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Skowronski N, Malek Pour M, Singh S, Longo SJ, St Pierre R. Design and control of jumping microrobots with torque reversal latches. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2024; 19:046007. [PMID: 38697139 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ad46b9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
Jumping microrobots and insects power their impressive leaps through systems of springs and latches. Using springs and latches, rather than motors or muscles, as actuators to power jumps imposes new challenges on controlling the performance of the jump. In this paper, we show how tuning the motor and spring relative to one another in a torque reversal latch can lead to an ability to control jump output, producing either tuneable (variable) or stereotyped jumps. We develop and utilize a simple mathematical model to explore the underlying design, dynamics, and control of a torque reversal mechanism, provides the opportunity to achieve different outcomes through the interaction between geometry, spring properties, and motor voltage. We relate system design and control parameters to performance to guide the design of torque reversal mechanisms for either variable or stereotyped jump performance. We then build a small (356 mg) microrobot and characterize the constituent components (e.g. motor and spring). Through tuning the actuator and spring relative to the geometry of the torque reversal mechanism, we demonstrate that we can achieve jumping microrobots that both jump with different take-off velocities given the actuator input (variable jumping), and those that jump with nearly the same take-off velocity with actuator input (stereotyped jumping). The coupling between spring characteristics and geometry in this system has benefits for resource-limited microrobots, and our work highlights design combinations that have synergistic impacts on output, compared to others that constrain it. This work will guide new design principles for enabling control in resource-limited jumping microrobots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolan Skowronski
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
| | - Mohammadamin Malek Pour
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
| | - Shashwat Singh
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
| | - Sarah J Longo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Towson University, Towson, MD 21252, United States of America
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
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2
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Klunk CL, Argenta MA, Rosumek FB, Schmelzle S, van de Kamp T, Hammel JU, Pie MR, Heethoff M. Simulated biomechanical performance of morphologically disparate ant mandibles under bite loading. Sci Rep 2023; 13:16833. [PMID: 37803099 PMCID: PMC10558566 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43944-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 09/30/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Insects evolved various modifications to their mouthparts, allowing for a broad exploration of feeding modes. In ants, workers perform non-reproductive tasks like excavation, food processing, and juvenile care, relying heavily on their mandibles. Given the importance of biting for ant workers and the significant mandible morphological diversity across species, it is essential to understand how mandible shape influences its mechanical responses to bite loading. We employed Finite Element Analysis to simulate biting scenarios on mandible volumetric models from 25 ant species classified in different feeding habits. We hypothesize that mandibles of predatory ants, especially trap-jaw ants, would perform better than mandibles of omnivorous species due to their necessity to subdue living prey. We defined simulations to allow only variation in mandible morphology between specimens. Our results demonstrated interspecific differences in mandible mechanical responses to biting loading. However, we found no evident differences in biting performance between the predatory and the remaining ants, and trap-jaw mandibles did not show lower stress levels than other mandibles under bite loading. These results suggest that ant feeding habit is not a robust predictor of mandible biting performance, a possible consequence of mandibles being employed as versatile tools to perform several tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Klunk
- Graduate Program in Ecology and Conservation, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Centro Politécnico, Av. Cel. Francisco H. dos Santos, 100 - Jardim das Américas, Curitiba, PR, 81531-980, Brazil.
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany.
| | - M A Argenta
- Department of Civil Construction, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - F B Rosumek
- Department of Ecology and Zoology, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - S Schmelzle
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany
| | - T van de Kamp
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation (IPS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Laboratory for Applications of Synchrotron Radiation (LAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - J U Hammel
- Institute of Materials Physics, Helmholtz-Zentrum Hereon, Geesthacht, Germany
| | - M R Pie
- Biology Department, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK
| | - M Heethoff
- Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstr. 3, 64287, Darmstadt, Germany.
