1
|
Ji X, Wang E, Cui Q. Deciphering gene contributions and etiologies of somatic mutational signatures of cancer. Brief Bioinform 2023; 24:6995381. [PMID: 36682004 DOI: 10.1093/bib/bbad017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Somatic mutational signatures (MSs) identified by genome sequencing play important roles in exploring the cause and development of cancer. Thus far, many such signatures have been identified, and some of them do imply causes of cancer. However, a major bottleneck is that we do not know the potential meanings (i.e. carcinogenesis or biological functions) and contributing genes for most of them. Here, we presented a computational framework, Gene Somatic Genome Pattern (GSGP), which can decipher the molecular mechanisms of the MSs. More importantly, it is the first time that the GSGP is able to process MSs from ribonucleic acid (RNA) sequencing, which greatly extended the applications of both MS analysis and RNA sequencing (RNAseq). As a result, GSGP analyses match consistently with previous reports and identify the etiologies for a number of novel signatures. Notably, we applied GSGP to RNAseq data and revealed an RNA-derived MS involved in deficient deoxyribonucleic acid mismatch repair and microsatellite instability in colorectal cancer. Researchers can perform customized GSGP analysis using the web tools or scripts we provide.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiangwen Ji
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| | - Edwin Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical Genetics, and Oncology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Qinghua Cui
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, School of Basic Medical Science, Peking University Health Science Center, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Silva MR, Gattás GJF, De Antonio J, Firigato I, Curioni OA, Gonçalves FDT. Polymorphisms of CHRNA3 and CHRNA5: Head and neck cancer and cigarette consumption intensity in a Brazilian population. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2019; 7:e998. [PMID: 31599127 PMCID: PMC6900374 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cigarette consumption has been identified as the main non‐etiological factor in head and neck cancer (HNC) development. One of the main compounds in cigarettes is nicotine, which binds directly to nicotine acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) in the body, which are encoded by different genes of the CHRNA family. Polymorphisms in some of these genes have been studied in relation to the risk of HNC and cigarette consumption intensity. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether there were associations between the CHRNA3 (rs578776) and CHRNA5 (rs16969968) polymorphisms and HNC risk and between the polymorphisms and the intensity of cigarette consumption. Methods A total of 1,067 individuals from Heliopolis Hospital in São Paulo were investigated, including 619 patients with HNC and 448 patients without diagnosed tumors. All participants answered a questionnaire about sociodemographic information and cigarette consumption data. The polymorphisms were determined by TaqMan genotyping by real‐time PCR. Results The polymorphisms studied, rs578776 (CHRNA3) and rs16969968 (CHRNA5), did not have an association with HNC risk, but the rs16969968 homozygous genotype was associated with increased cigarette consumption intensity (OR 1.93, 95% CI 1.05–3.58). Conclusion The polymorphism CHRNA5 can be considered an indirect risk factor for neoplasms in these Brazilian samples when cigarette consumption increased.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mariana R Silva
- Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ética Médica, Medicina Social e do Trabalho, Instituto Oscar Freire, LIM-40, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Gilka J F Gattás
- Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ética Médica, Medicina Social e do Trabalho, Instituto Oscar Freire, LIM-40, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Juliana De Antonio
- Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ética Médica, Medicina Social e do Trabalho, Instituto Oscar Freire, LIM-40, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Isabela Firigato
- Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ética Médica, Medicina Social e do Trabalho, Instituto Oscar Freire, LIM-40, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Otávio A Curioni
- Departamento de Cirurgia de Cabeça e Pescoço e Otorrinolaringologia, Hospital Heliópolis, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernanda de Toledo Gonçalves
- Departamento de Medicina Legal e Ética Médica, Medicina Social e do Trabalho, Instituto Oscar Freire, LIM-40, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW With the advent of the genome-wide association study (GWAS), our understanding of the genetics of addiction has made significant strides forward. Here, we summarize genetic loci containing variants identified at genome-wide statistical significance (P < 5 × 10-8) and independently replicated, review evidence of functional or regulatory effects for GWAS-identified variants, and outline multi-omics approaches to enhance discovery and characterize addiction loci. RECENT FINDINGS Replicable GWAS findings span 11 genetic loci for smoking, eight loci for alcohol, and two loci for illicit drugs combined and include missense functional variants and noncoding variants with regulatory effects in human brain tissues traditionally viewed as addiction-relevant (e.g., prefrontal cortex [PFC]) and, more recently, tissues often overlooked (e.g., cerebellum). GWAS analyses have discovered several novel, replicable variants contributing to addiction. Using larger sample sizes from harmonized datasets and new approaches to integrate GWAS with multiple 'omics data across human brain tissues holds great promise to significantly advance our understanding of the biology underlying addiction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana B Hancock
- Behavioral and Urban Health Program, Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Division, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, P. O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA.
