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Megía-Palma R, Cuervo JJ, Fitze PS, Martínez J, Jiménez-Robles O, De la Riva I, Reguera S, Moreno-Rueda G, Blaimont P, Kopena R, Barrientos R, Martín J, Merino S. Do sexual differences in life strategies make male lizards more susceptible to parasite infection? J Anim Ecol 2024. [PMID: 39044387 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.14154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/05/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Female and male hosts may maximise their fitness by evolving different strategies to compensate for the costs of parasite infections. The resulting sexual dimorphism might be apparent in differential relationships between parasite load and body condition, potentially reflecting differences in energy allocation to anti-parasitic defences. For example, male lacertids with high body condition may produce many offspring while being intensely parasitised. In contrast, female lacertids may show a different outcome of the trade-offs between body condition and immunity, aiming to better protect themselves from the harm of parasites. We predicted that females would have fewer parasites than males and a lower body condition across parasitaemia levels because they would invest resources in parasite defence to mitigate the costs of infection. In contrast, the male strategy to maximise access to females would imply some level of parasite tolerance and, thus, higher parasitaemia. We analysed the relationship between the body condition of lizards and the parasitemias of Karyolysus and Schellackia, two genera of blood parasites with different phylogenetic origins, in 565 females and 899 males belonging to 10 species of the Lacertidae (Squamata). These lizards were sampled over a period of 12 years across 34 sampling sites in southwestern Europe. The results concerning the Karyolysus infections were consistent with the predictions, with males having similar body condition across parasitaemia levels even though they had higher infection intensities than females. On the other hand, females with higher levels of Karyolysus parasitaemia had lower body condition. This is consistent with the prediction that different life strategies of male and female lacertids can explain the infection patterns of Karyolysus. In contrast, the parasitaemia of Schellackia was consistently low in both male and female hosts, with no significant effect on the body condition of lizards. This suggests that lizards of both sexes maintain this parasite below a pathogenic threshold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Megía-Palma
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Universidad de Alcalá (UAH), Madrid, Spain
- CIBIO, Centro de Investigação Em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, InBIO Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto, Vairão, Portugal
- BIOPOLIS Program in Genomics, Biodiversity and Land Planning, CIBIO, Vairão, Portugal
| | - José J Cuervo
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Patrick S Fitze
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Martínez
- Department of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Universidad de Alcalá (UAH), Madrid, Spain
| | - Octavio Jiménez-Robles
- Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
- Institut de Biologie, École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
| | | | - Senda Reguera
- Department of Biology and Geology, IES don Pelayo, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gregorio Moreno-Rueda
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Zoología, Universidad de Granada (UGR), Granada, Spain
| | - Pauline Blaimont
- Department of Biology, University of Houston Downtown, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Renata Kopena
- ELKH Centre for Ecological Research, Evolutionary Ecology Research Group, Institute of Ecology and Botany, Vácrátót, Hungary
| | - Rafael Barrientos
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid, School of Biology, Department of Biodiversity Ecology and Evolution, Road Ecology Lab, Madrid, Spain
| | - José Martín
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Santiago Merino
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales (MNCN-CSIC), Madrid, Spain
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2
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Dean AD, Childs DZ, Corripio‐Miyar Y, Evans M, Hayward A, Kenyon F, McNally L, McNeilly TN, Pakeman RJ, Sweeny AR, Nussey DH, Pedersen AB, Fenton A. Host resources and parasite traits interact to determine the optimal combination of host parasite-mitigation strategies. Ecol Evol 2024; 14:e11310. [PMID: 38903143 PMCID: PMC11187858 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.11310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Organisms have evolved diverse strategies to manage parasite infections. Broadly, hosts may avoid infection by altering behaviour, resist infection by targeting parasites or tolerate infection by repairing associated damage. The effectiveness of a strategy depends on interactions between, for example, resource availability, parasite traits (virulence, life-history) and the host itself (nutritional status, immunopathology). To understand how these factors shape host parasite-mitigation strategies, we developed a mathematical model of within-host, parasite-immune dynamics in the context of helminth infections. The model incorporated host nutrition and resource allocation to different mechanisms of immune response: larval parasite prevention; adult parasite clearance; damage repair (tolerance). We also considered a non-immune strategy: avoidance via anorexia, reducing intake of infective stages. Resources not allocated to immune processes promoted host condition, whereas harm due to parasites and immunopathology diminished it. Maximising condition (a proxy for fitness), we determined optimal host investment for each parasite-mitigation strategy, singly and combined, across different environmental resource levels and parasite trait values. Which strategy was optimal varied with scenario. Tolerance generally performed well, especially with high resources. Success of the different resistance strategies (larval prevention or adult clearance) tracked relative virulence of larval and adult parasites: slowly maturing, highly damaging larvae favoured prevention; rapidly maturing, less harmful larvae favoured clearance. Anorexia was viable only in the short term, due to reduced host nutrition. Combined strategies always outperformed any lone strategy: these were dominated by tolerance, with some investment in resistance. Choice of parasite mitigation strategy has profound consequences for hosts, impacting their condition, survival and reproductive success. We show that the efficacy of different strategies is highly dependent on timescale, parasite traits and resource availability. Models that integrate such factors can inform the collection and interpretation of empirical data, to understand how those drivers interact to shape host immune responses in natural systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D. Dean