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3
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Mendoza E, Martinez M, Olberding JP, Azizi E. The effects of temperature on elastic energy storage and release in a system with a dynamic mechanical advantage latch. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:jeb245805. [PMID: 37727106 PMCID: PMC10617612 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.245805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023]
Abstract
Changes in temperature alter muscle kinetics and in turn affect whole-organism performance. Some organisms use the elastic recoil of biological springs, structures which are far less temperature sensitive, to power thermally robust movements. For jumping frogs, the use of elastic energy in tendons is facilitated through a geometric latching mechanism that operates through dynamic changes in the mechanical advantage (MA) of the hindlimb. Despite the well-documented use of elastic energy storage, frog jumping is a locomotor behavior that is significantly affected by changes in temperature. Here, we used an in vitro muscle preparation interacting in real time with an in silico model of a legged jumper to understand how changes in temperature affect the flow of energy in a system using a MA latch. We used the plantaris longus muscle-tendon unit (MTU) to power a virtual limb with changing MA and a mass being accelerated through a real-time feedback controller. We quantified the amount of energy stored in and recovered from elastic structures and the additional contribution of direct muscle work after unlatching. We found that temperature altered the duration of the energy loading and recovery phase of the in vitro/in silico experiments. We found that the early phase of loading was insensitive to changes in temperature. However, an increase in temperature did increase the rate of force development, which in turn allowed for increased energy storage in the second phase of loading. We also found that the contribution of direct muscle work after unlatching was substantial and increased significantly with temperature. Our results show that the thermal robustness achieved by an elastic mechanism depends strongly on the nature of the latch that mediates energy flow, and that the relative contribution of elastic and direct muscle energy likely shapes the thermal sensitivity of locomotor systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Maya Martinez
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Department, California State University, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA
| | - Jeffrey P. Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
- Department of Biological Science, California State University, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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4
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Divi S, St Pierre R, Foong HM, Bergbreiter S. Controlling jumps through latches in small jumping robots. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:066003. [PMID: 37683672 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acf824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Small jumping robots can use springs to maximize jump performance, but they are typically not able to control the height of each jump owing to design constraints. This study explores the use of the jumper's latch, the component that mediates the release of energy stored in the spring, as a tool for controlling jumps. A reduced-order model that considers the dynamics of the actuator pulling the latch and the effect of spring force on the latch is presented. This model is then validated using high speed video and ground reaction force measurements from a 4gjumper. Both the model and experimental results demonstrate that jump performance in small insect-inspired resource-constrained robots can be tuned to a range of outputs using latch mediation, despite starting with a fixed spring potential energy. For a fixed set of input voltages to the latch actuator, the results also show that a jumper with a larger latch radius has greater tunability. However, this greater tunability comes with a trade-off in maximum performance. Finally, we define a new metric, 'Tunability Range,' to capture the range of controllable jump behaviors that a jumper with a fixed spring compression can attain given a set of control inputs (i.e. latch actuation voltage) to choose from.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, United States of America
| | - Hui Min Foong
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
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5
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Jorge JF, Patek SN. Elastic pinch biomechanisms can yield consistent launch speeds regardless of projectile mass. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20230234. [PMID: 37608709 PMCID: PMC10445031 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Energetic trade-offs are particularly pertinent to bio-ballistic systems which impart energy to projectiles exclusively during launch. We investigated such trade-offs in the spring-propelled seeds of Loropetalum chinense, Hamamelis virginiana and Fortunearia sinensis. Using similar seed-shooting mechanisms, fruits of these confamilial plants (Hamamelidaceae) span an order of magnitude in spring and seed mass. We expected that as seed mass increases, launch speed decreases. Instead, launch speed was relatively constant regardless of seed mass. We tested if fruits shoot larger seeds by storing more elastic potential energy (PE). Spring mass and PE increased as seed mass increased (in order of increasing seed mass: L. chinense, H. virginiana, F. sinensis). As seed mass to spring mass ratio increased (ratios: H. virginiana = 0.50, F. sinensis = 0.65, L. chinense = 0.84), mass-specific PE storage increased. The conversion efficiency of PE to seed kinetic energy (KE) decreased with increasing fruit mass. Therefore, similar launch speeds across scales occurred because (i) larger fruits stored more PE and (ii) smaller fruits had higher mass-specific PE storage and improved PE to KE conversion. By examining integrated spring and projectile mechanics in our focal species, we revealed diverse, energetic scaling strategies relevant to spring-propelled systems navigating energetic trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S. N. Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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6
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Holt NC, Mayfield DL. Muscle-tendon unit design and tuning for power enhancement, power attenuation, and reduction of metabolic cost. J Biomech 2023; 153:111585. [PMID: 37126884 PMCID: PMC10949972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The contractile elements in skeletal muscle fibers operate in series with elastic elements, tendons and potentially aponeuroses, in muscle-tendon units (MTUs). Elastic strain energy (ESE), arising from either work done by muscle fibers or the energy of the body, can be stored in these series elastic elements (SEEs). MTUs vary considerably in their design in terms of the relative lengths and stiffnesses of the muscle fibers and SEEs, and the force and work generating capacities of the muscle fibers. However, within an MTU it is thought that contractile and series elastic elements can be matched or tuned to maximize ESE storage. The use of ESE is thought to improve locomotor performance by enhancing contractile element power during activities such as jumping, attenuating contractile element power during activities such as landing, and reducing the metabolic cost of movement during steady-state activities such as walking and running. The effectiveness of MTUs in these potential roles is contingent on factors such as the source of mechanical energy, the control of the flow of energy, and characteristics of SEE recoil. Hence, we suggest that MTUs specialized for ESE storage may vary considerably in the structural, mechanical, and physiological properties of their components depending on their functional role and required versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Holt