| | - Christina A Markunas
- Behavioral and Urban Health Program, Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Division, RTI International, 3040 East Cornwallis Road, P. O. Box 12194, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Laura J Bierut
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Eric O Johnson
- Fellow Program and Behavioral Health and Criminal Justice Division, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yin X, Bizon C, Tilson J, Lin Y, Gizer IR, Ehlers CL, Wilhelmsen KC. Genome-wide meta-analysis identifies a novel susceptibility signal at CACNA2D3 for nicotine dependence. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2017; 174:557-567. [PMID: 28440896 PMCID: PMC5656555 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Nicotine dependence (ND) has a reported heritability of 40-70%. Low-coverage whole-genome sequencing was conducted in 1,889 samples from the UCSF Family study. Linear mixed models were used to conduct genome-wide association (GWA) tests of ND in this and five cohorts obtained from the database of Genotypes and Phenotypes. Fixed-effect meta-analysis was carried out separately for European (n = 14,713) and African (n = 3,369) participants, and then in a combined analysis of both ancestral groups. The meta-analysis of African participants identified a significant and novel susceptibility signal (rs56247223; p = 4.11 × 10-8 ). Data from the Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) study suggested the protective allele is associated with reduced mRNA expression of CACNA2D3 in three human brain tissues (p < 4.94 × 10-2 ). Sequence data from the UCSF Family study suggested that a rare nonsynonymous variant in this gene conferred increased risk for ND (p = 0.01) providing further support for CACNA2D3 involvement in ND. Suggestive associations were observed in six additional regions in both European and merged populations (p < 5.00 × 10-6 ). The top variants were found to regulate mRNA expression levels of genes in human brains using GTEx data (p < 0.05): HAX1 and CHRNB2 (rs1760803), ADAMTSL1 (rs17198023), PEX2 (rs12680810), GLIS3 (rs12348139), non-coding RNA for LINC00476 (rs10759883), and GABBR1 (rs56020557 and rs62392942). A gene-based association test further supported the relation between GABBR1 and ND (p = 6.36 × 10-7 ). These findings will inform the biological mechanisms and development of therapeutic targets for ND.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xianyong Yin
- Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, United States
| | - Chris Bizon
- Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, United States
| | - Jeffrey Tilson
- Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, United States
| | - Yuan Lin
- Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, United States
| | - Ian R. Gizer
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, United States
| | - Cindy L. Ehlers
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurosciences, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, United States
| | - Kirk C. Wilhelmsen
- Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, United States,Correspondence to: Kirk C. Wilhelmsen, MD, PhD, Department of Genetics, and Renaissance Computing Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 120 Mason Farm Road 5000 D, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7264, USA. Tel: 1-919-966-1373; Fax: 1-919-843-4682;
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Converging findings from linkage and association analyses on susceptibility genes for smoking and other addictions. Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:992-1008. [PMID: 27166759 PMCID: PMC4956568 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Experimental approaches to genetic studies of complex traits evolve with technological advances. How do discoveries using different approaches advance our knowledge of the genetic architecture underlying complex diseases/traits? Do most of the findings of newer techniques, such as genome-wide association study (GWAS), provide more information than older ones, for example, genome-wide linkage study? In this review, we address these issues by developing a nicotine dependence (ND) genetic susceptibility map based on the results obtained by the approaches commonly used in recent years, namely, genome-wide linkage, candidate gene association, GWAS and targeted sequencing. Converging and diverging results from these empirical approaches have elucidated a preliminary genetic architecture of this intractable psychiatric disorder and yielded new hypotheses on ND etiology. The insights we obtained by putting together results from diverse approaches can be applied to other complex diseases/traits. In sum, developing a genetic susceptibility map and keeping it updated are effective ways to keep track of what we know about a disease/trait and what the next steps may be with new approaches.
