del Portillo 21, 00128 Rome, Italy
| | - Peter T Fox
- Research Imaging Institute, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Anke N Karabanov
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark; Department of Nutrition and Exercise, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Janine Kesselheim
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Mikkel M Beck
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark
| | - Giacomo Koch
- Department of Neuroscience and Rehabilitation, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy; Non-invasive Brain Stimulation Unit, Laboratorio di NeurologiaClinica e Comportamentale, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - David Liebetanz
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sabine Meunier
- Sorbonne Université, Faculté de Médecine, INSERM U 1127, CNRS 4 UMR 7225, Institut du Cerveau, F-75013, Paris, France
| | - Carlo Miniussi
- Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Italy; Cognitive Neuroscience Section, IRCCS Centro San Giovanni di DioFatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
| | - Walter Paulus
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Angel V Peterchev
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Traian Popa
- Center for Neuroprosthetics (CNP) and Brain Mind Institute (BMI), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Geneva, Switzerland; Center for Neuroprosthetics (CNP) and Brain Mind Institute (BMI), Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL Valais), Clinique Romande de Réadaptation, Sion, Switzerland
| | - Michael C Ridding
- University of South Australia, IIMPACT in Health, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Axel Thielscher
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Hvidovre, Denmark; Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ulf Ziemann
- Department of Neurology & Stroke, University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - John C Rothwell
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yoshikazu Ugawa
- Department of Neurology, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan; Fukushima Global Medical Science Centre, Advanced Clinical Research Centre, Fukushima Medical University, Fukushima, Japan
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2
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Intensity- and timing-dependent modulation of motion perception with transcranial magnetic stimulation of visual cortex. Neuropsychologia 2020; 147:107581. [PMID: 32795456 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite the widespread use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in research and clinical care, the dose-response relations and neurophysiological correlates of modulatory effects remain relatively unexplored. To fill this gap, we studied modulation of visual processing as a function of TMS parameters. Our approach combined electroencephalography (EEG) with application of single pulse TMS to visual cortex as participants performed a motion perception task. During each participants' first visit, motion coherence thresholds, 64-channel visual evoked potentials (VEPs), and TMS resting motor thresholds (RMT) were measured. In second and third visits, single pulse TMS was delivered at one of two latencies, either 30 ms before the onset of motion or at the onset latency of the N2 VEP component derived from the first session. TMS was delivered at 0%, 80%, 100%, or 120% of RMT over the site of N2 peak activity, or at 120% over vertex. Behavioral results demonstrated a significant main effect of TMS timing on accuracy, with better performance when TMS was applied at the N2-Onset timing versus Pre-Onset, as well as a significant interaction, indicating that 80% intensity produced higher accuracy than other conditions at the N2-Onset. TMS effects on the P3 VEP showed reduced amplitudes in the 80% Pre-Onset condition, an increase for the 120% N2-Onset condition, and monotonic amplitude scaling with stimulation intensity. The N2 component was not affected by TMS. These findings reveal the influence of TMS intensity and timing on visual perception and electrophysiological responses, with optimal facilitation at stimulation intensities below RMT.
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3
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Penton T, Catmur C, Banissy MJ, Bird G, Walsh V. Non-invasive stimulation in the social brain: the methodological challenges. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2020; 17:15-25. [PMID: 32734295 PMCID: PMC9083106 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsaa102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Use of non-invasive brain stimulation methods (NIBS) has become a common approach to study social processing in addition to behavioural, imaging and lesion studies. However, research using NIBS to investigate social processing faces challenges. Overcoming these is important to allow valid and reliable interpretation of findings in neurotypical cohorts, but also to allow us to tailor NIBS protocols to atypical groups with social difficulties. In this review, we consider the utility of brain stimulation as a technique to study and modulate social processing. We also discuss challenges that face researchers using NIBS to study social processing in neurotypical adults with a view to highlighting potential solutions. Finally, we discuss additional challenges that face researchers using NIBS to study and modulate social processing in atypical groups. These are important to consider given that NIBS protocols are rarely tailored to atypical groups before use. Instead, many rely on protocols designed for neurotypical adults despite differences in brain function that are likely to impact response to NIBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tegan Penton
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, SE14 6NW, UK.,MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Caroline Catmur