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - D L Mayfield
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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7
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Wold ES, Lynch J, Gravish N, Sponberg S. Structural damping renders the hawkmoth exoskeleton mechanically insensitive to non-sinusoidal deformations. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20230141. [PMID: 37194272 PMCID: PMC10189308 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2023.0141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscles act through elastic and dissipative elements to mediate movement, which can introduce dissipation and filtering which are important for energetics and control. The high power requirements of flapping flight can be reduced by an insect's exoskeleton, which acts as a spring with frequency-independent material properties under purely sinusoidal deformation. However, this purely sinusoidal dynamic regime does not encompass the asymmetric wing strokes of many insects or non-periodic deformations induced by external perturbations. As such, it remains unknown whether a frequency-independent model applies broadly and what implications it has for control. We used a vibration testing system to measure the mechanical properties of isolated Manduca sexta thoraces under symmetric, asymmetric and band-limited white noise deformations. The asymmetric and white noise conditions represent two types of generalized, multi-frequency deformations that may be encountered during steady-state and perturbed flight. Power savings and dissipation were indistinguishable between symmetric and asymmetric conditions, demonstrating that no additional energy is required to deform the thorax non-sinusoidally. Under white noise conditions, stiffness and damping were invariant with frequency, suggesting that the thorax has no frequency-dependent filtering properties. A simple flat frequency response function fits our measured frequency response. This work demonstrates the potential of materials with frequency-independent damping to simplify motor control by eliminating any velocity-dependent filtering that viscoelastic elements usually impose between muscle and wing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan S. Wold
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - James Lynch
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92161, USA
| | - Nick Gravish
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California San Diego, San Diego, CA 92161, USA
| | - Simon Sponberg
- School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
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8
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Avidan C, Day SW, Holzman R. A power amplification dyad in seahorses. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230520. [PMID: 37040808 PMCID: PMC10089724 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Throughout evolution, organisms repeatedly developed elastic elements to power explosive body motions, overcoming ubiquitous limits on the power capacity of fast-contracting muscles. Seahorses evolved such a latch-mediated spring-actuated (LaMSA) mechanism; however, it is unclear how this mechanism powers the two complementary functions necessary for feeding: rapidly swinging the head towards the prey, and sucking water into the mouth to entrain it. Here, we combine flow visualization and hydrodynamic modelling to estimate the net power required for accelerating the suction feeding flows in 13 fish species. We show that the mass-specific power of suction feeding in seahorses is approximately three times higher than the maximum recorded from any vertebrate muscle, resulting in suction flows that are approximately eight times faster than similar-sized fishes. Using material testing, we reveal that the rapid contraction of the sternohyoideus tendons can release approximately 72% of the power needed to accelerate the water into the mouth. We conclude that the LaMSA system in seahorses is powered by two elastic elements, the sternohyoideus and epaxial tendons. These elements jointly actuate the coordinated acceleration of the head and the fluid in front of the mouth. These findings extend the known function, capacity and design of LaMSA systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corrine Avidan
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Organismal Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- The Inter-University Institute for Marine Sciences, POB 469, Eilat 88103, Israel
| | - Steven W Day
- Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Roi Holzman
- School of Zoology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
- The Inter-University Institute for Marine Sciences, POB 469, Eilat 88103, Israel
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9
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Goode CK, Sutton GP. Control of high-speed jumps: the rotation and energetics of the locust (Schistocerca gregaria). J Comp Physiol B 2023; 193:145-153. [PMID: 36715704 PMCID: PMC9992258 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-022-01471-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Locusts (Schistocerca gregaria) jump using a latch mediated spring actuated system in the femur-tibia joint of their metathoracic legs. These jumps are exceptionally fast and display angular rotation immediately after take-off. In this study, we focus on the angular velocity, at take-off, of locusts ranging between 0.049 and 1.50 g to determine if and how rotation-rate scales with size. From 263 jumps recorded from 44 individuals, we found that angular velocity scales with mass-0.33, consistent with a hypothesis of locusts having a constant rotational kinetic energy density. Within the data from each locust, angular velocity increased proportionally with linear velocity, suggesting the two cannot be independently controlled and thus a fixed energy budget is formed at take-off. On average, the energy budget of a jump is distributed 98.7% to translational kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, and 1.3% to rotational kinetic energy. The percentage of energy devoted to rotation was constant across all sizes of locusts and represents a very small proportion of the energy budget. This analysis suggests that smaller locusts find it harder to jump without body rotation.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Goode
- School of Life Sciences, Joseph Banks Laboratories, University of Lincoln, Beevor Street, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, England, UK.