Collapse
|
6
|
Olfson E, Saccone NL, Johnson EO, Chen LS, Culverhouse R, Doheny K, Foltz SM, Fox L, Gogarten SM, Hartz S, Hetrick K, Laurie CC, Marosy B, Amin N, Arnett D, Barr RG, Bartz TM, Bertelsen S, Borecki IB, Brown MR, Chasman DI, van Duijn CM, Feitosa MF, Fox ER, Franceschini N, Franco OH, Grove ML, Guo X, Hofman A, Kardia SLR, Morrison AC, Musani SK, Psaty BM, Rao DC, Reiner AP, Rice K, Ridker PM, Rose LM, Schick UM, Schwander K, Uitterlinden AG, Vojinovic D, Wang JC, Ware EB, Wilson G, Yao J, Zhao W, Breslau N, Hatsukami D, Stitzel JA, Rice J, Goate A, Bierut LJ. Rare, low frequency and common coding variants in CHRNA5 and their contribution to nicotine dependence in European and African Americans. Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:601-7. [PMID: 26239294 PMCID: PMC4740321 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2015.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The common nonsynonymous variant rs16969968 in the α5 nicotinic receptor subunit gene (CHRNA5) is the strongest genetic risk factor for nicotine dependence in European Americans and contributes to risk in African Americans. To comprehensively examine whether other CHRNA5 coding variation influences nicotine dependence risk, we performed targeted sequencing on 1582 nicotine-dependent cases (Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence score⩾4) and 1238 non-dependent controls, with independent replication of common and low frequency variants using 12 studies with exome chip data. Nicotine dependence was examined using logistic regression with individual common variants (minor allele frequency (MAF)⩾0.05), aggregate low frequency variants (0.05>MAF⩾0.005) and aggregate rare variants (MAF<0.005). Meta-analysis of primary results was performed with replication studies containing 12 174 heavy and 11 290 light smokers. Next-generation sequencing with 180 × coverage identified 24 nonsynonymous variants and 2 frameshift deletions in CHRNA5, including 9 novel variants in the 2820 subjects. Meta-analysis confirmed the risk effect of the only common variant (rs16969968, European ancestry: odds ratio (OR)=1.3, P=3.5 × 10(-11); African ancestry: OR=1.3, P=0.01) and demonstrated that three low frequency variants contributed an independent risk (aggregate term, European ancestry: OR=1.3, P=0.005; African ancestry: OR=1.4, P=0.0006). The remaining 22 rare coding variants were associated with increased risk of nicotine dependence in the European American primary sample (OR=12.9, P=0.01) and in the same risk direction in African Americans (OR=1.5, P=0.37). Our results indicate that common, low frequency and rare CHRNA5 coding variants are independently associated with nicotine dependence risk. These newly identified variants likely influence the risk for smoking-related diseases such as lung cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Olfson
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - N L Saccone
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - E O Johnson
- Behavioral Health Epidemiology program, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - L-S Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - R Culverhouse
- Department of Medicine and Division of Biostatistics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - K Doheny
- Center for Inherited Disease Research, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - S M Foltz
- Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - L Fox
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - S M Gogarten
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - S Hartz
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - K Hetrick
- Center for Inherited Disease Research, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - C C Laurie
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - B Marosy
- Center for Inherited Disease Research, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - N Amin
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D Arnett
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - R G Barr
- Departments of Medicine and Epidemiology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - T M Bartz
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit, Departments of Medicine and Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - S Bertelsen
- Department of Neurosciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - I B Borecki
- Division of Statistical Genomics, Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - M R Brown
- Human Genetics Center, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - D I Chasman
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - C M van Duijn
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M F Feitosa
- Division of Statistical Genomics, Department of Genetics, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - E R Fox
- University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - N Franceschini
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - O H Franco
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M L Grove
- Human Genetics Center, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - X Guo
