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Amorim MCP. The role of acoustic signals in fish reproductiona). THE JOURNAL OF THE ACOUSTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2023; 154:2959-2973. [PMID: 37947394 DOI: 10.1121/10.0022353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
This paper outlines my research path over three decades while providing a review on the role of fish sounds in mate choice and reproduction. It also intends to provide advice to young scientists and point toward future avenues in this field of research. An overview of studies on different fish model species shows that male mating acoustic signals can inform females and male competitors about their size (dominant frequency, amplitude, and sound pulse rate modulation), body condition (calling activity and sound pulse rate), and readiness to mate (calling rate, number of pulses in a sound). At least in species with parental care, such as toadfishes, gobies, and pomacentrids, calling activity seems to be the main driver of reproductive success. Playback experiments ran on a restricted number of species consistently revealed that females prefer vocal to silent males and select for higher calling rates. This personal synthesis concludes with the suggestion to increase knowledge on fish mating signals, especially considering the emerging use of fish sounds to monitor aquatic environments due to increasing threats, like noise pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Clara P Amorim
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal and MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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2
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Baltieri M, Iizuka H, Witkowski O, Sinapayen L, Suzuki K. Hybrid Life: Integrating biological, artificial, and cognitive systems. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2023; 14:e1662. [PMID: 37403661 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/06/2023]
Abstract
Artificial life is a research field studying what processes and properties define life, based on a multidisciplinary approach spanning the physical, natural, and computational sciences. Artificial life aims to foster a comprehensive study of life beyond "life as we know it" and toward "life as it could be," with theoretical, synthetic, and empirical models of the fundamental properties of living systems. While still a relatively young field, artificial life has flourished as an environment for researchers with different backgrounds, welcoming ideas, and contributions from a wide range of subjects. Hybrid Life brings our attention to some of the most recent developments within the artificial life community, rooted in more traditional artificial life studies but looking at new challenges emerging from interactions with other fields. Hybrid Life aims to cover studies that can lead to an understanding, from first principles, of what systems are and how biological and artificial systems can interact and integrate to form new kinds of hybrid (living) systems, individuals, and societies. To do so, it focuses on three complementary perspectives: theories of systems and agents, hybrid augmentation, and hybrid interaction. Theories of systems and agents are used to define systems, how they differ (e.g., biological or artificial, autonomous, or nonautonomous), and how multiple systems relate in order to form new hybrid systems. Hybrid augmentation focuses on implementations of systems so tightly connected that they act as a single, integrated one. Hybrid interaction is centered around interactions within a heterogeneous group of distinct living and nonliving systems. After discussing some of the major sources of inspiration for these themes, we will focus on an overview of the works that appeared in Hybrid Life special sessions, hosted by the annual Artificial Life Conference between 2018 and 2022. This article is categorized under: Neuroscience > Cognition Philosophy > Artificial Intelligence Computer Science and Robotics > Robotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Baltieri
- Araya Inc., Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Informatics, University of Sussex, Brighton, UK
| | - Hiroyuki Iizuka
- Faculty of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Center for Human Nature, Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience (CHAIN), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Olaf Witkowski
- Center for Human Nature, Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience (CHAIN), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Cross Labs, Cross Compass, Kyoto, Japan
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Lana Sinapayen
- Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Kyoto, Japan
- National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Keisuke Suzuki
- Center for Human Nature, Artificial Intelligence and Neuroscience (CHAIN), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
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Hansen MJ, Domenici P, Bartashevich P, Burns A, Krause J. Mechanisms of group-hunting in vertebrates. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:1687-1711. [PMID: 37199232 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Group-hunting is ubiquitous across animal taxa and has received considerable attention in the context of its functions. By contrast much less is known about the mechanisms by which grouping predators hunt their prey. This is primarily due to a lack of experimental manipulation alongside logistical difficulties quantifying the behaviour of multiple predators at high spatiotemporal resolution as they search, select, and capture wild prey. However, the use of new remote-sensing technologies and a broadening of the focal taxa beyond apex predators provides researchers with a great opportunity to discern accurately how multiple predators hunt together and not just whether doing so provides hunters with a per capita benefit. We incorporate many ideas from collective behaviour and locomotion throughout this review to make testable predictions for future researchers and pay particular attention to the role that computer simulation can play in a feedback loop with empirical data collection. Our review of the literature showed that the breadth of predator:prey size ratios among the taxa that can be considered to hunt as a group is very large (<100 to >102 ). We therefore synthesised the literature with respect to these predator:prey ratios and found that they promoted different hunting mechanisms. Additionally, these different hunting mechanisms are also related to particular stages of the hunt (search, selection, capture) and thus we structure our review in accordance with these two factors (stage of the hunt and predator:prey size ratio). We identify several novel group-hunting mechanisms which are largely untested, particularly under field conditions, and we also highlight a range of potential study organisms that are amenable to experimental testing of these mechanisms in connection with tracking technology. We believe that a combination of new hypotheses, study systems and methodological approaches should help push the field of group-hunting in new directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Hansen
- Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, Berlin, 12587, Germany
| | - Paolo Domenici
- IBF-CNR, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Area di Ricerca San Cataldo, Via G. Moruzzi No. 1, Pisa, 56124, Italy
- IAS-CNR, Località Sa Mardini, Torregrande, Oristano, 09170, Italy
| | - Palina Bartashevich
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
| | - Alicia Burns
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
| | - Jens Krause
- Fish Biology, Fisheries and Aquaculture, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, Berlin, 12587, Germany
- Faculty of Life Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, Berlin, 10115, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence "Science of Intelligence," Technical University of Berlin, Marchstr. 23, Berlin, 10587, Germany
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4
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Corral-Lopez A, Kotrschal A, Szorkovszky A, Garate-Olaizola M, Herbert-Read J, van der Bijl W, Romenskyy M, Zeng HL, Buechel SD, Fontrodona-Eslava A, Pelckmans K, Mank JE, Kolm N. Evolution of schooling drives changes in neuroanatomy and motion characteristics across predation contexts in guppies. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6027. [PMID: 37758730 PMCID: PMC10533906 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41635-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most spectacular displays of social behavior is the synchronized movements that many animal groups perform to travel, forage and escape from predators. However, elucidating the neural mechanisms underlying the evolution of collective behaviors, as well as their fitness effects, remains challenging. Here, we study collective motion patterns with and without predation threat and predator inspection behavior in guppies experimentally selected for divergence in polarization, an important ecological driver of coordinated movement in fish. We find that groups from artificially selected lines remain more polarized than control groups in the presence of a threat. Neuroanatomical measurements of polarization-selected individuals indicate changes in brain regions previously suggested to be important regulators of perception, fear and attention, and motor response. Additional visual acuity and temporal resolution tests performed in polarization-selected and control individuals indicate that observed differences in predator inspection and schooling behavior should not be attributable to changes in visual perception, but rather are more likely the result of the more efficient relay of sensory input in the brain of polarization-selected fish. Our findings highlight that brain morphology may play a fundamental role in the evolution of coordinated movement and anti-predator behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Corral-Lopez
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
- Division of Biosciences, University College London, London, UK.