| | - Gregory P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences, Joseph Banks Laboratories, University of Lincoln, Beevor Street, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, England, UK
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10
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Divi S, Reynaga C, Azizi E, Bergbreiter S. Adapting small jumping robots to compliant environments. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220778. [PMID: 36854379 PMCID: PMC9974292 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Jumping animals launch themselves from surfaces that vary widely in compliance from grasses and shrubs to tree branches. However, studies of robotic jumpers have been largely limited to those jumping from rigid substrates. In this paper, we leverage recent work describing how latches in jumping systems can mediate the transition from stored potential energy to kinetic energy. By including a description of the latch in our system model of both the jumper and compliant substrate, we can describe conditions in which a jumper can either lose energy to the substrate or recover energy from the substrate resulting in an improved jump performance. Using our mathematical model, we illustrate how the latch plays a role in the ability of a system to adapt its jump performance to a wide range of substrates that vary in their compliance. Our modelling results are validated using a 4 g jumper with a range of latch designs jumping from substrates with varying mass and compliance. Finally, we demonstrate the jumper recovering energy from a tree branch during take-off, extending these mechanistic findings to robots interacting with a more natural environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Crystal Reynaga
- Department of Biology, Dickinson College, Carlisle, PA 17013, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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11
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Harrison JS, Patek SN. Developing elastic mechanisms: ultrafast motion and cavitation emerge at the millimeter scale in juvenile snapping shrimp. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:287686. [PMID: 36854255 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023]
Abstract
Organisms such as jumping froghopper insects and punching mantis shrimp use spring-based propulsion to achieve fast motion. Studies of elastic mechanisms have primarily focused on fully developed and functional mechanisms in adult organisms. However, the ontogeny and development of these mechanisms can provide important insights into the lower size limits of spring-based propulsion, the ecological or behavioral relevance of ultrafast movement, and the scaling of ultrafast movement. Here, we examined the development of the spring-latch mechanism in the bigclaw snapping shrimp, Alpheus heterochaelis (Alpheidae). Adult snapping shrimp use an enlarged claw to produce high-speed strikes that generate cavitation bubbles. However, until now, it was unclear when the elastic mechanism emerges during development and whether juvenile snapping shrimp can generate cavitation at this size. We reared A. heterochaelis from eggs, through their larval and postlarval stages. Starting 1 month after hatching, the snapping shrimp snapping claw gradually developed a spring-actuated mechanism and began snapping. We used high-speed videography (300,000 frames s-1) to measure juvenile snaps. We discovered that juvenile snapping shrimp generate the highest recorded accelerations (5.8×105±3.3×105 m s-2) for repeated-use, underwater motion and are capable of producing cavitation at the millimeter scale. The angular velocity of snaps did not change as juveniles grew; however, juvenile snapping shrimp with larger claws produced faster linear speeds and generated larger, longer-lasting cavitation bubbles. These findings establish the development of the elastic mechanism and cavitation in snapping shrimp and provide insights into early life-history transitions in spring-actuated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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12
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Longo SJ, St Pierre R, Bergbreiter S, Cox S, Schelling B, Patek SN. Geometric latches enable tuning of ultrafast, spring-propelled movements. J Exp Biol 2023; 226:286280. [PMID: 36606724 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.244363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The smallest, fastest, repeated-use movements are propelled by power-dense elastic mechanisms, yet the key to their energetic control may be found in the latch-like mechanisms that mediate transformation from elastic potential energy to kinetic energy. Here, we tested how geometric latches enable consistent or variable outputs in ultrafast, spring-propelled systems. We constructed a reduced-order mathematical model of a spring-propelled system that uses a torque reversal (over-center) geometric latch. The model was parameterized to match the scales and mechanisms of ultrafast systems, specifically snapping shrimp. We simulated geometric and energetic configurations that enabled or reduced variation of strike durations and dactyl rotations given variation of stored elastic energy and latch mediation. Then, we collected an experimental dataset of the energy storage mechanism and ultrafast snaps of live snapping shrimp (Alpheus heterochaelis) and compared our simulations with their configuration. We discovered that snapping shrimp deform the propodus exoskeleton prior to the strike, which may contribute to elastic energy storage. Regardless of the amount of variation in spring loading duration, strike durations were far less variable than spring loading durations. When we simulated this species' morphological configuration in our mathematical model, we found that the low variability of strike duration is consistent with their torque reversal geometry. Even so, our simulations indicate that torque reversal systems can achieve either variable or invariant outputs through small adjustments to geometry. Our combined experiments and mathematical simulations reveal the capacity of geometric latches to enable, reduce or enhance variation of ultrafast movements in biological and synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J Longo
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Suzanne Cox