- Institute for Translational Genomics and Population Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, LABioMed at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - A Hofman
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S L R Kardia
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - A C Morrison
- Human Genetics Center, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - S K Musani
- University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - B M Psaty
- Cardiovascular Health Research Unit, Departments of Epidemiology, Medicine and Health Services, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Group Health Research Institute, Group Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - D C Rao
- Division of Biostatistics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - A P Reiner
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Public Health Sciences Division, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - K Rice
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - P M Ridker
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - L M Rose
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - U M Schick
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Public Health Sciences Division, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - K Schwander
- Division of Biostatistics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - A G Uitterlinden
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - D Vojinovic
- Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - J-C Wang
- Department of Neurosciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - E B Ware
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - G Wilson
- Jackson State University, School of Public Service, Jackson, MS, USA
| | - J Yao
- Institute for Translational Genomics and Population Sciences, Department of Pediatrics, LABioMed at Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, USA
| | - W Zhao
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - N Breslau
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - D Hatsukami
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - J A Stitzel
- Institute for Behavioral Genetics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - J Rice
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - A Goate
- Department of Neurosciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mt. Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - L J Bierut
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Contribution of Variants in CHRNA5/A3/B4 Gene Cluster on Chromosome 15 to Tobacco Smoking: From Genetic Association to Mechanism. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 53:472-484. [PMID: 25471942 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8997-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Cigarette smoking is the major cause of preventable death and morbidity throughout the world. Many compounds are present in tobacco, but nicotine is the primary addictive one. Nicotine exerts its physiological and pharmacological roles in the brain through neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), which are ligand-gated ion channels consisting of five membrane-spanning subunits that can modulate the release of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, glutamate, and GABA and mediate fast signal transmission at synapses. Considering that there are 12 nAChR subunits, it is highly likely that subunits other than α4 and β2, which have been intensively investigated, also are involved in nicotine addiction. Consistent with this hypothesis, a number of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) and subsequent candidate gene-based associated studies investigating the genetic variants associated with nicotine dependence (ND) and smoking-related phenotypes have shed light on the CHRNA5/A3/B4 gene cluster on chromosome 15, which encodes the α5, α3, and β4 nAChR subunits, respectively. These studies demonstrate two groups of risk variants in this region. The first one is marked by single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs16969968 in exon 5 of CHRNA5, which changes an aspartic acid residue into asparagine at position 398 (D398N) of the α5 subunit protein sequence, and it is tightly linked SNP rs1051730 in CHRNA3. The second one is SNP rs578776 in the 3'-untranslated region (UTR) of CHRNA3, which has a low correlation with rs16969968. Although the detailed molecular mechanisms underlying these associations remain to be further elucidated, recent findings have shown that α5* (where "*" indicates the presence of additional subunits) nAChRs located in the medial habenulo-interpeduncular nucleus (mHb-IPN) are involved in the control of nicotine self-administration in rodents. Disruption of α5* nAChR signaling diminishes the aversive effects of nicotine on the mHb-IPN pathway and thereby permits more nicotine consumption. To gain a better understanding of the function of the highly significant genetic variants identified in this region in controlling smoking-related behaviors, in this communication, we provide an up-to-date review of the progress of studies focusing on the CHRNA5/A3/B4 gene cluster and its role in ND.
Collapse
|