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | | | | | - Mike Evans
- Department for Disease ControlMoredun Research InstitutePenicuikUK
- The University of Edinburgh Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary StudiesRoslinUK
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Adam Hayward
- Department for Disease ControlMoredun Research InstitutePenicuikUK
| | - Fiona Kenyon
- Department for Disease ControlMoredun Research InstitutePenicuikUK
| | - Luke McNally
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Tom N. McNeilly
- Department for Disease ControlMoredun Research InstitutePenicuikUK
| | | | - Amy R. Sweeny
- School of BiosciencesThe University of SheffieldSheffieldUK
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Daniel H. Nussey
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Amy B. Pedersen
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUK
| | - Andy Fenton
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological SciencesUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
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3
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Taylor J, Sakkas P, Kyriazakis I. Starving for nutrients: anorexia during infection with parasites in broilers is affected by diet composition. Poult Sci 2022; 101:101535. [PMID: 34794080 PMCID: PMC8605289 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2 experiments, we investigated whether diet composition plays a role in pathogen-induced anorexia, the voluntary reduction in ADFI during infection in broilers. We hypothesized that either energy or CP dietary content could influence the extent of anorexia in Ross 308 broilers and infection outcomes with Eimeria maxima. From d 13 of age, half of the birds were infected, and half were uninfected. ADFI was measured daily, and BW every 3 d until d 29. Oocyst excretion was measured daily from d 17 to 23. The impact of parasitism on the small intestine was assessed on d 19 and 25. In Experiment 1, 336 birds were offered diets progressively diluted with lignocellulose, starting from a diet with 3,105 (kcal ME/kg) and 20% CP. There was a significant interaction between infection and diet on ADFI during the acute stage of infection (d 17 to 21): for control birds diet dilution decreased ADFI and consequently reduced energy and CP intake. For infected birds, diet dilution increased ADFI, leading to the same energy and CP intake across diets. Oocyst excretion and villi length to crypt depth ratio (VCR) were constant across infected treatments. In Experiment 2, 432 birds were offered diets with constant ME (3,105 kcal/kg), but different CP contents (24, 20, 26, and 12%). Infection significantly reduced ADFI. Although there was no interaction between infection and diet on ADFI, there was an interaction on CP intake during the acute stage of infection. Infected birds on the 20% CP diet achieved the same CP intake as uninfected birds. There were no differences in the VCR and ADG of the infected birds on 24, 20 and 16% CP treatments, but birds on 12% had the lowest ADG and excreted more oocysts. We suggest that during infection, birds target a nutrient resource intake, which appears to be beneficial for infection outcomes, while at the same time they avoid excess protein intake. We conclude that different mechanisms regulate ADFI in infected and uninfected birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Taylor
- Agriculture, School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle on Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.
| | | | - Ilias Kyriazakis
- Institute for Global Food Security, Queen's University, Belfast BT7 1NN, United Kingdom
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4
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Ziegelbecker A, Sefc KM. Growth, body condition and contest performance after early-life food restriction in a long-lived tropical fish. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:10904-10916. [PMID: 34429889 PMCID: PMC8366895 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Adverse conditions during early life can cause lasting body size deficits with effects on social and sexual competition, while an accelerated growth response can allow animals to catch up in body size but can be physiologically costly as well. How animals balance growth deficits and growth compensation is predicted to depend on the effects of each on lifetime fitness. We investigated the effects of experimental early-life food restriction on growth, body condition, and adult contest competition in a cichlid fish (Tropheus sp.). Their longevity and aseasonal breeding suggest that, with view on lifetime reproductive success, temporarily growth-restricted Tropheus should rather invest extra time in reaching competitive body size than risk the potential costs of accelerated growth. However, size-selective predation pressure by gape size-limited piscivores may have favored the evolution of an accelerated growth response to early-life delays. Experimentally food-restricted fish temporarily reduced their growth rate compared to a control group, but maintained their body condition factor at the control level throughout the 80-week study period. There was no evidence for an accelerated growth response following the treatment, as the food-restricted fish never exceeded the size-specific growth rates that were measured in the control group. Food-restricted fish caught up with the body size of the control group several months after the end of the treatment period and were as likely as control fish to win size-matched contests over territories. Regardless of feeding regime, there were sex-specific differences in growth rates and in the trajectories of condition factors over time. Females grew more slowly than males but maintained their condition factors at a high level throughout the study period, whereas the males' condition factors declined over time. These differences may reflect sex-specific contributions of condition and body size to adult fitness that are associated with female mouthbrooding and male competition for breeding territories.