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Alexander Kotrschal
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Behavioural Ecology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Alexander Szorkovszky
- RITMO Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time and Motion, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Maddi Garate-Olaizola
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Ecology and Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - James Herbert-Read
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Aquatic Ecology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Wouter van der Bijl
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Maksym Romenskyy
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Hong-Li Zeng
- School of Science, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China
| | - Severine Denise Buechel
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Behavioural Ecology, Wageningen University & Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Ada Fontrodona-Eslava
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | | | - Judith E Mank
- Department of Zoology and Biodiversity Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Niclas Kolm
- Department of Zoology/Ethology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Maxeiner M, Hocke M, Moenck HJ, Gebhardt GHW, Weimar N, Musiolek L, Krause J, Bierbach D, Landgraf T. Social competence improves the performance of biomimetic robots leading live fish. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2023; 18. [PMID: 37015241 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/acca59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Collective motion is commonly modeled with static interaction rules between agents. Substantial empirical evidence indicates, however, that animals may adapt their interaction rules depending on a variety of factors and social contexts. Here, we hypothesized that leadership performance is linked to the leader's responsiveness to the follower's actions and we predicted that a leader is followed longer if it adapts to the follower's avoidance movements. We tested this prediction with live guppies that interacted with a biomimetic robotic fish programmed to act as a 'socially competent' leader. Fish that were avoiding the robot were approached more carefully in future approaches. In two separate experiments we then asked how the leadership performance of the socially competent robot leader differed to that of a robot leader that either approached all fish in the same, non-responsive, way or one that did change its approach behavior randomly, irrespective of the fish's actions. We found that (1) behavioral variability itself appears attractive and that socially competent robots are better leaders which (2) require fewer approach attempts to (3) elicit longer average following behavior than non-competent agents. This work provides evidence that social responsiveness to avoidance reactions plays a role in the social dynamics of guppies. We showcase how social responsiveness can be modeled and tested directly embedded in a living animal model using adaptive, interactive robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moritz Maxeiner
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mathis Hocke
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hauke J Moenck
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gregor H W Gebhardt
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Computational Systems Neuroscience, Institute of Zoology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Nils Weimar
- Institute of Zoology, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Lea Musiolek
- Department of Computer Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence 'Science of Intelligence', Technical University of Berlin, Marchstrasse 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Krause
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Albrecht Daniel Thaer Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence 'Science of Intelligence', Technical University of Berlin, Marchstrasse 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - David Bierbach
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Albrecht Daniel Thaer Institute of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence 'Science of Intelligence', Technical University of Berlin, Marchstrasse 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tim Landgraf
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence 'Science of Intelligence', Technical University of Berlin, Marchstrasse 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany
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Bierbach D, Gómez-Nava L, Francisco FA, Lukas J, Musiolek L, Hafner VV, Landgraf T, Romanczuk P, Krause J. Live fish learn to anticipate the movement of a fish-like robot . BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2022; 17:065007. [PMID: 36044889 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/ac8e3e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The ability of an individual to predict the outcome of the actions of others and to change their own behavior adaptively is called anticipation. There are many examples from mammalian species-including humans-that show anticipatory abilities in a social context, however, it is not clear to what extent fishes can anticipate the actions of their interaction partners or what the underlying mechanisms are for that anticipation. To answer these questions, we let live guppies (Poecilia reticulata) interact repeatedly with an open-loop (noninteractive) biomimetic robot that has previously been shown to be an accepted conspecific. The robot always performed the same zigzag trajectory in the experimental tank that ended in one of the corners, giving the live fish the opportunity to learn both the location of the final destination as well as the specific turning movement of the robot over three consecutive trials. The live fish's reactions were categorized into a global anticipation, which we defined as relative time to reach the robot's final corner, and a local anticipation which was the relative time and location of the live fish's turns relative to robofish turns. As a proxy for global anticipation, we found that live fish in the last trial reached the robot's destination corner significantly earlier than the robot. Overall, more than 50% of all fish arrived at the destination before the robot. This is more than a random walk model would predict and significantly more compared to all other equidistant, yet unvisited, corners. As a proxy for local anticipation, we found fish change their turning behavior in response to the robot over the course of the trials. Initially, the fish would turn after the robot, which was reversed in the end, as they began to turn slightly before the robot in the final trial. Our results indicate that live fish are able to anticipate predictably behaving social partners both in regard to final movement locations as well as movement dynamics. Given that fish have been found to exhibit consistent behavioral differences, anticipation in fish could have evolved as a mechanism to adapt to different social interaction partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bierbach
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer-Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
| | - Luis Gómez-Nava
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Fritz A Francisco
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Juliane Lukas
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer-Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lea Musiolek
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Adaptive Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Verena V Hafner
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Adaptive Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
| | - Tim Landgraf
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Krause
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer-Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 'Science of Intelligence', Technische Universität Berlin, 10587 Berlin, Germany
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7