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | | | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
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13
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Hyun NP, Olberding JP, De A, Divi S, Liang X, Thomas E, St Pierre R, Steinhardt E, Jorge J, Longo SJ, Cox S, Mendoza E, Sutton GP, Azizi E, Crosby AJ, Bergbreiter S, Wood RJ, Patek SN. Spring and latch dynamics can act as control pathways in ultrafast systems. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18:026002. [PMID: 36595244 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acaa7c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafast movements propelled by springs and released by latches are thought limited to energetic adjustments prior to movement, and seemingly cannot adjust once movement begins. Even so, across the tree of life, ultrafast organisms navigate dynamic environments and generate a range of movements, suggesting unrecognized capabilities for control. We develop a framework of control pathways leveraging the non-linear dynamics of spring-propelled, latch-released systems. We analytically model spring dynamics and develop reduced-parameter models of latch dynamics to quantify how they can be tuned internally or through changing external environments. Using Lagrangian mechanics, we test feedforward and feedback control implementation via spring and latch dynamics. We establish through empirically-informed modeling that ultrafast movement can be controllably varied during latch release and spring propulsion. A deeper understanding of the interconnection between multiple control pathways, and the tunability of each control pathway, in ultrafast biomechanical systems presented here has the potential to expand the capabilities of synthetic ultra-fast systems and provides a new framework to understand the behaviors of fast organisms subject to perturbations and environmental non-idealities.
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Affiliation(s)
- N P Hyun
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - J P Olberding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - A De
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - S Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - X Liang
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - E Thomas
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - R St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - E Steinhardt
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - J Jorge
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - S J Longo
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - S Cox
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
| | - E Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - G P Sutton
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - E Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, United States of America
| | - A J Crosby
- Polymer Science and Engineering Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003, United States of America
| | - S Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States of America
| | - R J Wood
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, United States of America
| | - S N Patek
- Biology Department, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States of America
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14
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Cook A, Pandhigunta K, Acevedo MA, Walker A, Didcock RL, Castro JT, O’Neill D, Acharya R, Bhamla MS, Anderson PSL, Ilton M. A Tunable, Simplified Model for Biological Latch Mediated Spring Actuated Systems. Integr Org Biol 2022; 4:obac032. [PMID: 36060863 PMCID: PMC9434652 DOI: 10.1093/iob/obac032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We develop a model of latch-mediated spring actuated (LaMSA) systems relevant to comparative biomechanics and bioinspired design. The model contains five components: two motors (muscles), a spring, a latch, and a load mass. One motor loads the spring to store elastic energy and the second motor subsequently removes the latch, which releases the spring and causes movement of the load mass. We develop freely available software to accompany the model, which provides an extensible framework for simulating LaMSA systems. Output from the simulation includes information from the loading and release phases of motion, which can be used to calculate kinematic performance metrics that are important for biomechanical function. In parallel, we simulate a comparable, directly actuated system that uses the same motor and mass combinations as the LaMSA simulations. By rapidly iterating through biologically relevant input parameters to the model, simulated kinematic performance differences between LaMSA and directly actuated systems can be used to explore the evolutionary dynamics of biological LaMSA systems and uncover design principles for bioinspired LaMSA systems. As proof of principle of this concept, we compare a LaMSA simulation to a directly actuated simulation that includes either a Hill-type force-velocity trade-off or muscle activation dynamics, or both. For the biologically-relevant range of parameters explored, we find that the muscle force-velocity trade-off and muscle activation have similar effects on directly actuated performance. Including both of these dynamic muscle properties increases the accelerated mass range where a LaMSA system outperforms a directly actuated one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Cook
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | | | - Mason A Acevedo
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | - Adam Walker
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | | | | | - Declan O’Neill
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711
| | - Raghav Acharya
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30318
| | - M Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30318
| | - Philip S L Anderson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
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15