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Mair I, McNeilly TN, Corripio-Miyar Y, Forman R, Else KJ. Embracing nature's complexity: Immunoparasitology in the wild. Semin Immunol 2021; 53:101525. [PMID: 34785137 PMCID: PMC8713030 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2021.101525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A wealth of research is dedicated to understanding how resistance against parasites is conferred and how parasite-driven pathology is regulated. This research is in part driven by the hope to better treatments for parasitic diseases of humans and livestock, and in part by immunologists who use parasitic infections as biomedical tools to evoke physiological immune responses. Much of the current mechanistic knowledge has been discovered in laboratory studies using model organisms, especially the laboratory mouse. However, wildlife are also hosts to a range of parasites. Through the study of host-parasite interactions in these non-laboratory systems we can gain a deeper understanding of parasite immunology in a more natural, complex environment. With a focus on helminth parasites, we here explore the insights gained into parasite-induced immune responses through (for immunologists) non-conventional experimental systems, and how current core findings from laboratory studies are reflected in these more natural conditions. The quality of the immune response is undoubtedly a central player in susceptibility versus resistance, as many laboratory studies have shown. Yet, in the wild, parasite infections tend to be chronic diseases. Whilst reading our review, we encourage the reader to consider the following questions which may (only) be answered by studying naturally occurring parasites in the wild: a) what type of immune responses are mounted against parasites in different hosts in the wild, and how do they vary within an individual over time, between individuals of the same species and between species? b) can we use wild or semi-wild study systems to understand the evolutionary drivers for tolerance versus resistance towards a parasite? c) what determines the ability of the host to cope with an infection and is there a link with the type of immune response mounted? d) can we modulate environmental factors to manipulate a wild animal's immune response to parasitic infections, with translation potential for humans, wildlife, and livestock? and e) in context of this special issue, what lessons for Type 2 immunity can we glean from studying animals in their natural environments? Further, we aim to integrate some of the knowledge gained in semi-wild and wild settings with knowledge gained from traditional laboratory-based research, and to raise awareness for the opportunities (and challenges) that come with integrating a multitude of naturally-occurring variables into immunoparasitological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris Mair
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Oxford Road Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
| | - Tom N McNeilly
- Disease Control Department, Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - Yolanda Corripio-Miyar
- Disease Control Department, Moredun Research Institute, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, Scotland, UK
| | - Ruth Forman
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Oxford Road Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Kathryn J Else
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Oxford Road Manchester, M13 9PT, UK.
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6
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Sweeny AR, Clerc M, Pontifes PA, Venkatesan S, Babayan SA, Pedersen AB. Supplemented nutrition decreases helminth burden and increases drug efficacy in a natural host-helminth system. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202722. [PMID: 33468010 PMCID: PMC7893286 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) helminths are common parasites of humans, wildlife, and livestock, causing chronic infections. In humans and wildlife, poor nutrition or limited resources can compromise an individual's immune response, predisposing them to higher helminth burdens. This relationship has been tested in laboratory models by investigating infection outcomes following reductions of specific nutrients. However, much less is known about how diet supplementation can impact susceptibility to infection, acquisition of immunity, and drug efficacy in natural host-helminth systems. We experimentally supplemented the diet of wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) with high-quality nutrition and measured resistance to the common GI nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus. To test whether diet can enhance immunity to reinfection, we also administered anthelmintic treatment in both natural and captive populations. Supplemented wood mice were more resistant to H. polygyrus infection, cleared worms more efficiently after treatment, avoided a post-treatment infection rebound, produced stronger general and parasite-specific antibody responses, and maintained better body condition. In addition, when applied in conjunction with anthelmintic treatment, supplemented nutrition significantly reduced H. polygyrus transmission potential. These results show the rapid and extensive benefits of a well-balanced diet and have important implications for both disease control and wildlife health under changing environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy R. Sweeny
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Melanie Clerc
- MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, The Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Paulina A. Pontifes
- Departamento de Etología, Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Ciudad Universitaria 3000, CP 04510 Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Saudamini Venkatesan
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Simon A. Babayan
- Institute of Biodiversity Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - Amy B. Pedersen
