Cognitive side effects of brief pulse electroconvulsive therapy: a review

Electroconvulsive Therapy in Refractory and Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus in Adults: A Scoping Review

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been suggested as a treatment option for refractory status epilepticus (RSE) and super-refractory status epilepticus (SRSE).

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this scoping review was to conduct an extensive literature review on the role of ECT as a treatment option for RSE and SRSE.

METHODS

We searched Ovid MEDLINE and Scopus for journal articles from database inception until February 2024. Articles were then selected based on predetermined inclusion and exclusion criteria.

RESULTS

We identified five retrospective case series with 28 adult patients receiving ECT for RSE or SRSE. ECT was administered within 3-70 days (mean 20 days) after the development of SE, and the mean number of ECT courses ranged from 1 to 12 sessions for each patient. ECT was administered in fixed or titrated doses. A total of 20 out of 28 patients (71%) showed clinical improvement, with two (7%) having complete cessation of seizures. It is essential to note that given the lack of control, there could be overreporting of clinical improvement in these studies. 11 patients (39%) were reported as deceased due to causes that were not directly related to ECT treatment. Four patients (14%) reported adverse effects of ECT, including memory, concentration, and/or cognitive impairment.

CONCLUSIONS

There are level-4 Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine evidence and low-level Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Education evidence that suggest ECT as a treatment option for RSE and SRSE. In light of the limitations of the existing evidence, clinicians should carefully consider individual patients' clinical contexts when deciding on the appropriateness of ECT as a treatment option. Further research, including prospective studies with controlled designs, is needed to elucidate the efficacy, safety, and optimal regime of ECT in the management of RSE and SRSE.

Treating Alzheimer's disease with brain stimulation: From preclinical models to non-invasive stimulation in humans

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe and progressive neurodegenerative condition that exerts detrimental effects on brain function. As of now, there is no effective treatment for AD patients. This review explores two distinct avenues of research. The first revolves around the use of animal studies and preclinical models to gain insights into AD's underlying mechanisms and potential treatment strategies. Specifically, it delves into the effectiveness of interventions such as Optogenetics and Chemogenetics, shedding light on their implications for understanding pathophysiological mechanisms and potential therapeutic applications. The second avenue focuses on non-invasive brain stimulation (NiBS) techniques in the context of AD. Evidence suggests that NiBS can successfully modulate cognitive functions associated with various neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including AD, as demonstrated by promising findings. Here, we critically assessed recent findings in AD research belonging to these lines of research and discuss their potential impact on the clinical horizon of AD treatment. These multifaceted approaches offer hope for advancing our comprehension of AD pathology and developing novel therapeutic interventions.

Controlled ultrasonic interventions through the human skull

Transcranial focused ultrasound enables precise and non-invasive manipulations of deep brain circuits in humans, promising to provide safe and effective treatments of various neurological and mental health conditions. Ultrasound focused to deep brain targets can be used to modulate neural activity directly or localize the release of psychoactive drugs. However, these applications have been impeded by a key barrier-the human skull, which attenuates ultrasound strongly and unpredictably. To address this issue, we have developed an ultrasound-based approach that directly measures and compensates for the ultrasound attenuation by the skull. No additional skull imaging, simulations, assumptions, or free parameters are necessary; the method measures the attenuation directly by emitting a pulse of ultrasound from an array on one side of the head and measuring with an array on the opposite side. Here, we apply this emerging method to two primary future uses-neuromodulation and local drug release. Specifically, we show that the correction enables effective stimulation of peripheral nerves and effective release of propofol from nanoparticle carriers through an ex vivo human skull. Neither application was effective without the correction. Moreover, the effects show the expected dose-response relationship and targeting specificity. This article highlights the need for precise control of ultrasound intensity within the skull and provides a direct and practical approach for addressing this lingering barrier.

Restoration of postictal cortical activity after electroconvulsive therapy relates to recovery of orientation in person, place, and time

BACKGROUND

Most patients show temporary impairments in clinical orientation after electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)-induced seizures. It is unclear how postictal reorientation relates to electroencephalography (EEG) restoration. This relationship may provide additional measures to quantify postictal recovery and shed light on neurophysiological aspects of reorientation after ECT.

METHODS

We analyzed prospectively collected clinical and continuous ictal and postictal EEG data from ECT patients. Postictal EEG restoration up to 1 h was estimated by the evolution of the normalized alpha-delta ratio (ADR). Times to reorientation in the cognitive domains of person, place, and time were assessed postictally. In each cognitive domain, a linear mixed model was fitted to investigate the relationships between time to reorientation and postictal EEG restoration.

RESULTS

In total, 272 pairs of ictal-postictal EEG and reorientation times of 32 patients were included. In all domains, longer time to reorientation was associated with slower postictal EEG recovery. Longer seizure duration and postictal administration of midazolam were related to longer time to reorientation in all domains. At 1-hour post-seizure, most patients were clinically reoriented, while their EEG had only partly restored.

CONCLUSIONS

We show a relationship between postictal EEG restoration and clinical reorientation after ECT-induced seizures. EEG was more sensitive than reorientation time in all domains to detect postictal recovery beyond 1-hour post-seizure. Our findings indicate that clinical reorientation probably depends on gradual cortical synaptic recovery, with longer seizure duration leading to longer postsynaptic suppression after ECT seizures.

Identification of the antidepressant effect of electroconvulsive stimulation-related genes in hippocampal astrocyte

Major depressive disorder (MDD) remains a significant global health concern, with limited and slow efficacy of existing antidepressants. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has superior and immediate efficacy for MDD, but its action mechanism remains elusive. Therefore, the elucidation of the action mechanism of ECT is expected to lead to the development of novel antidepressants with superior and immediate efficacy. Recent studies suggest a potential role of hippocampal astrocyte in MDD and ECT. Hence, we investigated antidepressant effect of electroconvulsive stimulation (ECS), an animal model of ECT, -related genes in hippocampal astrocyte with a mouse model of MDD, in which corticosterone (CORT)-induced depression-like behaviors were recovered by ECS. In this model, both of CORT-induced depression-like behaviors and the reduction of hippocampal astrocyte were recovered by ECS. Following it, astrocytes were isolated from the hippocampus of this model and RNA-seq was performed with these isolated astrocytes. Interestingly, gene expression patterns altered by CORT were reversed by ECS. Additionally, cell proliferation-related signaling pathways were inhibited by CORT and recovered by ECS. Finally, serum and glucocorticoid kinase-1 (SGK1), a multi-functional protein kinase, was identified as a candidate gene reciprocally regulated by CORT and ECS in hippocampal astrocyte. Our findings suggest a potential role of SGK1 in the antidepressant effect of ECS via the regulation of the proliferation of astrocyte and provide new insights into the involvement of hippocampal astrocyte in MDD and ECT. Targeting SGK1 may offer a novel approach to the development of new antidepressants which can replicate superior and immediate efficacy of ECT.

A randomized sham-controlled trial of high-dosage accelerated intermittent theta burst rTMS in major depression: study protocol

BACKGROUND

Intermittent theta burst stimulation (iTBS), a novel form of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), can be administered in 1/10th of the time of standard rTMS (~ 3 min vs. 37.5 min) yet achieves similar outcomes in depression. The brief nature of the iTBS protocol allows for the administration of multiple iTBS sessions per day, thus reducing the overall course length to days rather than weeks. This study aims to compare the efficacy and tolerability of active versus sham iTBS using an accelerated regimen in patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD). As a secondary objective, we aim to assess the safety, tolerability, and treatment response to open-label low-frequency right-sided (1 Hz) stimulation using an accelerated regimen in those who do not respond to the initial week of treatment.