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Larabee FJ, Gibson JC, Rivera MD, Anderson PSL, Suarez AV. Muscle fatigue in the latch-mediated spring actuated mandibles of trap-jaw ants. Integr Comp Biol 2022; 62:icac091. [PMID: 35689666 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icac091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle fatigue can reduce performance potentially affecting an organism's fitness. However, some aspects of fatigue could be overcome by employing a latch-mediated spring actuated system (LaMSA) where muscle activity is decoupled from movement. We estimated the effects of muscle fatigue on different aspects of mandible performance in six species of ants, two whose mandibles are directly actuated by muscles and four that have LaMSA "trap-jaw" mandibles. We found evidence that the LaMSA system of trap-jaw ants may prevent some aspects of performance from declining with repeated use, including duration, acceleration and peak velocity. However, inter-strike interval increased with repeated strikes suggesting that muscle fatigue still comes into play during the spring loading phase. In contrast, one species with directly actuated mandibles showed a decline in bite force over time. These results have implications for design principles aimed at minimizing the effects of fatigue on performance in spring and motor actuated systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fredrick J Larabee
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 1000 Constitution Ave., Washington DC
| | - Josh C Gibson
- Department of Entomology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | | | - Philip S L Anderson
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
| | - Andrew V Suarez
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior
- Department of Entomology
- Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology. University of Illinois Urbana Champaign. 515 Morrill Hall. 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL. 61801
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16
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Hawkes EW, Xiao C, Peloquin RA, Keeley C, Begley MR, Pope MT, Niemeyer G. Engineered jumpers overcome biological limits via work multiplication. Nature 2022; 604:657-661. [PMID: 35478234 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-04606-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, scientists have explored the limits of biological jump height1,2, and for decades, engineers have designed jumping machines3-18 that often mimicked or took inspiration from biological jumpers. Despite these efforts, general analyses are missing that compare the energetics of biological and engineered jumpers across scale. Here we show how biological and engineered jumpers have key differences in their jump energetics. The jump height of a biological jumper is limited by the work its linear motor (muscle) can produce in a single stroke. By contrast, the jump height of an engineered device can be far greater because its ratcheted or rotary motor can 'multiply work' during repeated strokes or rotations. As a consequence of these differences in energy production, biological and engineered jumpers should have divergent designs for maximizing jump height. Following these insights, we created a device that can jump over 30 metres high, to our knowledge far higher than previous engineered jumpers and over an order of magnitude higher than the best biological jumpers. Our work advances the understanding of jumping, shows a new level of performance, and underscores the importance of considering the differences between engineered and biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot W Hawkes
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
| | - Charles Xiao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Christopher Keeley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Matthew R Begley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | | | - Günter Niemeyer
- Department of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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17
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Bergbreiter S. Jumping robot bests biology by enhancing stored energy. Nature 2022; 604:627-628. [PMID: 35478230 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-022-01077-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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18
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Bertone MA, Gibson JC, Seago AE, Yoshida T, Smith AA. A novel power-amplified jumping behavior in larval beetles (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0256509. [PMID: 35045081 PMCID: PMC8769368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Larval insects use many methods for locomotion. Here we describe a previously unknown jumping behavior in a group of beetle larvae (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae). We analyze and describe this behavior in Laemophloeus biguttatus and provide information on similar observations for another laemophloeid species, Placonotus testaceus. Laemophloeus biguttatus larvae precede jumps by arching their body while gripping the substrate with their legs over a period of 0.22 ± 0.17s. This is followed by a rapid ventral curling of the body after the larvae releases its grip that launches them into the air. Larvae reached takeoff velocities of 0.47 ± 0.15 m s-1 and traveled 11.2 ± 2.8 mm (1.98 ± 0.8 body lengths) horizontally and 7.9 ± 4.3 mm (1.5 ± 0.9 body lengths) vertically during their jumps. Conservative estimates of power output revealed that some but not all jumps can be explained by direct muscle power alone, suggesting Laemophloeus biguttatus may use a latch-mediated spring actuation mechanism (LaMSA) in which interaction between the larvae's legs and the substrate serves as the latch. MicroCT scans and SEM imaging of larvae did not reveal any notable modifications that would aid in jumping. Although more in-depth experiments could not be performed to test hypotheses on the function of these jumps, we posit that this behavior is used for rapid locomotion which is energetically more efficient than crawling the same distance to disperse from their ephemeral habitat. We also summarize and discuss jumping behaviors among insect larvae for additional context of this behavior in laemophloeid beetles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew A. Bertone
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Joshua C. Gibson
- Department of Entomology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Ainsley E. Seago
- Section of Invertebrate Zoology, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Takahiro Yoshida