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK
| | - Michael J Banissy
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London, SE14 6NW, UK
| | - Geoffrey Bird
- MRC Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, Denmark Hill, London, SE5 8AF, UK.,Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 3PH
| | - Vincent Walsh
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London WC1N 3AR, UK
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4
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Different neural representations for detection of symmetry in dot-patterns and in faces: A state-dependent TMS study. Neuropsychologia 2020; 138:107333. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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5
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TMS of the occipital face area modulates cross-domain identity priming. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 224:149-157. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1768-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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6
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Ticini LF, Urgesi C, Kotz SA. Modulating Mimetic Preference with Theta Burst Stimulation of the Inferior Parietal Cortex. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2101. [PMID: 29250021 PMCID: PMC5717539 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We like an object more when we see someone else reaching for it. To what extent is action observation causally linked to object valuation? In this study, we set out to answer to this question by applying continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) over the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL). Previous studies pointed to this region as critical in the representation of others' actions and in tool manipulation. However, it is unclear to what extent IPL's involvement simply reflects action observation, rather than a casual role in objects' valuation. To clarify this issue, we measured cTBS-dependent modulations of participants' “mimetic preference ratings”, i.e., the difference between the ratings of pairs of familiar objects that were (vs. were not) reached out for by other individuals. Our result shows that cTBS increased mimetic preference ratings for tools, when compared to a control condition without stimulation. This effect was selective for items that were reached for or manipulated by another individual, whilst it was not detected in non-tool objects. Although preliminary, this finding suggests that the automatic and covert simulation of an observed action, even when there is no intention to act on an object, influences explicit affective judgments for objects. This work supports embodied cognition theories by substantiating that our subjective preference is grounded in action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca F Ticini
- Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, Faculty of Biological, Medical and Health Sciences, School of Biological Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Cosimo Urgesi
- Department of Languages and Literatures, Communication, Education and Society, University of Udine, Udine, Italy.,Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico "Eugenio Medea", Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Sonja A Kotz
- Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
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7
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Silvanto J, Cattaneo Z. Common framework for "virtual lesion" and state-dependent TMS: The facilitatory/suppressive range model of online TMS effects on behavior. Brain Cogn 2017; 119:32-38. [PMID: 28963993 PMCID: PMC5652969 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2017.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation can either facilitate or impair behavior. Nature of behavioral effects depends on factors such as brain state and intensity. We present a common framework to account for these effects. There are distinct intensity ranges for facilitatory and suppressive effects of TMS. Changes in excitability shift these ranges and account for behavioral effects.
The behavioral effects of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) are often nonlinear; factors such as stimulation intensity and brain state can modulate the impact of TMS on observable behavior in qualitatively different manner. Here we propose a theoretical framework to account for these effects. In this model, there are distinct intensity ranges for facilitatory and suppressive effects of TMS – low intensities facilitate neural activity and behavior whereas high intensities induce suppression. The key feature of the model is that these ranges are shifted by changes in neural excitability: consequently, a TMS intensity, which normally induces suppression, can have a facilitatory effect if the stimulated neurons are being inhibited by ongoing task-related processes or preconditioning. For example, adaptation reduces excitability of adapted neurons; the outcome is that TMS intensities which inhibit non-adapted neurons induce a facilitation on adapted neural representations, leading to reversal of adaptation effects. In conventional “virtual lesion” paradigms, similar effects occur because neurons not involved in task-related processes are inhibited by the ongoing task. The resulting reduction in excitability can turn high intensity “inhibitory” TMS to low intensity “facilitatory” TMS for these neurons, and as task-related neuronal representations are in the inhibitory range, the outcome is a reduction in signal-to-noise ratio and behavioral impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juha Silvanto
- University of Westminster, Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Psychology, 115 New Cavendish Street, W1W 6UW London, UK.