METHODS

Over three years, approximately 230 outpatients at the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health and University of British Columbia Hospital, meeting diagnostic criteria for unipolar MDD, will be recruited and randomized to a triple blind sham-controlled trial. Patients will receive five consecutive days of active or sham iTBS, administered eight times daily at 1-hour intervals, with each session delivering 600 pulses of iTBS. Those who have not achieved response by the week four follow-up visit will be offered a second course of treatment, regardless of whether they initially received active or sham stimulation.

DISCUSSION

Broader implementation of conventional iTBS is limited by the logistical demands of the current standard course consisting of 4-6 weeks of daily treatment. If our proposed accelerated iTBS protocol enables patients to achieve remission more rapidly, this would offer major benefits in terms of cost and capacity as well as the time required to achieve clinical response.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04255784.

How electroconvulsive therapy works in the treatment of depression: is it the seizure, the electricity, or both?

We have known for nearly a century that triggering seizures can treat serious mental illness, but what we do not know is why. Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) works faster and better than conventional pharmacological interventions; however, those benefits come with a burden of side effects, most notably memory loss. Disentangling the mechanisms by which ECT exerts rapid therapeutic benefit from the mechanisms driving adverse effects could enable the development of the next generation of seizure therapies that lack the downside of ECT. The latest research suggests that this goal may be attainable because modifications of ECT technique have already yielded improvements in cognitive outcomes without sacrificing efficacy. These modifications involve changes in how the electricity is administered (both where in the brain, and how much), which in turn impacts the characteristics of the resulting seizure. What we do not completely understand is whether it is the changes in the applied electricity, or in the resulting seizure, or both, that are responsible for improved safety. Answering this question may be key to developing the next generation of seizure therapies that lack these adverse side effects, and ushering in novel interventions that are better, faster, and safer than ECT.

Reviewing the neurobiology of electroconvulsive therapy on a micro- meso- and macro-level

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) remains the one of the most effective of biological antidepressant interventions. However, the exact neurobiological mechanisms underlying the efficacy of ECT remain unclear. A gap in the literature is the lack of multimodal research that attempts to integrate findings at different biological levels of analysis METHODS: We searched the PubMed database for relevant studies. We review biological studies of ECT in depression on a micro- (molecular), meso- (structural) and macro- (network) level.

RESULTS

ECT impacts both peripheral and central inflammatory processes, triggers neuroplastic mechanisms and modulates large scale neural network connectivity.

CONCLUSIONS

Integrating this vast body of existing evidence, we are tempted to speculate that ECT may have neuroplastic effects resulting in the modulation of connectivity between and among specific large-scale networks that are altered in depression. These effects could be mediated by the immunomodulatory properties of the treatment. A better understanding of the complex interactions between the micro-, meso- and macro- level might further specify the mechanisms of action of ECT.

Remote targeted electrical stimulation

Objective:The ability to generate electric fields in specific targets remotely would transform manipulations of processes that rest on electrical signaling.Approach:This article shows that focal electric fields are generated from distance by combining two orthogonal, remotely applied energies-magnetic and focused ultrasonic fields. The effect derives from the Lorentz force equation applied to magnetic and ultrasonic fields.Main results:We elicited this effect using standard hardware and confirmed that the generated electric fields align with the Lorentz equation. The effect significantly and safely modulated human peripheral nerves and deep brain regions of non-human primates.Significance:This approach opens a new set of applications in which electric fields are generated at high spatiotemporal resolution within intact biological tissues or materials, thus circumventing the limitations of traditional electrode-based procedures.

Roles of prokineticin 2 in electroconvulsive shock-induced memory impairment via regulation of phenotype polarization in astrocytes

Electroconvulsive shock (ECT) is the most effective treatment for depression but can impair learning and memory. ECT is increasingly being shown to activate astrocytes and induce neuroinflammation, resulting in cognitive decline. Activated astrocytes can differentiate into two subtypes, A1-type astrocytes and A2-type astrocytes. Regarding cognitive function, neurotoxic A1 astrocytes and neuroprotective A2 astrocytes may exhibit opposite effects. Specifically, prokineticin 2 (PK2) functions as an essential mediator of inflammation and induces a selective A2-protective phenotype in astrocytes. This study aimed to clarify how PK2 promotes improved learning memory following electroconvulsive shock (ECS). As part of the study, rats were modeled using chronic unpredictable mild stress. Behavioral experiments were conducted to assess their cognitive abilities and depression-like behaviors. Western blot was used to determine the expression of PK2. Immunohistochemical and electron microscopy analyses of the hippocampal CA1 region were conducted to study the activation of astrocyte subtypes and synaptic ultrastructure, respectively. In this study, rats' spatial learning and memory impairment began to improve as activated A1-subtype astrocytes gradually decreased, and PK2 and A2 phenotype activation peaked on the third day after ECS. PKRA7 (PK2 antagonist) inhibits A2-type astrocyte activation partially and suppresses spatial learning and memory improvement. Collectively, our findings support that PK2 may induce a selective modulation of astrocytic polarization to a protective phenotype to promote learning and memory improvement after ECS.

Predictors of cognitive changes in patients with schizophrenia undergoing electroconvulsive therapy

INTRODUCTION

Previous studies on the effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on cognition in schizophrenia have been inconclusive. This study aimed to identify factors that may predict cognitive improvement or deterioration in patients with schizophrenia after-ECT.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder with predominantly positive psychotic symptoms, who were treated with ECT at the Institute of Mental Health (IMH), Singapore, between January 2016 and January 2018, were assessed. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS) and Global Assessment of Function (GAF) were performed before and after ECT. Patients with clinically significant improvement, deterioration or no change in MoCA scores were compared on demographics, concurrent clinical treatment and ECT parameters.

RESULTS

Of the 125 patients analysed, 57 (45.6%), 36 (28.8%) and 32 (25.6%) showed improvements, deterioration and no change in cognition respectively. Age and voluntary admission predicted MoCA deterioration. Lower pre-ECT MoCA and female sex predicted MoCA improvement. Patients showed improvements in GAF, BPRS and BPRS subscale scores on average, except for the MoCA deterioration group, who did not show statistically significant improvement in negative symptom scores. Sensitivity analysis showed that nearly half the patients (48.3%) who were initially unable to complete MoCA pre-ECT were able to complete MoCA post-ECT.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of patients with schizophrenia demonstrate improved cognition with ECT. Patients with poor cognition pre-ECT are more likely to see improvement post-ECT. Advanced age may be a risk factor for cognitive deterioration. Finally, improvements in cognition may be associated with improvements in negative symptoms.

Comparative efficacy, cognitive effects and acceptability of electroconvulsive therapies for the treatment of depression: protocol for a systematic review and network meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

There have been important advances in the use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) to treat major depressive episodes. These include variations to the type of stimulus the brain regions stimulated, and the stimulus parameters (eg, stimulus duration/pulse width). Our aim is to investigate ECT types using a network meta-analysis (NMA) approach and report on comparative treatment efficacy, cognitive side effects and acceptability.

METHOD

We will conduct a systematic review to identify randomised controlled trials that compared two or more ECT protocols to treat depression. This will be done using the following databases: Embase, MEDLINE PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, Cochrane CENTRAL and will be supplemented by personal contacts with researchers in the field. All authors will be contacted to provide missing information. Primary outcomes will be symptom severity on a validated continuous clinician-rated scale of depression, cognitive functioning measured using anterograde verbal recall, and acceptability calculated using all-cause drop-outs. Secondary outcomes will include response and remission rates, autobiographical memory following a course of ECT, and anterograde visuospatial recall.Bayesian random effects hierarchical models will compare ECT types. Additional meta-regressions may be conducted to determine the impact of effect modifiers and patient-specific prognostic factors if sufficient data are available.

DISCUSSION

This NMA will facilitate clinician decision making and allow more sophisticated selection of ECT type according to the balance of efficacy, cognitive side effects and acceptability.

ETHICS

This systematic review and NMA does not require research ethics approval as it will use published aggregate data and will not collect nor disclose individually identifiable participant data.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42022357098.