- Systematic Zoology Laboratory, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji City, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Adrian A. Smith
- Research & Collections, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
- Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
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19
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Mendoza E, Azizi E. Tuned muscle and spring properties increase elastic energy storage. J Exp Biol 2021; 224:jeb243180. [PMID: 34821932 PMCID: PMC10658917 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.243180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Elastic recoil drives some of the fastest and most powerful biological movements. For effective use of elastic recoil, the tuning of muscle and spring force capacity is essential. Although studies of invertebrate organisms that use elastic recoil show evidence of increased force capacity in their energy loading muscle, changes in the fundamental properties of such muscles have yet to be documented in vertebrates. Here, we used three species of frogs (Cuban tree frogs, bullfrogs and cane toads) that differ in jumping power to investigate functional shifts in muscle-spring tuning in systems using latch-mediated spring actuation (LaMSA). We hypothesized that variation in jumping performance would result from increased force capacity in muscles and relatively stiffer elastic structures, resulting in greater energy storage. To test this, we characterized the force-length property of the plantaris longus muscle-tendon unit (MTU), and quantified the maximal amount of energy stored in elastic structures for each species. We found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs produced higher mass-specific energy and mass-specific forces than the other two species. Moreover, we found that the plantaris longus MTU of Cuban tree frogs had higher pennation angles than the other species, suggesting that muscle architecture was modified to increase force capacity through packing of more muscle fibers. Finally, we found that the elastic structures were relatively stiffer in Cuban tree frogs. These results provide a mechanistic link between the tuned properties of LaMSA components, energy storage capacity and whole-system performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Mendoza
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, 321 Steinhaus Hall, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA
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20
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McBride JM. Muscle Actuators, Not Springs, Drive Maximal Effort Human Locomotor Performance. J Sports Sci Med 2021; 20:766-777. [PMID: 35321123 PMCID: PMC8488820 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2021.766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The current investigation examined muscle-tendon unit kinematics and kinetics in human participants asked to perform a hopping task for maximal performance with variational preceding milieu. Twenty-four participants were allocated post-data collection into those participants with an average hop height of higher (HH) or lower (LH) than 0.1 m. Participants were placed on a customized sled at a 20º angle while standing on a force plate. Participants used their dominant ankle for all testing and their knee was immobilized and thus all movement involved only the ankle joint and corresponding propulsive unit (triceps surae muscle complex). Participants were asked to perform a maximal effort during a single dynamic countermovement hop (CMH) and drop hops from 10 cm (DH10) and 50 cm (DH50). Three-dimensional motion analysis was performed by utilizing an infrared camera VICON motion analysis system and a corresponding force plate. An ultrasound probe was placed on the triceps surae muscle complex for muscle fascicle imaging. HH hopped significantly higher in all hopping tasks in comparison to LH. In addition, the HH group concentric ankle work was significantly higher in comparison to LH during all of the hopping tasks. Active muscle work was significantly higher in HH in comparison to LH as well. Tendon work was not significantly different between HH and LH. Active muscle work was significantly correlated with hopping height (r = 0.97) across both groups and hopping tasks and contributed more than 50% of the total work. The data indicates that humans primarily use a motor-driven system and thus it is concluded that muscle actuators and not springs maximize performance in hopping locomotor tasks in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey M McBride
- Neuromuscular & Biomechanics Laboratory, Beaver College of Health Sciences, Department of Health & Exercise Science, Appalachian State University, North Carolina, USA
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21
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Acharya R, Challita EJ, Ilton M, Saad Bhamla M. The ultrafast snap of a finger is mediated by skin friction. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210672. [PMID: 34784775 PMCID: PMC8596009 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The snap of a finger has been used as a form of communication and music for millennia across human cultures. However, a systematic analysis of the dynamics of this rapid motion has not yet been performed. Using high-speed imaging and force sensors, we analyse the dynamics of the finger snap. We discover that the finger snap achieves peak angular accelerations of 1.6 × 106° s-2 in 7 ms, making it one of the fastest recorded angular accelerations the human body produces (exceeding professional baseball pitches). Our analysis reveals the central role of skin friction in mediating the snap dynamics by acting as a latch to control the resulting high velocities and accelerations. We evaluate the role of this frictional latch experimentally, by covering the thumb and middle finger with different materials to produce different friction coefficients and varying compressibility. In doing so, we reveal that the compressible, frictional latch of the finger pads likely operates in a regime optimally tuned for both friction and compression. We also develop a soft, compressible friction-based latch-mediated spring actuated model to further elucidate the key role of friction and how it interacts with a compressible latch. Our mathematical model reveals that friction plays a dual role in the finger snap, both aiding in force loading and energy storage while hindering energy release. Our work reveals how friction between surfaces can be harnessed as a tunable latch system and provides design insight towards the frictional complexity in many robotic and ultra-fast energy-release structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghav Acharya