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Makowicz AM, Bierbach D, Richardson C, Hughes KA. Cascading indirect genetic effects in a clonal vertebrate. Proc Biol Sci 2022; 289:20220731. [PMID: 35858068 PMCID: PMC9277275 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.0731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how individual differences arise and how their effects propagate through groups are fundamental issues in biology. Individual differences can arise from indirect genetic effects (IGE): genetically based variation in the conspecifics with which an individual interacts. Using a clonal species, the Amazon molly (Poecilia formosa), we test the hypothesis that IGE can propagate to influence phenotypes of the individuals that do not experience them firsthand. We tested this by exposing genetically identical Amazon mollies to conspecific social partners of different clonal lineages, and then moving these focal individuals to new social groups in which they were the only member to have experienced the IGE. We found that genetically different social environments resulted in the focal animals experiencing different levels of aggression, and that these IGE carried over into new social groups to influence the behaviour of naive individuals. These data reveal that IGE can cascade beyond the individuals that experience them. Opportunity for cascading IGE is ubiquitous, especially in species with long-distance dispersal or fission-fusion group dynamics. Cascades could amplify (or mitigate) the effects of IGE on trait variation and on evolutionary trajectories. Expansion of the IGE framework to include cascading and other types of carry-over effects will therefore improve understanding of individual variation and social evolution and allow more accurate prediction of population response to changing environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber M. Makowicz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA
| | - David Bierbach
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin, Germany,Excellence Cluster ‘Science of Intelligence,’ Technische Universität Berlin, Marchstraße 23, 10587 Berlin, Germany,Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer-Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Invalidenstrasse 42, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Richardson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA
| | - Kimberly A. Hughes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA
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Horsevad N, Kwa HL, Bouffanais R. Beyond Bio-Inspired Robotics: How Multi-Robot Systems Can Support Research on Collective Animal Behavior. Front Robot AI 2022; 9:865414. [PMID: 35795475 PMCID: PMC9252458 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2022.865414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the study of collective animal behavior, researchers usually rely on gathering empirical data from animals in the wild. While the data gathered can be highly accurate, researchers have limited control over both the test environment and the agents under study. Further aggravating the data gathering problem is the fact that empirical studies of animal groups typically involve a large number of conspecifics. In these groups, collective dynamics may occur over long periods of time interspersed with excessively rapid events such as collective evasive maneuvers following a predator’s attack. All these factors stress the steep challenges faced by biologists seeking to uncover the fundamental mechanisms and functions of social organization in a given taxon. Here, we argue that beyond commonly used simulations, experiments with multi-robot systems offer a powerful toolkit to deepen our understanding of various forms of swarming and other social animal organizations. Indeed, the advances in multi-robot systems and swarm robotics over the past decade pave the way for the development of a new hybrid form of scientific investigation of social organization in biology. We believe that by fostering such interdisciplinary research, a feedback loop can be created where agent behaviors designed and tested in robotico can assist in identifying hypotheses worth being validated through the observation of animal collectives in nature. In turn, these observations can be used as a novel source of inspiration for even more innovative behaviors in engineered systems, thereby perpetuating the feedback loop.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hian Lee Kwa
- Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore, Singapore
- Thales Solutions Asia, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Roland Bouffanais
- University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
- *Correspondence: Roland Bouffanais,
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9
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Stefanec M, Hofstadler DN, Krajník T, Turgut AE, Alemdar H, Lennox B, Şahin E, Arvin F, Schmickl T. A Minimally Invasive Approach Towards “Ecosystem Hacking” With Honeybees. Front Robot AI 2022; 9:791921. [PMID: 35572369 PMCID: PMC9096355 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2022.791921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bees live in colonies of thousands of individuals, that not only need to collaborate with each other but also to interact intensively with their ecosystem. A small group of robots operating in a honey bee colony and interacting with the queen bee, a central colony element, has the potential to change the collective behavior of the entire colony and thus also improve its interaction with the surrounding ecosystem. Such a system can be used to study and understand many elements of bee behavior within hives that have not been adequately researched. We discuss here the applicability of this technology for ecosystem protection: A novel paradigm of a minimally invasive form of conservation through “Ecosystem Hacking”. We discuss the necessary requirements for such technology and show experimental data on the dynamics of the natural queen’s court, initial designs of biomimetic robotic surrogates of court bees, and a multi-agent model of the queen bee court system. Our model is intended to serve as an AI-enhanceable coordination software for future robotic court bee surrogates and as a hardware controller for generating nature-like behavior patterns for such a robotic ensemble. It is the first step towards a team of robots working in a bio-compatible way to study honey bees and to increase their pollination performance, thus achieving a stabilizing effect at the ecosystem level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Stefanec
- Artificial Life Lab, Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- *Correspondence: Martin Stefanec,
| | | | - Tomáš Krajník
- Artificial Intelligence Centre, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Ali Emre Turgut
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
- ROMER-Center for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Hande Alemdar
- ROMER-Center for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
- Department of Computer Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Barry Lennox
- Department of Computer Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Erol Şahin
- ROMER-Center for Robotics and Artificial Intelligence, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
- Department of Computer Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Farshad Arvin
- Department of Computer Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Thomas Schmickl
- Artificial Life Lab, Institute of Biology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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10
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Phillips N, Draper TC, Mayne R, Reynolds DM, Adamatzky A. Marimo actuated rover systems. J Biol Eng 2022; 16:3. [PMID: 34986856 PMCID: PMC8734212 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-021-00279-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The potential to directly harness photosynthesis to make actuators, biosensors and bioprocessors has been previously demonstrated in the literature. Herein, this capability has been expanded to more advanced systems — Marimo Actuated Rover Systems (MARS) — which are capable of autonomous, solar powered, movement. Results We demonstrate this ability is both a practical and viable alternative to conventional mobile platforms for exploration and dynamic environmental monitoring. Prototypes have been successfully tested to measure their speed of travel and ability to automatically bypass obstacles. Further, MARS is electromagnetically silent, thus avoiding the background noise generated by conventional electro/mechanical platforms which reduces instrument sensitivity. The cost of MARS is significantly lower than platforms based on conventional technology. Conclusions An autonomous, low-cost, lightweight, compact size, photosynthetically powered rover is reported. The potential for further system enhancements are identified and under development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1186/s13036-021-00279-0).