| | - Zaira Cattaneo
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy; Brain Connectivity Center, National Neurological Institute C. Mondino, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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8
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Not all visual symmetry is equal: Partially distinct neural bases for vertical and horizontal symmetry. Neuropsychologia 2017; 104:126-132. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 07/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Ba M, Ma G, Ren C, Sun X, Kong M. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for treatment of lactacystin-induced Parkinsonian rat model. Oncotarget 2017; 8:50921-50929. [PMID: 28881616 PMCID: PMC5584217 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.17285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The dysfunction of ubiquitin-proteasome system is an important pathogenesis in the neurodegenerative process of Parkinson's disease. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a noninvasive and potential method in treating Parkinson's disease. To investigate whether rTMS has neuroprotective effects in parkinsonian rat model induced by ubiquitin-proteasome system impairment, we gave rTMS daily for 4 weeks to proteasome inhibitor, lactacystin-induced parkinsonian rat model. Rotational behavior test demonstrated that rTMS obviously reduced apomorphine-induced turning number in parkinsonian rats. rTMS could significantly alleviate the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive dopaminergic neurons in lactacystin-lesioned substantia nigra and prevent the loss of striatal dopamine levels. Furthermore, rTMS also reduced the levels of apoptotic protein (cleaved caspase-3) and inflammatory factors (cyclooxygenase-2 and tumor necrosis factor alpha) in lesioned substantia nigra. These results suggest that rTMS can protect nigral dopaminergic neurons against the ubiquitin-proteasome system impairment-induced degeneration by anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory molecular mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maowen Ba
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital Affiliated to Qingdao Medical University, Yantai 264000, Shandong, PR China
| | - Guozhao Ma
- Department of Neurology, Shandong Provincial Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong University, Jinan, 250014, Shandong, PR China
| | - Chao Ren
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital Affiliated to Qingdao Medical University, Yantai 264000, Shandong, PR China
| | - Xuwen Sun
- Department of Neurology, Yantai Yuhuangding Hospital Affiliated to Qingdao Medical University, Yantai 264000, Shandong, PR China
| | - Min Kong
- Department of Neurology, Yantaishan Hospital, Yantai City, Shandong 264000, PR China
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10
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The occipital face area is causally involved in the formation of identity-specific face representations. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 222:4271-4282. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-017-1467-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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State-Dependent TMS Reveals Representation of Affective Body Movements in the Anterior Intraparietal Cortex. J Neurosci 2017. [PMID: 28642285 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0913-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, recognition of others' actions involves a cortical network that comprises, among other cortical regions, the posterior superior temporal sulcus (pSTS), where biological motion is coded and the anterior intraparietal sulcus (aIPS), where movement information is elaborated in terms of meaningful goal-directed actions. This action observation system (AOS) is thought to encode neutral voluntary actions, and possibly some aspects of affective motor repertoire, but the role of the AOS' areas in processing affective kinematic information has never been examined. Here we investigated whether the AOS plays a role in representing dynamic emotional bodily expressions. In the first experiment, we assessed behavioral adaptation effects of observed affective movements. Participants watched series of happy or fearful whole-body point-light displays (PLDs) as adapters and were then asked to perform an explicit categorization of the emotion expressed in test PLDs. Participants were slower when categorizing any of the two emotions as long as it was congruent with the emotion in the adapter sequence. We interpreted this effect as adaptation to the emotional content of PLDs. In the second experiment, we combined this paradigm with TMS applied over either the right aIPS, pSTS, and the right half of the occipital pole (corresponding to Brodmann's area 17 and serving as control) to examine the neural locus of the adaptation effect. TMS over the aIPS (but not over the other sites) reversed the behavioral cost of adaptation, specifically for fearful contents. This demonstrates that aIPS contains an explicit representation of affective body movements.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In humans, a network of areas, the action observation system, encodes voluntary actions. However, the role of these brain regions in processing affective kinematic information has not been investigated. Here we demonstrate that the aIPS contains a representation of affective body movements. First, in a behavioral experiment, we found an adaptation after-effect for emotional PLDs, indicating the existence of a neural representation selective for affective information in biological motion. To examine the neural locus of this effect, we then combined the adaptation paradigm with TMS. Stimulation of the aIPS (but not over pSTS and control site) reversed the behavioral cost of adaptation, specifically for fearful contents, demonstrating that aIPS contains a representation of affective body movements.