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
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7
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Hayward AD, Skuce PJ, McNeilly TN. Tolerance of liver fluke infection varies between breeds and producers in beef cattle. Animal 2020; 15:100126. [PMID: 33712215 DOI: 10.1016/j.animal.2020.100126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver flukes (Fasciola spp.) are important helminth parasites of livestock globally and cause substantial reductions in health and productivity of beef cattle. Attempts to control fluke have been thwarted by the difficulty of vaccine design, the evolution of flukicide resistance and the need to control the intermediate snail host. Mechanisms to reduce the impact of parasites on animal performance have typically focused on promoting host resistance - defined as the ability of the host to kill and remove the parasite from its system - and such strategies include improving protein nutrition or selective breeding for resistance. Organisms, however, have another broad mechanism for mitigating the impact of parasites: they can show tolerance, defined as the ability to maintain health or performance under increasing parasite burden. Tolerance has been studied in the plant literature for over a century, but there are very few empirical studies of parasite tolerance in livestock. In this study, we used data collected from >90 000 beef cattle to estimate the impact of the severity of liver fluke infection on performance and variation in tolerance of fluke. Severity of liver fluke infection was estimated using liver "fibrosis score" on a scale of 0-3 and performance estimated as (1) age at slaughter and (2) daily dead weight gain. Animals with higher fibrosis scores were slaughtered around 2 weeks later than animals with no fluke and gained around 10 g less weight per day. There was also considerable variation in these effects of fibrosis score, such that animals from different producers and breeds varied in their tolerance of fluke infection. While breeds did not vary in the association between fibrosis and age at slaughter, there was considerable variation among producers: high fibrosis score delayed slaughter by up to 50 days in some producers, but not at all in others. Meanwhile, there was support for variation in the slope of daily dead weight gain on fibrosis score among both breeds and producers, with some unaffected by high fluke scores and some breeds and producers experiencing a 20 g/day lower weight gain under high fluke scores. Our results point to the potential for both environmental and genetic variation in tolerance of liver fluke in cattle, paving the way for quantitative genetic and nutritional research into the feasibility of promoting tolerance as a disease mitigation strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Hayward
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK..
| | - P J Skuce
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - T N McNeilly
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian, EH26 0PZ, UK
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8
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Salameh E, Jarbeau M, Morel FB, Zeilani M, Aziz M, Déchelotte P, Marion-Letellier R. Modeling undernutrition with enteropathy in mice. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15581. [PMID: 32973261 PMCID: PMC7518247 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72705-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Undernutrition is a global health issue leading to 1 out 5 all deaths in children under 5 years. Undernutrition is often associated with environmental enteric dysfunction (EED), a syndrome associated with increased intestinal permeability and gut inflammation. We aimed to develop a novel murine model of undernutrition with these EED features. Post-weaning mice were fed with low-protein diet (LP) alone or combined with a gastrointestinal insult trigger (indomethacin or liposaccharides). Growth, intestinal permeability and inflammation were assessed. LP diet induced stunting and wasting in post-weaning mice but did not impact gut barrier. We therefore combined LP diet with a single administration of indomethacin or liposaccharides (LPS). Indomethacin increased fecal calprotectin production while LPS did not. To amplify indomethacin effects, we investigated its repeated administration in addition to LP diet and mice exhibited stunting and wasting with intestinal hyperpermeability and gut inflammation. The combination of 3-weeks LP diet with repeated oral indomethacin administration induced wasting, stunting and gut barrier dysfunction as observed in undernourished children with EED. As noninvasive methods for investigating gut function in undernourished children are scarce, the present pre-clinical model provides an affordable tool to attempt to elucidate pathophysiological processes involved in EED and to identify novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmeline Salameh
- Normandie Univ, INSERM Unit 1073, University of Rouen, 22 Boulevard Gambetta, 76000, Rouen, France.,Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Rouen, France.,Nutrition Department, Nutriset S.A.S, Malaunay, France
| | - Marine Jarbeau
- Normandie Univ, INSERM Unit 1073, University of Rouen, 22 Boulevard Gambetta, 76000, Rouen, France.,Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Rouen, France
| | - Fanny B Morel
- Nutrition Department, Nutriset S.A.S, Malaunay, France
| | | | - Moutaz Aziz
- Anatomopathology, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
| | - Pierre Déchelotte
- Normandie Univ, INSERM Unit 1073, University of Rouen, 22 Boulevard Gambetta, 76000, Rouen, France.,Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Rouen, France.,Nutrition Unit, Rouen University Hospital, Rouen, France
| | - Rachel Marion-Letellier
- Normandie Univ, INSERM Unit 1073, University of Rouen, 22 Boulevard Gambetta, 76000, Rouen, France. .,Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine (IRIB), University of Rouen, Rouen, France.