Cognitive trajectories during and after electroconvulsive therapy in patients with MDE: Taking different perspectives

Cognitive function during an ECT care pathway is mainly investigated at the group level by analyzing mean cognitive test scores over time. However, there are important inter-individual differences, with some patients experiencing residual invalidating cognitive deficits. This study provides a nuanced examination of cognitive functioning during and after ECT by combining three approaches for data analysis. A cognitive test battery was assessed in seventy-three ECT-treated patients with a Major Depressive Episode (MDE) at up to five time points (baseline, immediately prior to the third session and 1 week, 3 months and 6 months after completion of the index course). Group-level changes in cognitive function were investigated using linear mixed models and individual-level changes were examined using Reliable Change Indices (RCI). The presence of patient subgroups with similar cognitive trajectories was explored using Latent Class Growth Analysis (LCGA). At the group level, there was a temporary deterioration in processing speed, verbal memory and retrograde amnesia during and after index course of ECT. Individual-level analyses revealed considerable variability in cognitive effects of ECT. Three patient classes with a similar cognitive trajectory could be identified, all with a rather parallel courses over time, thus mainly differing in terms of pre-ECT cognitive functioning.

The efficacy and safety of esketamine in the treatment of major depressive disorder with suicidal ideation: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a high risk factor for suicide, with up to 20% of MDD patients attempting suicide during their lifetime. Current treatments for MDD are slow onset of action, low efficiency, and the inability to control suicidal behaviors quickly and effectively. Intravenous ketamine has been shown to have a rapid but transient antidepressant effect, but there is still lack evidence on the efficacy and safety of intravenous esketamine in reducing suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in MDD patients with suicidal ideation. We designed a study to investigate the effect of short-term repeated intravenous infusion of esketamine three times in MDD patients with suicidal ideation.

METHODS

This study features a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (RCT) comparing short-term repeated intravenous infusions of esketamine with placebo as a supplement to conventional antidepressants with an intervention period of 6 days and one infusion every other day, followed by 4 weeks of follow-up. These methods support the examination of the efficacy, safety, tolerability, and mechanism of action of short-term repeated intravenous infusions of esketamine in MDD patients with suicidal ideation.

DISCUSSION

This is the first RCT to explore the efficacy and safety of short-term repeated infusion of esketamine on suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in MDD patients with suicidal ideation. If proven effective and tolerated, it will provide evidence for rapid and effective treatment of suicidal ideation and depressive symptoms in MDD individuals with suicidal ideation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Trial Register, ChiCTR2000041232 . Registered 22 December 2020.

The Efficacy and Tolerability of Electroconvulsive Therapy in Psychiatric Patients with Arachnoid Cysts: A Retrospective Chart Study

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective therapy for many psychiatric illnesses. However, intracranial occupying lesions are a relative contraindication to ECT. Arachnoid cysts are benign, congenital, and space-occupying lesions. Our study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of ECT in psychiatric patients with arachnoid cysts. We retrospectively identified 62 psychiatric patients with arachnoid cysts; 43 of them underwent ECT and 19 did not. Their conditions were assessed by CGI-S and different scales depending on different diagnoses (PANSS for schizophrenia; HAMD for depression; YMRS for bipolar disorder). The side effect was assessed by TESS. Significant differences were shown in the reduced scores of the CGI-S between patients who underwent ECT and those who did not (p = 0.001), while, at the same time, there was no significant difference in their TESS score (p = 0.297). The current study found that ECT is an effective and tolerable therapy for psychiatric patients with arachnoid cysts.

Effectiveness of Non-Pharmacological Interventions for Agitation during Post-Traumatic Amnesia following Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review

Agitation is common in the early recovery period following traumatic brain injury (TBI), known as post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). Non-pharmacological interventions are frequently used to manage agitation, yet their efficacy is largely unknown. This systematic review aims to synthesize current evidence on the effectiveness of non-pharmacological interventions for agitation during PTA in adults with TBI. Key databases searched included MEDLINE Ovid SP interface, PubMed, CINAHL, Excerpta Medica Database, PsycINFO and CENTRAL, with additional online reviewing of key journals and clinical trial registries to identify published or unpublished studies up to May 2020. Eligible studies included participants aged 16 years and older, showing agitated behaviours during PTA. Any non-pharmacological interventions for reducing agitation were considered, with any comparator accepted. Eligible studies were critically appraised for methodological quality using Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Instruments and findings were reported in narrative form. Twelve studies were included in the review: two randomized cross-over trials, three quasi-experimental studies, four cases series and three case reports. Non-pharmacological interventions were music therapy, behavioural strategies and environmental modifications, physical restraints and electroconvulsive therapy. Key methodological concerns included absence of a control group, a lack of formalised agitation measurement and inconsistent concomitant use of pharmacology. Interventions involving music therapy had the highest level of evidence, although study quality was generally low to moderate. Further research is needed to evaluate non-pharmacological interventions for reducing agitation during PTA after TBI.Systematic review registration number: PROSPERO (CRD42020186802), registered May 2020.

Effectiveness of Non-Pharmacological Interventions for Agitation during Post-Traumatic Amnesia following Traumatic Brain Injury: A Systematic Review

Agitation is common in the early recovery period following traumatic brain injury (TBI), known as post-traumatic amnesia (PTA). Non-pharmacological interventions are frequently used to manage agitation, yet their efficacy is largely unknown. This systematic review aims to synthesize current evidence on the effectiveness of non-pharmacological interventions for agitation during PTA in adults with TBI. Key databases searched included MEDLINE Ovid SP interface, PubMed, CINAHL, Excerpta Medica Database, PsycINFO and CENTRAL, with additional online reviewing of key journals and clinical trial registries to identify published or unpublished studies up to May 2020. Eligible studies included participants aged 16 years and older, showing agitated behaviours during PTA. Any non-pharmacological interventions for reducing agitation were considered, with any comparator accepted. Eligible studies were critically appraised for methodological quality using Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Instruments and findings were reported in narrative form. Twelve studies were included in the review: two randomized cross-over trials, three quasi-experimental studies, four cases series and three case reports. Non-pharmacological interventions were music therapy, behavioural strategies and environmental modifications, physical restraints and electroconvulsive therapy. Key methodological concerns included absence of a control group, a lack of formalised agitation measurement and inconsistent concomitant use of pharmacology. Interventions involving music therapy had the highest level of evidence, although study quality was generally low to moderate. Further research is needed to evaluate non-pharmacological interventions for reducing agitation during PTA after TBI.

Systematic review registration number: PROSPERO (CRD42020186802), registered May 2020.

Whole-Brain Functional Connectivity Dynamics Associated With Electroconvulsive Therapy Treatment Response

BACKGROUND

Depressive episodes (DEPs), characterized by abnormalities in cognitive functions and mood, are a leading cause of disability. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), which involves a brief electrical stimulation of the anesthetized brain, is one of the most effective treatments used in patients with DEP due to its rapid efficacy.

METHODS

In this work, we investigated how dynamic brain functional connectivity responds to ECT and whether the dynamic responses are associated with treatment outcomes and side effects in patients. We applied a fully automated independent component analysis-based pipeline to 110 patients with DEP (including diagnosis of unipolar depression or bipolar depression) and 60 healthy control subjects. The dynamic functional connectivity was analyzed by a combination of the sliding window approach and clustering analysis.

RESULTS

Five recurring connectivity states were identified, and patients with DEPs had fewer occurrences in one brain state (state 1) with strong positive and negative connectivity. Patients with DEP changed the occupancy of two states (states 3 and 4) after ECT, resulting in significantly different occurrences of one additional state (state 3) compared with healthy control subjects. We further found that patients with DEP had diminished global metastate dynamism, two of which recovered to normal after ECT. The changes in dynamic connectivity characteristics were associated with the changes in memory recall and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale of DEP after ECT.