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil Phillips
- Unconventional Computing Laboratory, Faculty of the Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK.
| | - Thomas C Draper
- Unconventional Computing Laboratory, Faculty of the Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - Richard Mayne
- Unconventional Computing Laboratory, Faculty of the Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - Darren M Reynolds
- Centre for Research in Biosciences, Faculty of Health and Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
| | - Andrew Adamatzky
- Unconventional Computing Laboratory, Faculty of the Environment and Technology, University of the West of England, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol, BS16 1QY, UK
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11
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Video playback versus live stimuli to assess quantity discrimination in angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare). Behav Res Methods 2021; 54:2433-2444. [PMID: 34918227 PMCID: PMC9579089 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01738-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Video playback is a widely used technique for presentation of visual stimuli in animal behavior research. In the analysis of behavioral responses to social cues, presentation of video recordings of live conspecifics represents a consistently reproducible stimulus. However, video-recordings do not interact with the experimental subject, and thus this stimulus may be inferior in the social context. Here, we evaluated how angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) respond to a video playback of conspecifics versus a live shoal of conspecifics. Using binary choice tests, subjects were presented different stimuli. Time spent close to one versus the other stimulus was considered an index of preference. We found angelfish to prefer a live shoal of conspecifics to an empty tank, and also the video playback of a shoal of conspecifics to a blank screen, although the level of preference in the latter was lower than in the former. These results indicate that video-playback of live conspecifics may be appropriate in angelfish, thus allowing manipulation of specific cues that angelfish may use in quantity discrimination. However, when we directly contrasted a live and a video recorded shoal, both having the same number of members, experimental fish preferred the live shoal. When the choice consisted of a live shoal of four conspecifics versus a video playback of a shoal of nine conspecifics no clear preference emerged. These results imply that video-playback has disadvantages in quantity discrimination studies with angelfish. Exploring procedural and/or technological parameters will verify the suitability of video-recording-based stimulus presentation for future use in angelfish.
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12
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Strickland K, Mitchell DJ, Delmé C, Frère CH. Repeatability and heritability of social reaction norms in a wild agamid lizard. Evolution 2021; 75:1953-1965. [PMID: 34184766 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In the evolutionary transition from solitary to group living, it should be adaptive for animals to respond to the environment and choose when to socialize to reduce conflict and maximize access to resources. Due to the associated proximate mechanisms (e.g. neural network, endocrine system), it is likely that this behavior varies between individuals according to genetic and non-genetic factors. We used long-term behavioral and genetic data from a population of eastern water dragons (Intellagama lesueurii) to explore variation in plasticity of social behavior, in response to sex ratio and density. To do so, we modeled individual variation in social reaction norms, which describe individuals' mean behavior and behavioral responses to changes in their environment, and partitioned variance into genetic and non-genetic components. We found that reaction norms were repeatable over multiple years, suggesting that individuals consistently differed in their behavioral responses to changes in the social environment. Despite high repeatability of reaction norm components, trait heritability was below our limit of detection based on power analyses (h2 < 0.12), leading to very little power to detect heritability of plasticity. This was in contrast to a relatively greater amount of variance associated with environmental effects. This could suggest that mechanisms such as social learning and frequency-dependence may shape variance in reaction norms, which will be testable as the dataset grows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasha Strickland
- Global Ecology Change Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Maroochydore, Australia.,Department of Aquaculture and Fish Biology, Hólar University, Hólar, Iceland
| | - David J Mitchell
- Department of Ethology/Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Coralie Delmé
- Global Ecology Change Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Maroochydore, Australia
| | - Céline H Frère
- Global Ecology Change Research Group, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Maroochydore, Australia
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13
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DeLellis P, Cadolini E, Croce A, Yang Y, di Bernardo M, Porfiri M. Model-based feedback control of live zebrafish behavior via interaction with a robotic replica. IEEE T ROBOT 2021; 36:28-41. [PMID: 33746643 DOI: 10.1109/tro.2019.2943066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The possibility of regulating the behavior of live animals using biologically-inspired robots has attracted the interest of biologists and engineers for over twenty-five years. From early work on insects to recent endeavors on mammals, we have witnessed fascinating applications that have pushed forward our understanding of animal behavior along new directions. Despite significant progress, most of the research has focused on open-loop control systems, in which robots execute predetermined actions, independent of the animal behavior. We integrate mathematical modeling of social behavior toward the design of realistic feedback laws for robots to interact with a live animal. In particular, we leverage recent advancements in data-driven modeling of zebrafish behavior. Ultimately, we establish a novel robotic platform that allows real-time actuation of a biologically-inspired 3D-printed zebrafish replica to implement model-based control of animal behavior. We demonstrate our approach through a series of experiments, designed to elucidate the appraisal of the replica by live subjects with respect to conspecifics and to quantify the biological value of closed-loop control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro DeLellis
- Department of Electrical Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, University of Naples Federico II. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering
| | - Edoardo Cadolini
- Department of Electrical Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, University of Naples Federico II. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering
| | - Arrigo Croce
- Department of Electrical Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, University of Naples Federico II. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering
| | - Yanpeng Yang
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering. Key Laboratory of Mechanism Theory and Equipment Design of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Mario di Bernardo
- Department of Electrical Electrical Engineering and Information Technology, University of Naples Federico II. Department of Engineering Mathematics of the University of Bristol, U.K
| | - Maurizio Porfiri