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9
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Hite JL, Cressler CE. Parasite-Mediated Anorexia and Nutrition Modulate Virulence Evolution. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 59:1264-1274. [PMID: 31187120 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Temporary but substantial reductions in voluntary food intake routinely accompany parasite infection in hosts ranging from insects to humans. This "parasite-mediated anorexia" drives dynamic nutrient-dependent feedbacks within and among hosts, which should alter the fitness of both hosts and parasites. Yet, few studies have examined the evolutionary and epidemiological consequences of this ubiquitous but overlooked component of infection. Moreover, numerous biomedical, veterinary, and farming practices (e.g., rapid biomass production via high-calorie or high-fat diets, low-level antibiotics to promote growth, nutritional supplementation, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like Ibuprofen) directly or indirectly alter the magnitude of host anorexia-while also controlling host diet and therefore the nutrients available to hosts and parasites. Here, we show that anorexia can enhance or diminish disease severity, depending on whether the current dietary context provides nutrients that bolster or inhibit immune function. Feedbacks driven by nutrition-mediated competition between host immune function and parasite production can create a unimodal relationship between anorexia and parasite fitness. Subsequently, depending on the host's diet, medical or husbandry practices that suppress anorexia could backfire, and inadvertently select for more virulent parasites and larger epidemics. These findings carry implications for the development of integrated treatment programs that consider links between host feeding behavior, nutrition, and disease severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Hite
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Clayton E Cressler
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
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10
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Schoenle LA, Moore IT, Dudek AM, Garcia EB, Mays M, Haussmann MF, Cimini D, Bonier F. Exogenous glucocorticoids amplify the costs of infection by reducing resistance and tolerance, but effects are mitigated by co-infection. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 286:20182913. [PMID: 30966992 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.2913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Individual variation in parasite defences, such as resistance and tolerance, can underlie heterogeneity in fitness and could influence disease transmission dynamics. Glucocorticoid hormone concentrations often change in response to fluctuating environmental conditions and mediate changes in immune function, resource allocation and tissue repair. Thus, changes in glucocorticoid hormone concentrations might mediate individual variation in investment in resistance versus tolerance. In this study, we experimentally increased glucocorticoid concentrations in red-winged blackbirds ( Agelaius phoeniceus) that were naturally infected with haemosporidian parasites, and assessed changes in resistance and tolerance of infection. Glucocorticoid treatment increased burdens of Plasmodium, the parasite causing avian malaria, but only in the absence of co-infection with another Haemosporidian, Haemoproteus. Thus, glucocorticoids might reduce resistance to infection, but co-infection can mitigate the negative consequences of increased hormone concentrations. Glucocorticoid treatment also decreased tolerance of infection. We found no evidence that the inflammatory immune response or rate of red blood cell production underlie the effects of glucocorticoids on resistance and tolerance. Our findings suggest that exogenous glucocorticoids can increase the costs of haemosporidian infections by both increasing parasite numbers and reducing an individual's ability to cope with infection. These effects could scale up to impact populations of both host and parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Schoenle
- 1 Office of Undergraduate Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, NY , USA.,2 Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Ignacio T Moore
- 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Alana M Dudek
- 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Ellen B Garcia
- 3 Department of Biological Sciences and Biocomplexity Institute, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Morgan Mays
- 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Mark F Haussmann
- 4 Department of Biology, Bucknell University , Lewisburg, PA , USA
| | - Daniela Cimini
- 3 Department of Biological Sciences and Biocomplexity Institute, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA
| | - Frances Bonier
- 2 Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech , Blacksburg, VA , USA.,5 Biology Department, Queen's University , Kingston, Ontario , Canada
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11
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Vale PF. Disease Tolerance: Linking Sickness Behaviours to Metabolism Helps Mitigate Malaria. Curr Biol 2019; 28:R606-R607. [PMID: 29787724 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Malaria-infected mice exhibit a range of sickness behaviours, and experience metabolic shifts and physiological pathologies that result in reduced energy expenditure. Treating sick mice with glucose increases disease tolerance by improving the physiological and behavioural symptoms of malaria infection without affecting parasite loads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro F Vale
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Charlotte Auerbach Road, EH9 3FL, Edinburgh, UK.
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12
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Dinh H, Mendez V, Tabrizi ST, Ponton F. Macronutrients and infection in fruit flies. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 110:98-104. [PMID: 31082476 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Nutrition and infection are closely linked. While it is now well established that hosts can modulate their nutrition after being infected, the extent to which this change in foraging provides the host with a greater fitness remains to be fully understood. Our study explored the relationships between dietary choice, macronutrients intake [i.e., protein (P) and carbohydrate (C)], infection, survival rate and growth of pathogenic bacterial population in the true fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni. Results showed that flies injected with the bacterium Serratia marcescens decreased their macronutrient intake and shifted their diet choice to carbohydrate-biased diet compared to naïve individuals. Interestingly, flies injected with either PBS (i.e., sham-infected) or heat-killed bacteria also reduced food intake and modulated diet choice but only for a day after injection. When infected flies were restricted to the diet they selected (i.e., PC 1:8), they survived better the infection than those restricted to a protein-biased diet (i.e., PC 1:5). In addition, we did not observe any growth of pathogen load in infected flies fed PC 1:8 for the first 3 days post-infection. Finally, a decrease in lipid body reserves was found in flies injected with live bacteria and, interestingly, this loss of body lipid also occurred in flies injected with heat-killed bacteria, but in a diet-dependent manner. Our results indicated that B. tryoni flies modulated their macronutrient intake and decreased the negative effects of the infection on their survival ("nutritional self-medication") the first days following the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hue Dinh
- Department of Biological Science, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Vivian Mendez
- Department of Biological Science, Macquarie University, Australia
| | | | - Fleur Ponton
- Department of Biological Science, Macquarie University, Australia.