CONCLUSIONS

These converging results extend current findings on subcortical-cortical dysfunction and dysrhythmia in DEP and demonstrate that ECT might cause remodeling of brain functional dynamics that enhance the neuroplasticity of the diseased brain.

A Systematic Review on Cognitive Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy in Asian Patients

Objective

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most efficacious treatment for many major mental illnesses but is limited by cognitive side effects. However, research on the pattern and severity of ECT-related cognitive side effects is inconsistent. Furthermore, little is known about the cognitive effects of ECT in Asian populations. A systematic review was conducted to examine objective cognitive performance following ECT in the Asian context.

Methods

This review systematically identified studies assessing ECT-related cognitive effects in PubMED, PsychINFO, The Cochrane Library, Journal of ECT and major databases in Asian countries. The search included publications from peer-reviewed journals of languages other than English.

Results

A total of 6,322 studies were identified; 823 were assessed for eligibility, of which 16 studies met the search criteria and were included in this review. Majority used high dose Bitemporal ECT for Depression and/or Schizophrenia. Cognitive impairment, which could occur immediate to the first ECT session, was reported in only 9 out of the 16 studies. However, deficits were observed to resolve as early as 3 weeks after the initiation of ECT. The remaining studies reported no impairment or even improvement after ECT.

Conclusion

There is no consistent evidence that suggests ECT causes cognitive deficits in patients, despite the widespread use of high dose Bitemporal ECT. This review suggests that Asian patients, presenting with a different psychiatric profile, may respond to high-dose Bitemporal ECT differently from Western samples.

Inflammatory Markers May Inform the Effects of Electroconvulsive Therapy on Cognition in Patients with Depression

INTRODUCTION

The neurobiological mechanisms underlying the acute cognitive effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) remain poorly understood. Prior research has shown that proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β, and IL-10 may interfere with cognitive functioning. Interestingly, immunomodulation is one of the proposed modes of action of ECT. This study investigates whether changes of peripheral levels of IL-6, TNF-α, IL1-β, and IL-10 are related to changes in cognitive functioning following ECT.

METHODS

In the week before and 1 week after an acute course of ECT, 62 patients suffering from depression underwent a neuropsychological evaluation to assess their processing speed using the Symbol Digit Substitution Test (SDST), verbal episodic memory using the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R), and their retrospective autobiographic memory using the Autobiographical Memory Interview (AMI) with the peripheral inflammatory markers being measured at the same 2 time points.

RESULTS

Patients improved drastically following ECT, while their main performance on both the HVLT-R and AMI declined and their SDST scores remained stable. The levels of IL-6 and IL1-β had both decreased, where the decrease in IL-6 was related to the decrease in HVLT-R scores. Higher baseline IL-10 levels were associated with a more limited decrease of the HVLT-R scores.

CONCLUSION

Our findings tentatively suggest that the effects of ECT on verbal episodic memory may be related to the treatment's immunomodulatory properties, most notably due to decreased IL-6 levels. Moreover, baseline IL-10 appears to be a potential biomarker to predict the effects of ECT on verbal episodic memory. Whilst compelling, the results of this study should be interpreted with caution as, due to its exploratory nature, no correction for multiple comparisons was made. Further, a replication in larger cohorts is warranted.

Rivastigmine for ECT-induced cognitive adverse effects in late life depression (RECALL study): A multicenter, randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial in patients with depression aged 55 years or older: Rationale, objectives and methods

BACKGROUND

Cognitive side-effects are an important reason for the limited use of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Cognitive side-effects are heterogeneous and occur frequently in older persons. To date, insight into these side-effects is hampered due to inconsistencies in study designs and small sample sizes. Among all cognitive side-effects, confusion and delirious states are especially troublesome for patients, relatives and clinicians. In particular inter-ictal delirium-like states are worrisome, since they may lead to premature treatment discontinuation. Besides a need for further insight into determinants of cognitive side-effects of ECT, there is a great need for treatment options.

METHODS AND DESIGN

The Rivastigmine for ECT-induced Cognitive Adverse effects in Late Life depression (RECALL) study combines a multicenter, prospective cohort study on older patients with depression, treated with ECT, with an embedded randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over trial to examine the effect of rivastigmine on inter-ictal delirium. Patients are recruited in four centers across the Netherlands and Belgium. We aim to include 150 patients into the cohort study, in order to be able to subsequently include 30 patients into the trial. Patients are included in the trial when inter-ictal delirium, assessed by the Confusion Assessment method (CAM), or a drop in Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of ≥4 during ECT, develops. In the cohort study, comprehensive measurements of ECT-related cognitive side-effects-and their putative determinants-are done at baseline and during the ECT-course. The primary outcome of the clinical trial is the effectiveness of rivastigmine on inter-ictal delirium-severity, assessed with a change in the Delirium Rating Scale-Revised-98. Secondary outcomes of the clinical trial are several ECT-characteristics and side-effects of rivastigmine.

DISCUSSION

This study is the first clinical trial with a focus on ECT-induced, inter-ictal delirium. The cohort provides the basis for recruitment of patients for the cross-over trial and additionally provides an excellent opportunity to unravel cognitive side-effects of ECT and identify putative determinants. This paper describes the rationale and study protocol.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

EudraCT 2014-003385-24.

High-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation alleviates the cognitive side effects of electroconvulsive therapy in major depression

OBJECTIVE

The retrospective study aimed to explore the difference in mood outcomes and cognitive function between high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (HF-rTMS) over dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and electroconvulsive therapy in major depression disorder (MDD) patients and to examine the improvement of HF-rTMS on cognitive impairment evoked by electroconvulsive therapy (ECT).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 116 participants with MDD, who completed a 4-week follow-up assessment, were enrolled. The cohort consisted of 26 cases classed as control, 46 participants administrated with HF-rTMS (HF-rTMS group), 22 patients treated with ECT (ECT group), and 23 cases treated with HF-rTMS and ECT at the course of hospitalization (HF-rTMS + ECT group). Medication was kept constant as well in all participants. The 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating Scale for Depression (HAMD-17) and 14-item Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAMA-14) were used to assess depression and anxiety, respectively. Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) was to elevate cognitive function.

RESULTS

No statistical significance was found for baseline in sociodemographic, characteristics of depression, anxiety and cognition, and psychopharmaceutic dosages among control, HF-rTMS, ECT, and HF-rTMS + ECT groups (p > 0.05). Compared with baseline level, total scores of HAMD-17 and HAMA-14 significantly decreased at the end of 4 weeks after treatment (p < 0.001). Furthermore, the decline in scores of HAMD-17 and its sleep disorder and retardation factors from baseline to post-treatment was greater in HF-rTMS, ECT, and HF-rTMS + ECT group than in control (p < 0.05), and there was a significant difference between control and HF-rTMS group in the decline of psychological factor of HAMA-14 (p < 0.01). ECT treatment evoked total score of MoCA to decrease significantly at the end of 4-week after intervention (p < 0.001), and the decline in scores of MoCA and its delayed recall and language performances from baseline to post-treatment was greater in ECT than control, HF-rTMS, and HF-rTMS + ECT (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

High-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation improved psychological anxiety and ameliorated the cognition impairment evoked by ECT though it had the same anti-depressant efficacy as ECT.

Transient Cognitive Impairment and White Matter Hyperintensities in Severely Depressed Older Patients Treated With Electroconvulsive Therapy

BACKGROUND

Although electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is a safe and effective treatment for patients with severe late life depression (LLD), transient cognitive impairment can be a reason to discontinue the treatment. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the association between structural brain characteristics and general cognitive function during and after ECT.