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering. Department of Biomedical Engineering, New York University Tandon School of Engineering
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14
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Social signaling via bioluminescent blinks determines nearest neighbor distance in schools of flashlight fish Anomalops katoptron. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6431. [PMID: 33742043 PMCID: PMC7979757 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85770-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The schooling flashlight fish Anomalops katoptron can be found at dark nights at the water surface in the Indo-Pacific. Schools are characterized by bioluminescent blink patterns of sub-ocular light organs densely-packed with bioluminescent, symbiotic bacteria. Here we analyzed how blink patterns of A. katoptron are used in social interactions. We demonstrate that isolated specimen of A. katoptron showed a high motivation to align with fixed or moving artificial light organs in an experimental tank. This intraspecific recognition of A. katoptron is mediated by blinking light and not the body shape. In addition, A. katoptron adjusts its blinking frequencies according to the light intensities. LED pulse frequencies determine the swimming speed and the blink frequency response of A. katoptron, which is modified by light organ occlusion and not exposure. In the natural environment A. katoptron is changing its blink frequencies and nearest neighbor distance in a context specific manner. Blink frequencies are also modified by changes in the occlusion time and are increased from day to night and during avoidance behavior, while group cohesion is higher with increasing blink frequencies. Our results suggest that specific blink patterns in schooling flashlight fish A. katoptron define nearest neighbor distance and determine intraspecific communication.
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15
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Daniels BC, Romanczuk P. Quantifying the impact of network structure on speed and accuracy in collective decision-making. Theory Biosci 2021; 140:379-390. [PMID: 33635501 DOI: 10.1007/s12064-020-00335-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Found in varied contexts from neurons to ants to fish, binary decision-making is one of the simplest forms of collective computation. In this process, information collected by individuals about an uncertain environment is accumulated to guide behavior at the aggregate scale. We study binary decision-making dynamics in networks responding to inputs with small signal-to-noise ratios, looking for quantitative measures of collectivity that control performance in this task. We find that decision accuracy is directly correlated with the speed of collective dynamics, which is in turn controlled by three factors: the leading eigenvalue of the network adjacency matrix, the corresponding eigenvector's participation ratio, and distance from the corresponding symmetry-breaking bifurcation. A novel approximation of the maximal attainable timescale near such a bifurcation allows us to predict how decision-making performance scales in large networks based solely on their spectral properties. Specifically, we explore the effects of localization caused by the hierarchical assortative structure of a "rich club" topology. This gives insight into the trade-offs involved in the higher-order structure found in living networks performing collective computations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan C Daniels
- ASU-SFI Center for Biosocial Complex Systems, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.
| | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Institute for Theoretical Biology, Department of Biology, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Berlin, Germany
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16
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Male Sexual Preference for Female Swimming Activity in the Guppy ( Poecilia reticulata). BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10020147. [PMID: 33673367 PMCID: PMC7918064 DOI: 10.3390/biology10020147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mate choice that is based on behavioural traits is a common feature in the animal kingdom. Using the Trinidadian guppy, a species with mutual mate choice, we investigated whether males use female swimming activity-a behavioural trait known to differ consistently among individuals in many species-as a trait relevant for their mate choice. In the first experiment, we assessed male and female activity in an open field test alone (two repeated measures) and afterwards in heterosexual pairs (two repeated measures). In these pairs, we simultaneously assessed males' mating efforts by counting the number of sexual behaviours (courtship displays and copulations). Male and female guppies showed consistent individual differences in their swimming activity when tested both alone and in a pair, and these differences were maintained across both test situations. When controlling for male swimming behaviour and both male and female body size, males performed more courtship displays towards females with higher swimming activity. In a second experiment, we tested for a directional male preference for swimming activity by presenting males video animations of low- and high-active females in a dichotomous choice test. In congruence with experiment 1, we found males to spend significantly more time in association with the high-active female stimulus. Both experiments thus point towards a directional male preference for higher activity levels in females. We discuss the adaptive significance of this preference as activity patterns might indicate individual female quality, health or reproductive state while, mechanistically, females that are more active might be more detectable to males as well.
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17
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Pita D, Fernández-Juricic E. Zebrafish Neighbor Distance Changes Relative to Conspecific Size, Position in the Water Column, and the Horizon: A Video-Playback Experiment. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.568752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many fish form schools and maintain visual contact with their neighbors in a three-dimensional environment. In this study, we assessed whether zebrafish modified their spacing and interaction time in an additive or multiplicative way relative to multiple sources of social information using computer animations. We simultaneously manipulated: (a) the size of the virtual conspecific (as a proxy of social cue magnitude), (b) the position of the virtual conspecific in the water column (as a proxy of the level of perceived risk), and (c) the absence/presence of the visual horizon (as a proxy of depth perception). We found that the size of the virtual conspecific independently affected spacing behavior (zebrafish increased their separation distance as conspecific size increased). However, some of these factors interacted significantly, such that their effects on social behavior depended on each other. For instance, zebrafish increased their separation distance under high risk conditions when the virtual conspecific was larger, but this risk effect disappeared when the conspecific was the same size or smaller, likely to avoid aggression. Also, zebrafish increased their separation distance when depth perception was enhanced under low risk conditions, but the effect of depth perception disappeared under high risk conditions. Overall, we found that certain dimensions of the visual social environment affected zebrafish spacing behavior in different ways, but they did not affect social interaction time. We discuss the implications of these findings for the spatial organization of fish schools.