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13
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Burgan SC, Gervasi SS, Johnson LR, Martin LB. How Individual Variation in Host Tolerance Affects Competence to Transmit Parasites. Physiol Biochem Zool 2019; 92:49-57. [PMID: 30481116 DOI: 10.1086/701169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Tolerance, or the maintenance of host health or fitness at a given parasite burden, has often been studied in evolutionary and medical contexts, particularly with respect to effects on the evolution of parasite virulence and individual patient outcomes. These bodies of work have provided insight about tolerance for evolutionary phenomena (e.g., virulence) and individual health (e.g., recovering from an infection). However, due to the specific motivations of that work, few studies have considered the ecological ramifications of variation in tolerance, namely, how variation in forms of tolerance could mediate parasite movement through populations and even community-level disease dynamics. Tolerance is most commonly regarded as the relationship between host fitness and parasite burden. However, few if any studies have actually quantified host fitness, instead utilizing proxies of fitness as the response variables to be regressed against parasite burden. Here, we address how attention to the effects of parasite burden on traits that are relevant to host competence (i.e., the ability to amplify parasites to levels transmissible to other hosts/vectors) will enhance our understanding of disease dynamics in nature. We also provide several forms of guidance for how to overcome the challenges of quantifying tolerance in wild organisms.
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14
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Budischak SA, Cressler CE. Fueling Defense: Effects of Resources on the Ecology and Evolution of Tolerance to Parasite Infection. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2453. [PMID: 30429848 PMCID: PMC6220035 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Resource availability is a key environmental constraint affecting the ecology and evolution of species. Resources have strong effects on disease resistance, but they can also affect the other main parasite defense strategy, tolerance. A small but growing number of animal studies are beginning to investigate the effects of resources on tolerance phenotypes. Here, we review how resources affect tolerance strategies across animal taxa ranging from fruit flies to frogs to mice. Surprisingly, resources (quality and quantity) can increase or reduce tolerance, dependent upon the particular host-parasite system. To explore this seeming contradiction, we recast predictions of models of sterility tolerance and mortality tolerance in a resource-dependent context. Doing so reveals that resources can have very different epidemiological and evolutionary effects, depending on what aspects of the tolerance phenotype are affected. Thus, it is critical to consider both sterility and mortality in future empirical studies of how behavioral and environmental resource availability affect tolerance to infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A. Budischak
- W. M. Keck Science Department of Claremont McKenna, Pitzer, and Scripps Colleges, Claremont, CA, United States
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Clayton E. Cressler
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, United States
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15
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Decker LE, de Roode JC, Hunter MD. Elevated atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide reduce monarch tolerance and increase parasite virulence by altering the medicinal properties of milkweeds. Ecol Lett 2018; 21:1353-1363. [PMID: 30134036 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hosts combat their parasites using mechanisms of resistance and tolerance, which together determine parasite virulence. Environmental factors, including diet, mediate the impact of parasites on hosts, with diet providing nutritional and medicinal properties. Here, we present the first evidence that ongoing environmental change decreases host tolerance and increases parasite virulence through a loss of dietary medicinal quality. Monarch butterflies use dietary toxins (cardenolides) to reduce the deleterious impacts of a protozoan parasite. We fed monarch larvae foliage from four milkweed species grown under either elevated or ambient CO2 , and measured changes in resistance, tolerance, and virulence. The most high-cardenolide milkweed species lost its medicinal properties under elevated CO2 ; monarch tolerance to infection decreased, and parasite virulence increased. Declines in medicinal quality were associated with declines in foliar concentrations of lipophilic cardenolides. Our results emphasize that global environmental change may influence parasite-host interactions through changes in the medicinal properties of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leslie E Decker
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Biological Sciences Building, 1105 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1085, USA
| | - Jacobus C de Roode
- Biology Department, Rollins 1113 O. Wayne Rollins Research Center, Emory University, 1510 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Mark D Hunter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Biological Sciences Building, 1105 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-1085, USA
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16
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Miller CVL, Cotter SC. Resistance and tolerance: The role of nutrients on pathogen dynamics and infection outcomes in an insect host. J Anim Ecol 2017; 87:500-510. [PMID: 28975615 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Tolerance and resistance are the two ways in which hosts can lessen the effects of infection. Tolerance aims to minimize the fitness effects resulting from incumbent pathogen populations, whereas resistance aims to reduce the pathogen population size within the host. While environmental impacts on resistance have been extensively, recorded their impacts on variation in tolerance are virtually unexplored. Here, we ask how the environment, namely the host diet, influences the capacity of an organism to tolerate and resist infection, using a model host-parasite system, the burying beetle, Nicrophorus vespilloides and the entomopathogenic bacteria, Photorhabdus luminescens. We first considered dose-responses and pathogen dynamics within the host, and