METHODS

A total of 80 patients with LLD from the prospective naturalistic follow-up Mood Disorders in Elderly treated with Electroconvulsive Therapy study were examined. Magnetic resonance imaging scans were acquired before ECT. Overall brain morphology (white and grey matter) was evaluated using visual rating scales. Cognitive functioning before, during, and after ECT was measured using the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). A linear mixed-model analysis was performed to analyze the association between structural brain alterations and cognitive functioning over time.

RESULTS

Patients with moderate to severe white matter hyperintensities (WMH) showed significantly lower MMSE scores than patients without severe WMH (F(1,75.54) = 5.42, p = 0.02) before, during, and post-ECT, however their trajectory of cognitive functioning was similar as no time × WMH interaction effect was observed (F(4,65.85) = 1.9, p = 0.25). Transient cognitive impairment was not associated with medial temporal or global cortical atrophy (MTA, GCA).

CONCLUSION

All patients showed a significant drop in cognitive functioning during ECT, which however recovered above baseline levels post-ECT and remained stable until at least 6 months post-ECT, independently of severity of WMH, GCA, or MTA. Therefore, clinicians should not be reluctant to start or continue ECT in patients with severe structural brain alterations.

ECT-induced cognitive side effects are associated with hippocampal enlargement

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is of the most effective treatments available for treatment-resistant depression, yet it is underutilized in part due to its reputation of causing cognitive side effects in a significant number of patients. Despite intensive neuroimaging research on ECT in the past two decades, the underlying neurobiological correlates of cognitive side effects remain elusive. Because the primary ECT-related cognitive deficit is memory impairment, it has been suggested that the hippocampus may play a crucial role. In the current study, we investigated 29 subjects with longitudinal MRI and detailed neuropsychological testing in two independent cohorts (N = 15/14) to test if volume changes were associated with cognitive side effects. The two cohorts underwent somewhat different ECT study protocols reflected in electrode placements and the number of treatments. We used longitudinal freesurfer algorithms (6.0) to obtain a bias-free estimate of volume changes in the hippocampus and tested its relationship with neurocognitive score changes. As an exploratory analysis and to evaluate how specific the effects were to the hippocampus, we also calculated this relationship in 41 other areas. In addition, we also analyzed cognitive data from a group of healthy volunteers (N = 29) to assess practice effects. Our results supported the hypothesis that hippocampus enlargement was associated with worse cognitive outcomes, and this result was generalizable across two independent cohorts with different diagnoses, different electrode placements, and a different number of ECT sessions. We found, in both cohorts, that treatment robustly increased the volume size of the hippocampus (Cohort 1: t = 5.07, Cohort 2: t = 4.82; p < 0.001), and the volume increase correlated with the neurocognitive T-score change. (Cohort 1: r = -0.68, p = 0.005; Cohort 2: r = -0.58; p = 0.04). Overall, our research indicates that novel treatment methods serving to avoid hippocampal volume increase may result in a better side effect profile.

Effects of N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIα (CaMKIIα) on learning and memory impairment in depressed rats with different charge by modified electroconvulsive shock

Background

With the development of modified electroshock therapy (MECT), it has become necessary to increase the electric quantity in order to achieve a good antidepressant effect, but this increase will lead to more serious learning and memory impairment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the intrinsic mechanism of cognitive impairment induced by high-energy electroconvulsive shock (MECS, an animal model of MECT).

Methods

Rats were randomly divided into 6 groups: control (C, n=6), M0, M60, M120, M180, and M240 groups (MECS at 0, 60, 120, 180, and 240 mC stimulation intensity after 80 mg/kg propofol, with 12 rats in each group). Their depression-like behavior and learning and memory ability were evaluated by sucrose preference test (SPT), open field test (OFT), and Morris water maze test (MWM). The expression of phospho-NMDA receptor 1 (GluN1), GluN2A, GluN2B, Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase IIα (CaMKIIα), p-T305-CaMKII, and postsynaptic densities-95 (PSD-95) in hippocampus were detected by western blot. The co-expression of CaMKIIα and GluN2B subunit was detected by co-immunoprecipitation (CO-IP).

Results

The chronic unpredictable mild stresses (CUMS) procedure successfully induced depression-like behavior in rats, which was improved in varying degrees after MECS. The results showed that the expression of GluN1, GluN2A, GluN2B, and PSD-95 decreased with the increase of charge, while p-T305-CaMKII increased, which led to the deterioration of learning and memory ability, but the expression change of CaMKIIα was not statistically significant.

Conclusions

Increase in the MECS charge adjusts the synaptic plasticity by changing the binding amount of CaMKIIα and its subunit GluN2B and the level of CaMKII autophosphorylation, thereby impairing learning and memory functions.

The effect of electroconvulsive therapy on neuroinflammation, behavior and amyloid plaques in the 5xFAD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Microglial cells are affected in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and interact with amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaques. Apart from memory loss, depression is common in patients with AD. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an anti-depressive treatment that may stimulate microglia, induce neuroinflammation and alter the levels of soluble Aβ, but the effects of ECT on microglia and Aβ aggregation in AD are not known. We investigated the short- and long-term effects of ECT on neuroinflammation and Aβ accumulation. 5xFAD mice received either electroconvulsive stimulation (ECS n = 26) or sham treatment (n = 25) for 3 weeks. Microglia and Aβ were analyzed in samples collected 24 h, 5 weeks, or 9 weeks after the last treatment. Aβ plaques and microglia were quantified using immunohistochemistry. The concentration of soluble Aβ and cytokines was quantified using ELISA and levels of Aβ aggregates were measured with Western Blot. Microglial phagocytosis of Aβ in the hippocampus was evaluated by flow cytometry in Methoxy-X04 injected mice 24 h following the last ECS treatment. Y-maze and Elevated plus maze were performed to study behavior after 5 weeks. We could not detect any significant short- or long-term effects of ECS on Aβ pathology or neuroinflammation, but ECS reduced abnormal behavior in the Elevated Plus maze.

Electroconvulsive therapy related autobiographical amnesia: a review and case report

Introduction: While short-term cognitive impairment following electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is well described and acknowledged, the relationship between ECT and persistent memory impairment, particularly of autobiographical memory, has been controversial. Methods: We describe the case of a 70-year-old consultant neurophysiologist, AW, who developed prominent, selective autobiographical memory loss following two courses of ECT for treatment-resistant depression. Results: His performance on standard measures of IQ, semantic and episodic memory, executive function and mood was normal, while he performed significantly below controls on measures of episodic autobiographical memory. Conclusions: Explanations in terms of mood-related memory loss and somatoform disorder appear unlikely. We relate AW's autobiographical memory impairment, following his ECT, to reports of similar autobiographical memory impairment occurring in the context of epilepsy, and emphasise the importance of using sensitive approaches to AbM assessment.

Hippocampal volume and memory impairment after electroconvulsive therapy in patients with depression

OBJECTIVE

Patients hesitate to consent to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) because of the fear of memory impairment. The mechanisms underlying this impairment are unclear, but several observations suggest hippocampal alterations may be involved. We investigated whether ECT-induced change in hippocampal volume correlates with memory impairment.

METHODS

Using a 3 T MRI scanner, we acquired brain images and assessed cognitive performance in 22 severely depressed patients at three time points: (1) before ECT series, (2) within one week after the series, and (3) at six-month follow-up. The hippocampus was segmented into subregions using FreeSurfer. The dentate gyri (DG) were the primary regions of interest (ROIs) and major hippocampal subregions secondary ROIs. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Screen for Cognitive Impairment in Psychiatry and verbal memory using the Verbal Learning subtest. The linear mixed model and the repeated-measures correlation were used for statistical analyses.

RESULTS

ECT induced an increase in the right and left DG volume with co-occurring worsening in verbal memory, and these changes were within-patients negatively correlated (right DG, r_rm  = -0.85, df = 18, p = 0.0000002; left DG, r_rm  = -0.58, df = 18, p = 0.008). At a six-month follow-up, the volume of both DG decreased with a co-occurring improvement in verbal memory, and these changes were negatively correlated in the right DG (r_rm  = -0.64, df = 15, p = 0.005). Volume increases in 14 secondary ROIs were also negatively correlated with memory impairment.