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12
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Gamond L, Ferrari C, La Rocca S, Cattaneo Z. Dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and cerebellar contribution to in-group attitudes: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 45:932-939. [PMID: 28132412 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We tend to express more positive judgments and behaviors toward individuals belonging to our own group compared to other (out-) groups. In this study, we assessed the role of the cerebellum and of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) - two regions critically implicated in social cognition processes - in mediating implicit valenced attitudes toward in-group and out-group individuals. To this aim, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in combination with a standard attitude priming task, in which Caucasian participants had to categorize the valence of a series of adjectives primed by either an in-group or an out-group face. In two behavioral experiments, we found an in-group bias (i.e. faster categorization of positive adjectives when preceded by in-group faces) but no evidence of an out-group bias. Interestingly, TMS over both the dmPFC and over the (right) cerebellum significantly interfered with the modulation exerted by group membership on adjective valence classification, abolishing the in-group bias observed at baseline. Overall, our data suggest that both the dmPFC and the cerebellum play a causal role in mediating implicit social attitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Gamond
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, 20126, Italy
| | - Chiara Ferrari
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, 20126, Italy
| | - Stefania La Rocca
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, 20126, Italy
| | - Zaira Cattaneo
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, 20126, Italy.,Brain Connectivity Center, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Pavia, Italy
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaira Cattaneo
- Department of Psychology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- Brain Connectivity Center, C. Mondino National Neurological Institute, Pavia, Italy
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14
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Gamond L, Cattaneo Z. The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex plays a causal role in mediating in-group advantage in emotion recognition: A TMS study. Neuropsychologia 2016; 93:312-317. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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15
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Cattaneo Z, Schiavi S, Silvanto J, Nadal M. A TMS study on the contribution of visual area V5 to the perception of implied motion in art and its appreciation. Cogn Neurosci 2015; 8:59-68. [PMID: 26429631 DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2015.1083968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, researchers have sought to understand the brain mechanisms involved in the appreciation of art. Previous studies reported an increased activity in sensory processing regions for artworks that participants find more appealing. Here we investigated the intriguing possibility that activity in cortical area V5-a region in the occipital cortex mediating physical and implied motion detection-is related not only to the generation of a sense of motion from visual cues used in artworks, but also to the appreciation of those artworks. Art-naïve participants viewed a series of paintings and quickly judged whether or not the paintings conveyed a sense of motion, and whether or not they liked them. Triple-pulse TMS applied over V5 while viewing the paintings significantly decreased the perceived sense of motion, and also significantly reduced liking of abstract (but not representational) paintings. Our data demonstrate that V5 is involved in extracting motion information even when the objects whose motion is implied are pictorial representations (as opposed to photographs or film frames), and even in the absence of any figurative content. Moreover, our study suggests that, in the case of untrained people, V5 activity plays a causal role in the appreciation of abstract but not of representational art.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaira Cattaneo
- a Department of Psychology , University of Milano-Bicocca , Milano , Italy.,b Brain Connectivity Center , C. Mondino National Neurological Institute , Pavia , Italy
| | - Susanna Schiavi
- a Department of Psychology , University of Milano-Bicocca , Milano , Italy
| | - Juha Silvanto
- c Department of Psychology , University of Westminster , London , UK
| | - Marcos Nadal
- d Department of Basic Psychological Research and Research Methods , University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria
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16
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Vallence AM, Ridding MC. Non-invasive induction of plasticity in the human cortex: Uses and limitations. Cortex 2014; 58:261-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2013.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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17
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State-Dependent Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Protocols. TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0879-0_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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18
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Wiener M. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies of Human Time Perception: A Primer. TIMING & TIME PERCEPTION 2014. [DOI: 10.1163/22134468-00002022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The study of the neural basis of time perception has seen a resurgence of interest within the past decade. A variety of these studies have included the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a noninvasive technique for stimulating discrete regions of the surface of the brain. Here, the results of these studies are reviewed and their conclusions are interpreted within a context-dependent framework. However, the use of TMS as an investigatory technique has much unexplored potential that may be particularly beneficial to the study of time perception. As such, considerations are made regarding the design of TMS studies of time perception and future directions are outlined that may be utilized to further elucidate the neural basis of timing in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Wiener
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA
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Campana G, Maniglia M, Pavan A. Common (and multiple) neural substrates for static and dynamic motion after-effects: A rTMS investigation. Cortex 2013; 49:2590-4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2013.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 07/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Bestmann S, Feredoes E. Combined neurostimulation and neuroimaging in cognitive neuroscience: past, present, and future. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2013; 1296:11-30. [PMID: 23631540 PMCID: PMC3760762 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Modern neurostimulation approaches in humans provide controlled inputs into the operations of cortical regions, with highly specific behavioral consequences. This enables causal structure–function inferences, and in combination with neuroimaging, has provided novel insights into the basic mechanisms of action of neurostimulation on distributed networks. For example, more recent work has established the capacity of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to probe causal interregional influences, and their interaction with cognitive state changes. Combinations of neurostimulation and neuroimaging now face the challenge of integrating the known physiological effects of neurostimulation with theoretical and biological models of cognition, for example, when theoretical stalemates between opposing cognitive theories need to be resolved. This will be driven by novel developments, including biologically informed computational network analyses for predicting the impact of neurostimulation on brain networks, as well as novel neuroimaging and neurostimulation techniques. Such future developments may offer an expanded set of tools with which to investigate structure–function relationships, and to formulate and reconceptualize testable hypotheses about complex neural network interactions and their causal roles in cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven Bestmann
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, United Kingdom.