compared our findings to responses known from other host species. We then investigated how investment in tolerance and resistance changed under different nutritional regimes. Beetles were maintained on one of five diets that varied in their ratio of protein to fat for 48 hr and then injected with P. luminescens. Survival was monitored and the phenoloxidase (PO) response and bacterial load at 24-hr postinfection were ascertained. The dose required to kill 50% of individuals in this species was several magnitudes higher than in other species and the bacteria were shown to display massive decreases in population size, in contrast to patterns of proliferation found in other host species. Diet strongly modified host survival after infection, with those on the high fat/low protein diet showing 30% survival at 8 days, vs. almost 0% survival on the low-fat/high-protein diet. However, this was independent of bacterial load or variation in PO, providing evidence for diet-mediated tolerance mechanisms rather than immune-driven resistance. Evolutionary ecology has long focussed on immune resistance when investigating how organisms avoid succumbing to infection. Tolerance of infection has recently become a much more prominent concept and is suggested to be influential in disease dynamics. This is one of the first studies to find diet-mediated tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte V L Miller
- School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK.,School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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17
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Walker CD, Bath KG, Joels M, Korosi A, Larauche M, Lucassen PJ, Morris MJ, Raineki C, Roth TL, Sullivan RM, Taché Y, Baram TZ. Chronic early life stress induced by limited bedding and nesting (LBN) material in rodents: critical considerations of methodology, outcomes and translational potential. Stress 2017; 20:421-448. [PMID: 28617197 PMCID: PMC5705407 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2017.1343296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Revised: 06/07/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The immediate and long-term effects of exposure to early life stress (ELS) have been documented in humans and animal models. Even relatively brief periods of stress during the first 10 days of life in rodents can impact later behavioral regulation and the vulnerability to develop adult pathologies, in particular an impairment of cognitive functions and neurogenesis, but also modified social, emotional, and conditioned fear responses. The development of preclinical models of ELS exposure allows the examination of mechanisms and testing of therapeutic approaches that are not possible in humans. Here, we describe limited bedding and nesting (LBN) procedures, with models that produce altered maternal behavior ranging from fragmentation of care to maltreatment of infants. The purpose of this paper is to discuss important issues related to the implementation of this chronic ELS procedure and to describe some of the most prominent endpoints and consequences, focusing on areas of convergence between laboratories. Effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, gut axis and metabolism are presented in addition to changes in cognitive and emotional functions. Interestingly, recent data have suggested a strong sex difference in some of the reported consequences of the LBN paradigm, with females being more resilient in general than males. As both the chronic and intermittent variants of the LBN procedure have profound consequences on the offspring with minimal external intervention from the investigator, this model is advantageous ecologically and has a large translational potential. In addition to the direct effect of ELS on neurodevelopmental outcomes, exposure to adverse early environments can also have intergenerational impacts on mental health and function in subsequent generation offspring. Thus, advancing our understanding of the effect of ELS on brain and behavioral development is of critical concern for the health and wellbeing of both the current population, and for generations to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire-Dominique Walker
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, 6875 Lasalle Blvd, Montreal, QC H4H 1R3, Canada
| | - Kevin G. Bath
- Department of Neuroscience, Brown University, 185 Meeting Street, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Marian Joels
- Department Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Aniko Korosi
- Brain Plasticity group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Muriel Larauche
- G. Oppenheimer Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, and VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, 90073, USA
| | - Paul J. Lucassen
- Brain Plasticity group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Margaret J. Morris
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, UNSW Australia, Sydney 2052, NSW, Australia
| | - Charlis Raineki
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Tania L. Roth
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Regina M. Sullivan
- Emotional Brain Institute, Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, NY 10962, Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical School, New York, NY 10016, USA
| | - Yvette Taché
- G. Oppenheimer Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, CURE: Digestive Diseases Research Center, Vatche and Tamar Manoukian Division of Digestive Diseases, Department of Medicine and Brain Research Institute, University of California Los Angeles, and VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, 90073, USA
| | - Tallie Z. Baram