CONCLUSION

ECT-related transient increases in the volume of major hippocampal subregions within-patients are associated with memory impairment. Hippocampal alterations following ECT should be the focus in searching for causes of the cognitive side effects.

A Comparison of Computerized Versus Pen-and-Paper Cognitive Tests for Monitoring Electroconvulsive Therapy-Related Cognitive Side Effects

OBJECTIVE

Cognitive side effects are a common unintended outcome of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Routine cognitive assessment is important for monitoring patient outcomes, although it can pose challenges in busy clinical settings. Computerized cognitive testing has advantages that can facilitate routine monitoring. This study explored the construct and criterion validity of computerized cognitive testing compared with standard pen-and-paper tests for monitoring cognition in ECT patients.

METHODS

The study included 24 participants with major depression who received an acute course of ECT. Cognition was assessed at pretreatment and at posttreatment with 3 computerized tests from the CogState battery (International Shopping List task, One-Card Learning, and One-Back Task) and 3 conceptually matched pen-and-paper-administered neuropsychological tests.

RESULTS

At pretreatment, only performance on the computer-administered test of verbal anterograde memory (International Shopping List task) was significantly correlated with the analogous pen-and-paper measure, whereas the other computerized tests were not. Of the computerized measures, only the International Shopping List task showed significant changes from pretreatment to posttreatment (P < 0.01, Cohen d > 1.0). In contrast, all the pen-and-paper-administered tests showed significant changes from pretreatment to posttreatment (P < 0.01, Cohen d range, 0.8-1.2). Pretreatment to posttreatment cognitive changes on the computerized measures were not correlated with changes on the pen-and-paper-administered tests.

CONCLUSION

Construct and criterion validity and tolerability varied between the computerized measures. The results highlighted potentially important issues related to the interpretation and utility of computerized tests in this patient population.

Cognitive change after electroconvulsive therapy in mood disorders measured with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment

OBJECTIVE

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is a sensitive and clinically practical test but its usefulness in measuring long-term cognitive effects of ECT is unclear. Using the MoCA, we investigated short- and long-term global cognitive change in ECT-treated patients with a Major Depressive Episode (MDE).

METHOD

We included 65 consecutive ECT-treated patients with MDE, in whom global cognitive functioning was assessed at baseline (T0); during ECT (before the third session; T1); and 1 week (T2), 3 months (T3), and 6 months (T4) after completion of the index course. Changes in MoCA (sub)scores were analyzed using linear mixed models and reliable change indices were computed to investigate individual changes in MoCA total scores.

RESULTS

There was a significant effect of time on MoCA scores (F(4, 230.5) = 4.14, P = 0.003), with an improvement in global cognitive functioning from T3 compared to T1 and T2. At the individual level, 26% (n = 17) of patients showed a significantly worse cognitive functioning at T2 and 12% (n = 8) an improved cognitive functioning compared to T0. For T4, these percentages ameliorated to 8% and 18% respectively.

CONCLUSION

No persistent global cognitive impairment induced by ECT was found at the group level using the MoCA. At the individual level, however, there was clear heterogeneity in the effects of ECT on cognitive functioning. The MoCA is a suitable tool to monitor short- and long-term global cognitive functioning in ECT-treated patients with MDE but in younger patients, potential ceiling effects must be taken into account.

Brief cognitive screening instruments for electroconvulsive therapy: Which one should I use?

OBJECTIVES

To review brief cognitive screening instruments for routine clinical monitoring in electroconvulsive therapy.

METHODS

Brief cognitive screening instruments specifically developed for electroconvulsive therapy and commonly used brief generalised cognitive screening instruments were reviewed with relative advantages and disadvantages highlighted.

RESULTS

Several brief cognitive screening tests designed for use in electroconvulsive therapy have been found sensitive for monitoring electroconvulsive therapy-related cognitive side effects. The choice of a brief generalised cognitive screening instrument for use in an electroconvulsive therapy clinical context comes with several pertinent considerations.

CONCLUSION

Electroconvulsive therapy is a highly effective treatment for pharmacoresistant and severe neuropsychiatric illness although cognitive side effects can be a barrier for treatment. Routine monitoring using brief cognitive screening instruments has advantages in busy clinical settings and can assist with optimising patient outcomes. More detailed neuropsychological assessment is recommended if the results from brief cognitive screening raise concerns.

Precision non-implantable neuromodulation therapies: a perspective for the depressed brain

Current first-line treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD) include pharmacotherapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, one-third of depressed patients do not achieve remission after multiple medication trials, and psychotherapy can be costly and time-consuming. Although non-implantable neuromodulation (NIN) techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation, electroconvulsive therapy, and magnetic seizure therapy are gaining momentum for treating MDD, the efficacy of non-convulsive techniques is still modest, whereas use of convulsive modalities is limited by their cognitive side effects. In this context, we propose that NIN techniques could benefit from a precision-oriented approach. In this review, we discuss the challenges and opportunities in implementing such a framework, focusing on enhancing NIN effects via a combination of individualized cognitive interventions, using closed-loop approaches, identifying multimodal biomarkers, using computer electric field modeling to guide targeting and quantify dosage, and using machine learning algorithms to integrate data collected at multiple biological levels and identify clinical responders. Though promising, this framework is currently limited, as previous studies have employed small samples and did not sufficiently explore pathophysiological mechanisms associated with NIN response and side effects. Moreover, cost-effectiveness analyses have not been performed. Nevertheless, further advancements in clinical trials of NIN could shift the field toward a more “precision-oriented” practice.

Feasibility of the Audio Recorded Cognitive Screen in the Assessment of Individuals Undergoing Electroconvulsive Therapy

BACKGROUND

Monitoring for cognitive deficits during a course of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is recommended, but cognitive assessment can be time consuming. The Audio Recorded Cognitive Screen (ARCS) is a cognitive test instrument with good psychometric properties that places minimal demands on clinicians' time, but until now, it has not been formally evaluated for monitoring cognition in the context of ECT treatment.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to assess the feasibility/utility of using the ARCS in the assessment of depressed patients undergoing ECT.

METHODS

Depressed patients undergoing ECT were tested with the ARCS and a comparison instrument, the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS), in counterbalance order immediately before any ECT and after the sixth ECT treatment episode. Apathy (Apathy Scale) and depression (Profile of Mood states Short Form) were measured on both occasions. Analyses compared performances on the 2 cognitive instruments and examined for associations with the measures of apathy or depression.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight individuals (9 male, 19 female) aged 19 to 84 years underwent testing. Performances on the total ARCS were similar to those on the total RBANS, and both showed decline from baseline to follow-up. The total ARCS and RBANS measures correlated well (r = 0.75, P < 0.001). Neither apathy nor depression scores were significantly associated with scores on either the RBANS or ARCS.

CONCLUSIONS

The ARCS was acceptable and convenient in the assessment of cognition in patients undergoing treatment with ECT. In light of its practical advantages, further evaluation of the ARCS for detecting cognitive impairment and tracking cognitive changes during ECT seems warranted.

Can psychomotor disturbance predict ect outcome in depression?