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
| | - Elio J. Challita
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA,George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Tech, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
| | - Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - M. Saad Bhamla
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30311, USA
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22
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A physical model of mantis shrimp for exploring the dynamics of ultrafast systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2026833118. [PMID: 34389671 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2026833118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient and effective generation of high-acceleration movement in biology requires a process to control energy flow and amplify mechanical power from power density-limited muscle. Until recently, this ability was exclusive to ultrafast, small organisms, and this process was largely ascribed to the high mechanical power density of small elastic recoil mechanisms. In several ultrafast organisms, linkages suddenly initiate rotation when they overcenter and reverse torque; this process mediates the release of stored elastic energy and enhances the mechanical power output of extremely fast, spring-actuated systems. Here we report the discovery of linkage dynamics and geometric latching that reveals how organisms and synthetic systems generate extremely high-acceleration, short-duration movements. Through synergistic analyses of mantis shrimp strikes, a synthetic mantis shrimp robot, and a dynamic mathematical model, we discover that linkages can exhibit distinct dynamic phases that control energy transfer from stored elastic energy to ultrafast movement. These design principles are embodied in a 1.5-g mantis shrimp scale mechanism capable of striking velocities over 26 m [Formula: see text] in air and 5 m [Formula: see text] in water. The physical, mathematical, and biological datasets establish latching mechanics with four temporal phases and identify a nondimensional performance metric to analyze potential energy transfer. These temporal phases enable control of an extreme cascade of mechanical power amplification. Linkage dynamics and temporal phase characteristics are easily adjusted through linkage design in robotic and mathematical systems and provide a framework to understand the function of linkages and latches in biological systems.
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23
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Abstract
Typical shape memory alloy actuators provide a unique combination of large stresses and strains that result in work-per-volume larger by more than two orders of magnitude than all other actuation methods that are based on active materials. High-rate actuation of shape memory alloys can provide improved energy efficiency, and shorter response and total actuation times, along with large travel-per-wire-length, with respect to slow-rate SMA applications. In this article, we review the different aspects of high-rate actuation of shape memory alloy wires in the high-driving-force regime. We briefly survey previous experimental results about the kinetics and thermodynamics of the phase transformation in view of its practical implications. New experimental results, regarding energy efficiency, total actuation time, repeatability, and fatigue, are presented and discussed. The paper provides general design guidelines for obtaining high actuator performance, as well as guidelines for selecting the source of the electric pulse and its parameters. Finally, we construct and solve detailed simulations of actuator response that can serve as accurate design tools.
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24
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Divi S, Ma X, Ilton M, St Pierre R, Eslami B, Patek SN, Bergbreiter S. Latch-based control of energy output in spring actuated systems. J R Soc Interface 2020; 17:20200070. [PMID: 32693743 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2020.0070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The inherent force-velocity trade-off of muscles and motors can be overcome by instead loading and releasing energy in springs to power extreme movements. A key component of this paradigm is the latch that mediates the release of spring energy to power the motion. Latches have traditionally been considered as switches; they maintain spring compression in one state and allow the spring to release energy without constraint in the other. Using a mathematical model of a simplified contact latch, we reproduce this instantaneous release behaviour and also demonstrate that changing latch parameters (latch release velocity and radius) can reduce and delay the energy released by the spring. We identify a critical threshold between instantaneous and delayed release that depends on the latch, spring, and mass of the system. Systems with stiff springs and small mass can attain a wide range of output performance, including instantaneous behaviour, by changing latch release velocity. We validate this model in both a physical experiment as well as with data from the Dracula ant, Mystrium camillae, and propose that latch release velocity can be used in both engineering and biological systems to control energy output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sathvik Divi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Xiaotian Ma
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Mark Ilton
- Department of Physics, Harvey Mudd College, Claremont, CA 91711, USA
| | - Ryan St Pierre
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Babak Eslami
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA
| | - S N Patek
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Sarah Bergbreiter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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