- Department of Pediatrics, of Anatomy & Neurobiology and of Neurology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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Shea-Donohue T, Qin B, Smith A. Parasites, nutrition, immune responses and biology of metabolic tissues. Parasite Immunol 2017; 39. [PMID: 28235148 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Nutritional immunology, immunometabolism and identification of novel immunotherapeutic targets are areas of active investigation in parasitology. There is a well-documented crosstalk among immune cells and cells in metabolically active tissues that is important for homeostasis. The numbers and function of these cells are altered by obesity leading to inflammation. A variety of helminths spend some part of their life cycle in the gastrointestinal tract and even entirely enteral nematode infections exert beneficial effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. The foundation of this review is the ability of enteric nematode infections to improve obesity-induced type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome, which are significant health issues in developed areas. It considers the impact of nutrition and specific nutritional deficiencies, which are occur in both undeveloped and developed areas, on the host's ability mount a protective immune response against parasitic nematodes. There are a number of proposed mechanisms by which parasitic nematodes can impact metabolism including effects gastrointestinal hormones, altering epithelial function and changing the number and/or phenotype of immune cells in metabolic tissues. Nematodes can also exert their beneficial effects through Th2 cytokines that activate the transcription factor STAT6, which upregulates genes that regulate glucose and lipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Shea-Donohue
- Department of Radiation Oncology & Department of Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - B Qin
- Diet, Genomics, and Immunology Laboratory, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA
| | - A Smith
- Diet, Genomics, and Immunology Laboratory, Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD, USA
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Zhang BB, Yan C, Fang F, Du Y, Ma R, Li XY, Yu Q, Meng D, Tang RX, Zheng KY. Increased hepatic Th2 and Treg subsets are associated with biliary fibrosis in different strains of mice caused by Clonorchis sinensis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171005. [PMID: 28151995 PMCID: PMC5289492 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies showed that CD4+T cells responses might be involved in the process of biliary fibrosis. However, the underlying mechanism resulting in biliary fibrosis caused by Clonorchis sinensis remains not yet fully elucidated. The objectives of the present study were to investigate the different profiles of hepatic CD4+T cell subsets (Th1, Th2, Th17 and Treg cells) and their possible roles in the biliary fibrosis of different strains of mice (C57BL/6, BALB/c and FVB mice) induced by C. sinensis infection. C57BL/6, BALB/c and FVB mice were orally gavaged with 45 metacercariae. All mice were sacrificed on 28 days post infection in deep anesthesia conditions. The leukocytes in the liver were separated to examine CD4+T cell subsets by flow cytometry and the left lobe of liver was used to observe pathological changes, collagen depositions and the concentrations of hydroxyproline. The most serious cystic and fibrotic changes appeared in FVB infected mice indicated by gross observation, Masson’s trichrome staining and hydroxyproline content detection. In contrast to C57BL/6 infected mice, diffuse nodules and more intensive fibrosis were observed in the BALB/c infected mice. No differences of the hepatic Th1 subset and Th17 subset were found among the three strains, but the hepatic Th2 and Treg cells and their relative cytokines were dramatically increased in the BALB/c and FVB infected groups compared with the C57BL/6 infected group (P<0.01). Importantly, increased Th2 subset and Treg subset all positively correlated with hydroxyproline contents (P<0.01). This result for the first time implied that the increased hepatic Th2 and Treg cell subsets were likely to play potential roles in the formation of biliary fibrosis in C. sinensis-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bei-Bei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Chao Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Fan Fang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Du
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Ma
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiang-Yang Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Meng
- Departments of Pathology, the Affiliated Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Ren-Xian Tang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (KYZ); (RXT)
| | - Kui-Yang Zheng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Immunity and Metabolism, Department of Pathogenic Biology and Immunology, Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (KYZ); (RXT)
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20
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Watanabe K, Petri WA. Environmental Enteropathy: Elusive but Significant Subclinical Abnormalities in Developing Countries. EBioMedicine 2016; 10:25-32. [PMID: 27495791 PMCID: PMC5006727 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2016.07.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 07/07/2016] [Accepted: 07/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental enteropathy/Environmental enteric dysfunction (EE/EED) is a chronic disease of small intestine characterized by gut inflammation and barrier disruption, malabsorption and systemic inflammation in the absence of diarrhea. It is predominantly diseases of children in low income countries and is hypothesized to be caused by continuous exposure to fecally contaminated food, water and fomites. It had not been recognized as a priority health issue because it does not cause overt symptoms and was seen in apparently healthy individuals. However, there is a growing concern of EE/EED because of its impact on longitudinal public health issues, such as growth faltering, oral vaccine low efficacy and poor neurocognitive development. Recent works have provided important clues to unravel its complex pathogenesis, and suggest possible strategies for controlling EE/EED. However, effective diagnostic methods and interventions remain unsettled. Here, we review the existing literature, especially about its pathogenesis, and discuss a solution for children living in the developing world. EE/EED is acquired by the close contact with unsanitary condition, and abnormalities of EE/EED are reversible over time. EE/EED should be diagnosed as young as possible because poor growth is often evident within 1-2 years of life. EE/EED should be diagnosed by simple, noninvasive and low-cost methods, such as fecal biomarkers. It is hard to diagnose EE/EED and to predict consequences by a single marker/test due to the complexity in pathogenesis. Interventions for EE/EED other than sanitary reform are under investigation although no reports showed favorable outcomes currently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koji Watanabe
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA; AIDS Clinical Center, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - William A Petri
- Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA.
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