Psychomotor symptoms are core features of melancholic depression. This study investigates whether psychomotor disturbance predicts the outcome of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and how the treatment modulates psychomotor disturbance. In 73 adults suffering from major depressive disorder psychomotor functioning was evaluated before, during and after ECT using the observer-rated CORE measure and objective measures including accelerometry and a drawing task. Regression models were fitted to assess the predictive value of melancholic depression (CORE ≥ 8) and the psychomotor variables on ECT outcome, while effects on psychomotor functioning were evaluated through linear mixed models. Patients with CORE-defined melancholic depression (n = 41) had a 4.9 times greater chance of reaching response than those (n = 24) with non-melancholic depression (Chi-Square = 7.5, P = 0.006). At baseline, both higher total CORE scores (AUC = 0.76; P = 0.001) and needing more cognitive (AUC = 0.78; P = 0.001) and motor time (AUC = 0.76; P = 0.003) on the drawing task corresponded to superior ECT outcomes, as did lower daytime activity levels (AUC = 0.76) although not significantly so after Bonferroni correction for multiple testing. A greater CORE-score reduction in the first week of ECT was associated with higher ECT effectiveness. ECT reduced CORE-assessed psychomotor symptoms and improved activity levels only in those patients showing the severer baseline retardation. Although the sample was relatively small, psychomotor symptoms were clearly associated with beneficial outcome of ECT in patients with major depression, indicating that monitoring psychomotor deficits can help personalise treatment.

A Retrospective Study of Cognitive Improvement Following Electroconvulsive Therapy in Schizophrenia Inpatients

OBJECTIVES

Findings on the cognitive effect of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in individuals with schizophrenia have brought mixed results, with few recent studies beginning to report cognitive improvements after treatment. Cognitive change in inpatients with schizophrenia who were referred for an acute course of ECT was examined in the current study. Furthermore, the study aimed to determine the profile of patients who experience cognitive improvement and the potential use of a brief cognitive battery to detect this positive cognitive change, if any.

METHODS

Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) was conducted at baseline and posttreatment after 6 sessions of ECT. The Brief ECT Cognitive Screen was also administered to determine its predictive ability on cognitive gain of 2 points or higher in MoCA total scores for the 2 consecutive time points.

RESULTS

A total of 81 inpatients were included in the study. Retrospective analysis revealed significant improvements in MoCA total score and domains of visuospatial/executive function and attention. Cognitive improvement was more pronounced among those who had worse pre-MoCA score before ECT.

CONCLUSIONS

The study provided support to the existing literature where cognitive improvement has been reported among individuals with schizophrenia after ECT. Future studies should consider the use of randomized controlled trials to examine the possible cognitive benefits of ECT. In a setting where there is a high volume of patients receiving ECT, the monitoring of patients' cognitive status through the course of ECT continues to be warranted and the Brief ECT Cognitive Screen may be useful as a quick measure to detect such ECT-related cognitive change.

Immunotherapy in selected patients with Down syndrome disintegrative disorder

Down syndrome disintegrative disorder (DSDD) is an increasingly identified condition characterized by cognitive decline, autistic characteristics, insomnia, catatonia, and psychosis in adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome. Previously we reported a higher rate of autoimmune thyroid disease in these patients compared with unaffected individuals with Down syndrome. We therefore hypothesized DSDD may in some cases be immune-mediated. Here we report four cases of DSDD treated with immunotherapy. Families were interviewed retrospectively for symptoms of cognitive decline, autism, catatonia, psychosis, and insomnia before and after treatment, using established scales where possible. Medical records were reviewed for evaluations and treatment. All four patients received intravenous immunoglobulin with or without additional immunotherapy. Significant improvements were seen in catatonia, insomnia, autistic features, cognition, and psychosis. In this small case series of patients with autoimmunity, core symptoms of DSDD improved significantly after immunotherapy. This supports the hypothesis that, in some patients, DSDD is immune-mediated. Immunotherapy should be considered in the treatment of DSDD, particularly in patients with a history of autoimmunity. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: Immunotherapy may improve symptoms of catatonia, insomnia, autism severity, cognitive decline, and psychosis in Down syndrome disintegrative disorder.

Etomidate improves seizure adequacy during electroconvulsive therapy

The purpose of this study was to assess whether switching propofol to etomidate during an electroconvulsive therapy course improves seizure quality in convulsion-resistant patients. A retrospective study of paired cases included thirty-three patients. Seizure variables for each agent were assessed. A generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) for repeated measures was used for the analysis. Anesthesia with etomidate leads to greater seizure duration, improved seizure quality in the EEG register, and prevents further need for restimulation; although did not differ from propofol in the amount of energy delivered or in other automated parameters. These results suggest that this procedure appears to be an adequate strategy to improve seizure quality.

Cognitive effects of non-surgical brain stimulation for major depressive disorder: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Non-surgical brain stimulation techniques may be considered as alternative or add-on treatments for patients with major depressive disorder who failed to respond to pharmacological interventions. Electroconvulsive therapy has been shown to be highly effective in reducing depressive symptoms but stakeholders remain concerned about adverse cognitive effects. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation may be associated with more benign adverse effect profiles and may indeed improve certain cognitive functions such as memory and attention. To guide clinical decision-making, we will carry out a systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive effects of eight non-surgical brain stimulation techniques.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic literature search of the Embase, PubMed/MEDLINE and PsycINFO databases, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, ClinicalTrials.gov and OpenGrey will be performed. We will include both randomised clinical trials which report on at least one cognitive measure post treatment as well as non-randomised trials and pre-post intervention studies. There are no restrictions to the type of cognitive outcome measures, except that the tests are standardised and psychometrically validated. The Revised Cochrane tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials (RoB 2.0) will be used to evaluate included trials. Pre-post studies will be evaluated using the quality assessment tool developed by the US National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. Meta-analysis, meta-regression, subgroup and sensitivity analyses will be conducted where sufficient data are available.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

No ethical approval is needed to conduct this work. The findings will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed journals and presented at scientific meetings.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018118850.

Combining attentional bias modification with dorsolateral prefrontal rTMS does not attenuate maladaptive attentional processing

High frequency repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has been shown to reduce depressive symptoms and improve cognitive biases such as attentional bias. One promising technique that may complement rTMS treatment is attentional bias modification (ABM) training, given the similarity in modulating attentional bias and affecting neuronal activity. We tested whether the combination of rTMS treatment and ABM training in a single session would attenuate maladaptive attentional processing and improve mood in participants with subclinical depressive symptoms. To this end, 122 healthy participants were randomly assigned to one of four groups, receiving either a single rTMS treatment, a single ABM treatment, a combination of rTMS and ABM or a sham treatment. Of these 122 participants, 72 showed a heightened BDI-II score (between 9 and 25) and were included in our main analyses. In our subclinical (≥9 and ≤25 BDI-II) sample, a single combination treatment of rTMS and ABM training induced no significant changes in attentional bias, attentional control or mood, nor did rTMS alone affect attentional bias systematically. We discuss these null findings in light of the task specifics and relate them to the ongoing discussion on ABM training in depression.

One water-soluble polysaccharide from Ginkgo biloba leaves with antidepressant activities via modulation of the gut microbiome

By performing a pyrosequencing-based analysis of bacterial community, we detected that one Ginkgo biloba polysaccharide reversed depression-associated gut dysbiosis and increased the richness of Lactobacillus species which has been proven to be a path to relieve depression.

Long-term Sustained Cognitive Benefits of Vagus Nerve Stimulation in Refractory Depression

BACKGROUND

Treatment-resistant depression (TRD) is a serious chronic condition disabling patients functionally and cognitively. Chronic vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is recognized for the management of TRD, but few studies have examined its long-term effects on cognitive dysfunction in unipolar and bipolar resistant depression.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to assess the course of cognitive functions and clinical symptoms in a cohort of patients treated with VNS for TRD.

METHODS

In 14 TRD patients with VNS, standardized clinical and neuropsychological measures covering memory, attention/executive functions, and psychomotor speed were analyzed prestimulation and up to 2 years poststimulation.

RESULTS

Vagus nerve stimulation patients significantly improved on cognitive and clinical measures. Learning and memory improved rapidly after 1 month of stimulation, and other cognitive functions improved gradually over time. Cognitive improvements were sustained up to 2 years of treatment. At 1 month, improvement in Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale scores was not correlated with changes in any of the cognitive scores, whereas at 12 months, the change in Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale score was significantly correlated with several measures (Stroop interference, verbal fluency, and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure delayed recall).