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Grabski K, Tremblay P, Gracco VL, Girin L, Sato M. A mediating role of the auditory dorsal pathway in selective adaptation to speech: a state-dependent transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Brain Res 2013; 1515:55-65. [PMID: 23542585 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2012] [Revised: 03/17/2013] [Accepted: 03/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In addition to sensory processing, recent neurobiological models of speech perception postulate the existence of a left auditory dorsal processing stream, linking auditory speech representations in the auditory cortex with articulatory representations in the motor system, through sensorimotor interaction interfaced in the supramarginal gyrus and/or the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus. The present state-dependent transcranial magnetic stimulation study is aimed at determining whether speech recognition is indeed mediated by the auditory dorsal pathway, by examining the causal contribution of the left ventral premotor cortex, supramarginal gyrus and posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus during an auditory syllable identification/categorization task. To this aim, participants listened to a sequence of /ba/ syllables before undergoing a two forced-choice auditory syllable decision task on ambiguous syllables (ranging in the categorical boundary between /ba/ and /da/). Consistent with previous studies on selective adaptation to speech, following adaptation to /ba/, participants responses were biased towards /da/. In contrast, in a control condition without prior auditory adaptation no such bias was observed. Crucially, compared to the results observed without stimulation, single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation delivered at the onset of each target stimulus interacted with the initial state of each of the stimulated brain area by enhancing the adaptation effect. These results demonstrate that the auditory dorsal pathway contribute to auditory speech adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna Grabski
- GIPSA-lab, Département Parole & Cognition, CNRS & Grenoble Université, France.
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Saad E, Silvanto J. How visual short-term memory maintenance modulates the encoding of external input: evidence from concurrent visual adaptation and TMS. Neuroimage 2013; 72:243-51. [PMID: 23384521 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.01.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 01/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The impact of memory representations on the encoding of visual input has been the subject of much debate. Here we investigated this issue by examining how visual short-term memory (VSTM) maintenance of orientation information modulates the strength of the tilt aftereffect (TAE) induced by a concurrent visual adapter. We reasoned that if VSTM maintenance facilitates visual processing of stimuli that match the VSTM content, then the magnitude of the TAE should be enhanced when the orientations of the memory item and the adapter are identical. In contrast, if VSTM content inhibits visual processing, then the TAE induced by the adapter should be reduced. Our results are consistent with the latter hypothesis, and a TMS study demonstrated that the reduction of the TAE by VSTM maintenance of orientation information occurs in the early visual cortex. VSTM maintenance of shape information also reduced the TAE magnitude, but to a smaller extent than maintenance of orientation information. A TMS experiment did not implicate the early visual cortex in this phenomenon. In summary, our results indicate that VSTM maintenance under these circumstances inhibits the encoding of concurrent visual input, and that this inhibition occurs at various levels of the visual cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elyana Saad
- Brain Research Unit, O.V. Lounasmaa Laboratory, School of Science, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
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Cattaneo Z, Bona S, Silvanto J. Cross-adaptation combined with TMS reveals a functional overlap between vision and imagery in the early visual cortex. Neuroimage 2012; 59:3015-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 10/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022] Open
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The role of the human extrastriate visual cortex in mirror symmetry discrimination: A TMS-adaptation study. Brain Cogn 2011; 77:120-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2011.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2011] [Revised: 04/17/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Guzman-Lopez J, Silvanto J, Seemungal B. Visual motion adaptation increases the susceptibility of area V5/MT to phosphene induction by transcranial magnetic stimulation. Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 122:1951-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2011] [Revised: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Guzman-Lopez J, Silvanto J, Yousif N, Nousi S, Quadir S, Seemungal BM. Probing V5/MT excitability with transcranial magnetic stimulation following visual motion adaptation to random and coherent motion. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011; 1233:200-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06179.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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28