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18
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Lukas J, Kalinkat G, Miesen FW, Landgraf T, Krause J, Bierbach D. Consistent Behavioral Syndrome Across Seasons in an Invasive Freshwater Fish. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.583670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the linkage between behavioral types and dispersal tendency has become a pressing issue in light of global change and biological invasions. Here, we explore whether dispersing individuals exhibit behavioral types that differ from those remaining in the source population. We investigated a feral population of guppies (Poecilia reticulata) that undergoes a yearly range shift cycle. Guppies are among the most widespread invasive species in the world, but in temperate regions these tropical fish can only survive in winter-warm freshwaters. Established in a thermally-altered stream in Germany, guppies are confined to a warm-water influx in winter, but can spread to peripheral parts as these become thermally accessible. We sampled fish from the source population and a winter-abandoned site in March, June and August. Fish were tested for boldness, sociability and activity involving open-field tests including interactions with a robotic social partner. Guppies differed consistently among each other in all three traits within each sample. Average trait expression in the source population differed across seasons, however, we could not detect differences between source and downstream population. Instead, all populations exhibited a remarkably stable behavioral syndrome between boldness and activity despite strong seasonal changes in water temperature and associated environmental factors. We conclude that random drift (opposed to personality-biased dispersal) is a more likely dispersal mode for guppies, at least in the investigated stream. In the face of fluctuating environments, guppies seem to be extremely effective in keeping behavioral expressions constant, which could help explain their successful invasion and adaptation to new and disturbed habitats.
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19
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Romano D, Stefanini C. Bio-robotic cues show how the Trinidadian guppy male recognises the morphological features of receptive females. Behav Processes 2020; 182:104283. [PMID: 33227377 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2020.104283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Sensory fusion is used by the males of several animal species to discriminate the mating status of females by evaluating their phenotypic traits. The predominant trait used is olfactory cues, and the role of visual cues is not yet fully understood. The ability of Poecilia reticulata males to evaluate females' receptivity based on visual cues was investigated. Guppy males adopt two different mating strategies, courtship displays and forced copulation, towards receptive and pregnant females, respectively. Robotic counterparts mimicking receptive and pregnant females were developed to test whether males relied only on visual information to determine a females' mating status. Exposure to the robotic receptive females evoked courtship behaviours, while forced copulation attempts were more frequent towards the robotic pregnant females. When the robotic fish were simultaneously exposed, regardless of the presence or absence of receptive-female olfactory cues, males expressed their preference for the receptive female. Visual processing showed that fish social interactions played a strategic role in their collection of information, especially when other stimuli were not available. The proposed ethorobotic approach allowed for assessing the role of visual cues in the mating choice of P. reticulata males and highlighting the information processing methods and cognition in aquatic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donato Romano
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Pisa, Italy; Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, 56127, Pisa, Italy.
| | - Cesare Stefanini
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Pisa, Italy; Department of Excellence in Robotics and AI, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, 56127, Pisa, Italy; Healthcare Engineering Innovation Center (HEIC), Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
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20
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Abstract
In recent studies, robots are used to stimulate living systems in controlled experimental settings. This research strategy is here called interactive biorobotics, to distinguish it from classical biorobotics, in which robots are used to simulate, rather than to stimulate, living system behavior. This article offers a methodological analysis of interactive biorobotics and has two goals. The first one is to argue that interactive biorobotics is methodologically different, in some important respects, from classical biorobotics and from countless instances of model-based science. It will be shown that interactive biorobotics does not conform to the so-called “understanding by building” approach or synthetic method, and that it illustrates a novel use of models in science. The second goal is to reflect on the logic of interactive biorobotics. A distinction will be made between two classes of studies, which will be called “proximal” and “distal.” In proximal studies, experiments involving robot-animal interaction are brought to bear on theoretical hypotheses on robot-animal interaction. In distal studies, experiments involving robot-animal interaction are brought to bear on theoretical hypotheses on animal-animal interaction. Distal studies involve logical steps which may be particularly hard to justify. This distinction, together with a methodological reflection on the relationship between the context in which the experiments are carried out and the context in which the conclusions are expected to hold, will lead to a checklist of questions which may be useful to justify and evaluate the validity of interactive biorobotics studies. The reconstruction of the logic of interactive biorobotics made here, though preliminary, may contribute to justifying the important role that robots, as tool for stimulating living systems, can play in the contemporary life sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Datteri
- RobotiCSS Lab - Laboratory of Robotics for the Cognitive and Social Sciences, Department of Human Sciences for Education, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
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21
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Bierbach D, Mönck HJ, Lukas J, Habedank M, Romanczuk P, Landgraf T, Krause J. Guppies Prefer to Follow Large (Robot) Leaders Irrespective of Own Size. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:441. [PMID: 32500065 PMCID: PMC7243707 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Body size is often assumed to determine how successfully an individual can lead others with larger individuals being better leaders than smaller ones. But even if larger individuals are more readily followed, body size often correlates with specific behavioral patterns and it is thus unclear whether larger individuals are more often followed than smaller ones because of their size or because they behave in a certain way. To control for behavioral differences among differentially-sized leaders, we used biomimetic robotic fish (Robofish) of different sizes. Live guppies (Poecilia reticulata) are known to interact with Robofish in a similar way as with live conspecifics. Consequently, Robofish may serve as a conspecific-like leader that provides standardized behaviors irrespective of its size. We asked whether larger Robofish leaders are preferentially followed and whether the preferences of followers depend on own body size or risk-taking behavior ("boldness"). We found that live female guppies followed larger Robofish leaders in closer proximity than smaller ones and this pattern was independent of the followers' own body size as well as risk-taking behavior. Our study shows a "bigger is better" pattern in leadership that is independent of behavioral differences among differentially-sized leaders, followers' own size and risk-taking behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bierbach