CONCLUSIONS

In recent years, a growing interest in cognitive dysfunction in depression has emerged. Our results suggest that chronic VNS produces sustained clinical and cognitive improvements in TRD patients, with some mental functions improving as soon as 1 month after the initiation of the VNS therapy. Vagus nerve stimulation seems a very promising adjunctive therapy for TRD patients with cognitive impairment.

Cognitive functioning in patients treated with electroconvulsive therapy

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective treatment method for severe mental illnesses. ECT has gone through significant modernization. Side effects of ECT have largely decreased. Temporary disturbance of cognitive performance can be still present as a side effect of electroconvulsive treatment.

METHODS

Cognitive functioning in the sample of patients with severe and acute mental illness treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was assessed. Basic assessment of cognitive functions was applied in the beginning, in the middle, and at the end of ECT course treatment with the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Complex and detailed testing of cognitive functions using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was done at two points in time - within the first week of and then 6 weeks after the end of ECT.

RESULTS

Participants had cognitive deficits at baseline, which were most likely influenced markedly by the psychopathology of the illness itself. The improvement in cognition came together with the reduction in psychopathology; psychopathology scores were significantly reduced during ECT treatment. Compared to the baseline, all scores for cognitive testing were significantly improved but remained low in comparison with the controls. After 6 weeks, there was further significant improvement.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirm the safety and efficacy of ECT in the treatment of severe mental disorders.

Immediate and long-term effects of bilateral electroconvulsive therapy on cognitive functioning in patients with a depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is the most effective treatment for patients suffering from major depression. However, its use is limited due to concerns about negative effects on cognition. Unilateral ECT is associated with transient cognitive side-effects, while case-controlled studies investigating the effect of bilateral ECT on cognition remain scarce. We investigate the effects of bilateral ECT on cognition in depression in a longitudinal case-controlled study. We hypothesize that adverse cognitive effects of bilateral ECT are transient rather than long-term.

METHODS

A total of 48 depressed patients and 19 controls were included in the study and assessed with a battery of cognitive tests, including tests of: working memory, verbal fluency, visuospatial abilities, verbal/visual memory and learning, processing speed, inhibition, attention and task-switching, and premorbid IQ. Patients underwent three cognitive assessments: at baseline (n = 43), after ten ECT sessions (post-treatment; n = 39) and six months after the tenth ECT session (follow-up; n = 25). Healthy controls underwent the same cognitive assessment at baseline and after five-weeks.

RESULTS

Within the patient group, transient adverse cognitive side-effects were observed for verbal memory and learning, and verbal fluency. None of the cognitive domains tested in this study showed persisting impairments.

LIMITATIONS

A relatively high attrition rate is observed and autobiographical memory was not assessed.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that bilateral ECT has negative cognitive effects on short-term. These effects could be explained by a decrease in cognitive performance, a lack of learning effects or a combination. However, the decrease in cognitive functioning appears to recover after six months.

A novel concurrent TMS-fMRI method to reveal propagation patterns of prefrontal magnetic brain stimulation

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a severe mental disorder associated with high morbidity and mortality rates, which remains difficult to treat, as both resistance and recurrence rates are high. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) provides a safe and effective treatment for selected patients with treatment‐resistant MDD. Little is known about the mechanisms of action of TMS provided to the left DLPFC in MDD and we can currently not predict who will respond to this type of treatment, precluding effective patient selection. In order to shed some light on the mechanism of action, we applied single pulse TMS to the left DLPFC in 10 healthy participants using a unique TMS‐fMRI set‐up, in which we could record the direct effects of TMS. Stimulation of the DLPFC triggered activity in a number of connected brain regions, including the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sgACC) in four out of nine participants. The sgACC is of particular interest, because normalization of activity in this region has been associated with relief of depressive symptoms in MDD patients. This is the first direct evidence that TMS pulses delivered to the DLPFC can propagate to the sgACC. The propagation of TMS‐induced activity from the DLPFC to sgACC may be an accurate biomarker for rTMS efficacy. Further research is required to determine whether this method can contribute to the selection of patients with treatment resistant MDD who will respond to rTMS treatment.

A comparison between Right Unilateral Ultrabrief electroconvulsive therapy and bilateral electroconvulsive therapy in the elderly: a pilot naturalistic observational study

OBJECTIVES

To compare clinical outcomes and adverse effects between Bitemporal (BT) and Right Unilateral Ultrabrief (RUL(UB)) electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in an elderly population.

METHODS

Patients over the age of 65 years admitted to a tertiary referral hospital over a seven month period requiring ECT received RUL(UB) ECT. They were compared with those who received BT ECT over these and the preceding seven months.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients entered the study. No significant differences was observed between the groups in demographic and clinical characteristics or clinical improvement. However, patients who received BT ECT were significantly more likely to be confused post treatment compared with the RUL(UB) group.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study found RUL(UB) ECT to be an effective treatment in elderly patients. These patients also suffered significantly less confusion than patients who received BT ECT.

Study of memory changes after electroconvulsive therapy

BACKGROUND

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is said to have few adverse effects and among them, cognitive impairment is the most significant side effect limiting its use. However, recent studies have suggested it to be due to illness rather than due to ECT, hence a need to study the memory changes following ECT.

AIM

This study aimed to assess the memory changes following ECT and subsequent recovery in the short period of 4 weeks.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty consecutive first-episode cases of depression requiring ECT and scoring at least 27 on initial Mini-Mental State Examination were studied using Becks Depression Inventory and Wechsler Memory Scale III-Indian adaptation at baseline, after six ECTs, and 4 weeks after last ECT. Findings were analyzed using appropriate statistical methods.

RESULTS

Memory improved significantly after a course of six ECTs and further 4 weeks after the last ECT. Depression scores had dramatically reduced after a course of six ECTs. Significant correlation was found between baseline depression scores and baseline general (delayed) memory scores.

CONCLUSIONS

The memory changes seen after ECT were likely to be mediated by changes in depression. Probably, ECT had no deleterious effects on memory or its negative effects were more than balanced by the changes due to improvement of depression.

Decreased Cognitive Functioning After Electroconvulsive Therapy Is Related to Increased Hippocampal Volume: Exploring the Role of Brain Plasticity

OBJECTIVE

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is still the most effective treatment of severe and therapy-refractory major depressive disorder. Cognitive side effects are the major disadvantage of ECT. Cognitive deficits are generally temporary in nature and may be mediated by the hippocampus. Recent studies have shown a temporary increase in hippocampal volume and a temporary decrease in cognitive functioning post-ECT compared with pre-ECT. This study investigates whether these volumetric changes are related to changes in cognitive functioning after ECT.

METHODS

Nineteen medication-free patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder underwent a whole-brain magnetic resonance imaging scan and a neuropsychological examination (including the Rey auditory verbal learning task, Wechsler Memory Scale Visual Reproduction, fluency, Trail Making Task) within 1 week before and within 1 week after the course of ECT. Electroconvulsive therapy was administered twice a week bitemporally with a brief pulse. A matched healthy control group (n = 18) received the same neuropsychological examination and at a similar interval to that of the patients.

RESULTS

Hippocampal volumes increased significantly from pretreatment to posttreatment in patients. Mean performance on cognitive tasks declined, or remained stable, whereas performance in controls generally improved because of retesting effects. The increase in hippocampal volume was related to changes in cognitive performance, indicating that this increase co-occurred with a decrease in cognitive functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings tentatively suggest that the temporal increase in hippocampal volume after treatment, which may result from neurotrophic processes and is thought to be crucial for the antidepressive effect, is also related to the temporary cognitive side effects of ECT.