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Detection of first- and second-order coherent motion in blindsight. Exp Brain Res 2011; 214:261-71. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2828-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Jacobs C, Goebel R, Sack AT. Visual awareness suppression by pre-stimulus brain stimulation; a neural effect. Neuroimage 2011; 59:616-24. [PMID: 21840406 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.07.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 07/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has established the functional relevance of early visual cortex (EVC) for visual awareness with great temporal specificity non-invasively in conscious human volunteers. Many studies have found a suppressive effect when TMS was applied over EVC 80-100 ms after the onset of the visual stimulus (post-stimulus TMS time window). Yet, few studies found task performance to also suffer when TMS was applied even before visual stimulus presentation (pre-stimulus TMS time window). This pre-stimulus TMS effect, however, remains controversially debated and its origin had mainly been ascribed to TMS-induced eye-blinking artifacts. Here, we applied chronometric TMS over EVC during the execution of a visual discrimination task, covering an exhaustive range of visual stimulus-locked TMS time windows ranging from -80 pre-stimulus to 300 ms post-stimulus onset. Electrooculographical (EoG) recordings, sham TMS stimulation, and vertex TMS stimulation controlled for different types of non-neural TMS effects. Our findings clearly reveal TMS-induced masking effects for both pre- and post-stimulus time windows, and for both objective visual discrimination performance and subjective visibility. Importantly, all effects proved to be still present after post hoc removal of eye blink trials, suggesting a neural origin for the pre-stimulus TMS suppression effect on visual awareness. We speculate based on our data that TMS exerts its pre-stimulus effect via generation of a neural state which interacts with subsequent visual input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christianne Jacobs
- Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
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Overlapping representations of numerical magnitude and motion direction in the posterior parietal cortex: a TMS-adaptation study. Neurosci Lett 2010; 490:145-9. [PMID: 21193017 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.12.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The human posterior parietal cortex (PPC) is involved in the encoding of both visual motion and numerical magnitude. In non human primates, neurons have been found in PPC that are selective for both motion direction and magnitude. Whether such neurons also exist in human PPC is not known. Here we investigated this hypothesis using state-dependent transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Participants were adapted to a specific motion direction (either leftward or rightward), after which they performed a magnitude comparison task, with TMS applied at the onset of each trial. Our hypothesis was that neurons tuned to leftward motion may also be sensitive to small magnitudes and neurons tuned to rightward motion may also be sensitive to large magnitudes, a mapping that may have developed via spatial attentional mechanisms. Our results supported this view by showing that the effect of PPC TMS on small and large numbers depended on the motion direction being adapted, thus suggesting that there may be a functional overlap in neuronal representations of motion direction and numerical magnitude in human PPC.
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The effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on a model rat of Parkinson's disease. Neuroreport 2010; 21:268-72. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0b013e328335b411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cattaneo Z, Devlin JT, Salvini F, Vecchi T, Silvanto J. The causal role of category-specific neuronal representations in the left ventral premotor cortex (PMv) in semantic processing. Neuroimage 2010; 49:2728-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.10.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2009] [Revised: 10/10/2009] [Accepted: 10/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Liu GT, Volpe NJ, Galetta SL. Disorders of higher cortical visual function. Neuroophthalmology 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-2311-1.00009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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34
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State-dependency in brain stimulation studies of perception and cognition. Trends Cogn Sci 2008; 12:447-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2008] [Revised: 09/08/2008] [Accepted: 09/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Cattaneo Z, Rota F, Vecchi T, Silvanto J. Using state-dependency of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to investigate letter selectivity in the left posterior parietal cortex: a comparison of TMS-priming and TMS-adaptation paradigms. Eur J Neurosci 2008; 28:1924-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06466.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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36
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State-dependency of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain Topogr 2008; 21:1-10. [PMID: 18791818 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-008-0067-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 292] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2008] [Accepted: 08/29/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a tool that allows noninvasive modulation of cortical neural activity, has become an important tool in cognitive neuroscience and is being increasingly explored in neurotherapeutics. Amongst the factors that are likely to influence its efficacy, the importance of the baseline cortical activation state on the impact of TMS has not received much attention. However, this state-dependency is important as the neural impact of any external stimulus represents an interaction with the ongoing brain activity at the time of stimulation. The effects of any external stimulus are therefore not only determined by the properties of that stimulus but also by the activation state of the brain. Here we review the existing evidence on the state-dependency of TMS and propose how its systematic study can provide unique insights into brain function and significantly enhance the effectiveness of TMS in investigations on the neural basis of perception and cognition. We also describe novel approaches based on this state-dependency which can be used to investigate the properties of distinct neural subpopulations within the stimulated region. Furthermore, we discuss how state-dependency can explain the functional mechanisms through which TMS impairs perception and behavior.
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