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Excellence Cluster ‘Science of Intelligence’, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hauke J. Mönck
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute for Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Juliane Lukas
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie Habedank
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Pawel Romanczuk
- Excellence Cluster ‘Science of Intelligence’, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology, Institute for Theoretical Biology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tim Landgraf
- Excellence Cluster ‘Science of Intelligence’, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute for Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jens Krause
- Faculty of Life Sciences, Thaer Institute, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Excellence Cluster ‘Science of Intelligence’, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
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22
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Abstract
Collective decisions can emerge from individual-level interactions between members of a group. These interactions are often seen as social feedback rules, whereby individuals copy the decisions they observe others making, creating a coherent group decision. The benefit of these behavioral rules to the individual agent can be understood as a transfer of information, whereby a focal individual learns about the world by gaining access to the information possessed by others. Previous studies have analyzed this exchange of information by assuming that all agents share common goals. While differences in information and differences in preferences have often been conflated, little is known about how differences between agents' underlying preferences affect the use and efficacy of social information. In this paper, I develop a model of social information use by rational agents with differing preferences, and demonstrate that the resulting collective behavior is strongly dependent on the structure of preference sharing within the group, as well as the quality of information in the environment. In particular, I show that strong social responses are expected by individuals that are habituated to noisy, uncertain environments where private information about the world is relatively weak. Furthermore, by investigating heterogeneous group structures, I demonstrate a potential influence of cryptic minority subgroups that may illuminate the empirical link between personality and leadership.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard P Mann
- Department of Statistics, School of Mathematics, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom;
- The Alan Turing Institute, London NW1 2DB, United Kingdom
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23
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Kruusmaa M, Gkliva R, Tuhtan JA, Tuvikene A, Alfredsen JA. Salmon behavioural response to robots in an aquaculture sea cage. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:191220. [PMID: 32269784 PMCID: PMC7137936 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.191220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Animal-robot studies can inform us about animal behaviour and inspire advances in agriculture, environmental monitoring and animal health and welfare. Currently, experimental results on how fish are affected by the presence of underwater robots are largely limited to laboratory environments with few individuals and a focus on model species. Laboratory studies provide valuable insight, but their results are not necessarily generalizable to larger scales such as marine aquaculture. This paper examines the effects of underwater robots and a human diver in a large fish aggregation within a Norwegian aquaculture facility, with the explicit purpose to improve the use of underwater robots for fish observations. We observed aquaculture salmon's reaction to the flipper-propelled robot U-CAT in a sea cage with 188 000 individuals. A significant difference in fish behaviour was found using U-CAT when compared to a thruster-driven underwater robot, Argus Mini and a human diver. Specifically, salmon were more likely to swim closer to U-CAT at a lower tailbeat frequency. Fish reactions were not significantly different when considering motor noise or when U-CAT's colour was changed from yellow to silver. No difference was observed in the distance or tailbeat frequency as a response to thruster or flipper motion, when actuated and passively floating robots were compared. These results offer insight into how large aggregations of aquaculture salmon respond to underwater robots. Furthermore, the proposed underwater video processing workflow to assess fish's response to underwater robots is simple and reproducible. This work provides a practical method to study fish-robot interactions, which can lead to improved underwater robot designs to provide more affordable, scalable and effective solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Kruusmaa
- Centre for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Otto Nielsens Veg 10, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
- Centre for Biorobotics, Department of Computer Systems, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15A, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - R. Gkliva
- Centre for Biorobotics, Department of Computer Systems, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15A, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - J. A. Tuhtan
- Centre for Biorobotics, Department of Computer Systems, Tallinn University of Technology, Akadeemia tee 15A, 12618 Tallinn, Estonia
| | - A. Tuvikene
- Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian University of Life Sciences, Fr.R.Kreutzwald 5, 51006 Tartu, Estonia
| | - J. A. Alfredsen
- Centre for Autonomous Marine Operations and Systems, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Otto Nielsens Veg 10, Trondheim NO-7491, Norway
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24
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Dimitriadou S, Croft DP, Darden SK. Divergence in social traits in Trinidadian guppies selectively bred for high and low leadership in a cooperative context. Sci Rep 2019; 9:17194. [PMID: 31748621 PMCID: PMC6868185 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53748-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In many animal species, individuals with certain morphological, physiological, or behavioural traits may have a disproportionately large role in determining group behaviour. While most empirical studies of leadership have focused on behaviour of individuals exploring new environments or foraging, little is known about leading behaviour in other ecological contexts. Here, we use a selective breeding design in the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata) to quantify the heritability of leadership in a cooperative context, and determine the behavioural traits associated with it. Firstly we found that phenotypic selection for high and low leadership (HL and LL, respectively) over three filial generations resulted in pronounced differences in leadership tendency with a moderate degree of heritability. In our assay of other social traits, LL males were more aggressive and sampled their social environment less than HL males, but HL and LL females did not differ in either aggressiveness or sociability. Traits such as boldness and exploratory tendency did not diverge between the two lines. Leading behaviour was thus associated with social traits in males, but not females; suggesting that there may be sex-specific mechanisms driving the emergence of leadership in this context. We discuss our findings in the context of the evolution of cooperation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Dimitriadou
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Washington Singer Laboratories, Perry Road, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK.
| | - D P Croft
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Washington Singer Laboratories, Perry Road, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
| | - S K Darden
- Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Washington Singer Laboratories, Perry Road, Exeter, EX4 4QG, UK
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25
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Polverino G, Karakaya M, Spinello C, Soman VR, Porfiri M. Behavioural and life-history responses of mosquitofish to biologically inspired and interactive robotic predators. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190359. [PMID: 31506048 PMCID: PMC6769303 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive alien species threaten biodiversity worldwide and contribute to biotic homogenization, especially in freshwaters, where the ability of native animals to disperse is limited. Robotics may offer a promising tool to address this compelling problem, but whether and how invasive species can be negatively affected by robotic stimuli is an open question. Here, we explore the possibility of modulating behavioural and life-history responses of mosquitofish by varying the degree of biomimicry of a robotic predator, whose appearance and locomotion are inspired by natural mosquitofish predators. Our results support the prediction that real-time interactions at varying swimming speeds evoke a more robust antipredator response in mosquitofish than simpler movement patterns by the robot, especially in individuals with better body conditions that are less prone to take risks. Through an information-theoretic analysis of animal-robot interactions, we offer evidence in favour of a causal link between the motion of the robotic predator and a fish antipredator response. Remarkably, we observe that even a brief exposure to the robotic predator of 15 min per week is sufficient to erode energy reserves and compromise the body condition of mosquitofish, opening the door for future endeavours to control mosquitofish in the wild.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Polverino
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
- Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mert Karakaya
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Chiara Spinello
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Vrishin R. Soman
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Maurizio Porfiri
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
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26
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Yang Y, Clément RJG, Ghirlanda S, Porfiri M. A Comparison of Individual Learning and Social Learning in Zebrafish Through an Ethorobotics Approach. Front Robot AI 2019; 6:71. [PMID: 33501086 PMCID: PMC7805697 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2019.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Social learning is ubiquitous across the animal kingdom, where animals learn from group members about predators, foraging strategies, and so on. Despite its prevalence and adaptive benefits, our understanding of social learning is far from complete. Here, we study observational learning in zebrafish, a popular animal model in neuroscience. Toward fine control of experimental variables and high consistency across trials, we developed a novel robotics-based experimental test paradigm, in which a robotic replica demonstrated to live subjects the correct door to join a group of conspecifics. We performed two experimental conditions. In the individual training condition, subjects learned the correct door without the replica. In the social training condition, subjects observed the replica approaching both the incorrect door, to no effect, and the correct door, which would open after spending enough time close to it. During these observations, subjects could not actively follow the replica. Zebrafish increased their preference for the correct door over the course of 20 training sessions, but we failed to identify evidence of social learning, whereby we did not register significant differences in performance between the individual and social training conditions. These results suggest that zebrafish may not be able to learn a route by observation, although more research comparing robots to live demonstrators is needed to substantiate this claim.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanpeng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Mechanism Theory and Equipment Design of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Romain J. G. Clément
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Stefano Ghirlanda
- Department of Psychology, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Departments of Psychology and Biology, The Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY), New York, NY, United States
- Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maurizio Porfiri
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
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27
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Heinrich MK, von Mammen S, Hofstadler DN, Wahby M, Zahadat P, Skrzypczak T, Soorati MD, Krela R, Kwiatkowski W, Schmickl T, Ayres P, Stoy K, Hamann H. Constructing living buildings: a review of relevant technologies for a novel application of biohybrid robotics. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190238. [PMID: 31362616 PMCID: PMC6685033 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Biohybrid robotics takes an engineering approach to the expansion and exploitation of biological behaviours for application to automated tasks. Here, we identify the construction of living buildings and infrastructure as a high-potential application domain for biohybrid robotics, and review technological advances relevant to its future development. Construction, civil infrastructure maintenance and building occupancy in the last decades have comprised a major portion of economic production, energy consumption and carbon emissions. Integrating biological organisms into automated construction tasks and permanent building components therefore has high potential for impact. Live materials can provide several advantages over standard synthetic construction materials, including self-repair of damage, increase rather than degradation of structural performance over time, resilience to corrosive environments, support of biodiversity, and mitigation of urban heat islands. Here, we review relevant technologies, which are currently disparate. They span robotics, self-organizing systems, artificial life, construction automation, structural engineering, architecture, bioengineering, biomaterials, and molecular and cellular biology. In these disciplines, developments relevant to biohybrid construction and living buildings are in the early stages, and typically are not exchanged between disciplines. We, therefore, consider this review useful to the future development of biohybrid engineering for this highly interdisciplinary application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Katherine Heinrich
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- School of Architecture, Centre for IT and Architecture, Royal Danish Academy, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sebastian von Mammen
- Human–Computer Interaction, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Mostafa Wahby
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Payam Zahadat
- Institute of Biology, Artificial Life Lab, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Kobenhavn, Denmark
| | - Tomasz Skrzypczak
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | | | - Rafał Krela
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Wojciech Kwiatkowski
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Thomas Schmickl
- Institute of Biology, Artificial Life Lab, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Phil Ayres
- School of Architecture, Centre for IT and Architecture, Royal Danish Academy, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kasper Stoy
- Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Kobenhavn, Denmark
| | - Heiko Hamann
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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28
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Spinello C, Yang Y, Macrì S, Porfiri M. Zebrafish Adjust Their Behavior in Response to an Interactive Robotic Predator. Front Robot AI 2019; 6:38. [PMID: 33501054 PMCID: PMC7806020 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2019.00038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) constitutes a valuable experimental species for the study of the biological determinants of emotional responses, such as fear and anxiety. Fear-related test paradigms traditionally entail the interaction between focal subjects and live predators, which may show inconsistent behavior throughout the experiment. To address this technical challenge, robotic stimuli are now frequently integrated in behavioral studies, yielding repeatable, customizable, and controllable experimental conditions. While most of the research has focused on open-loop control where robotic stimuli are preprogrammed to execute a priori known actions, recent work has explored the possibility of two-way interactions between robotic stimuli and live subjects. Here, we demonstrate a "closed-loop control" system to investigate fear response of zebrafish in which the response of the robotic stimulus is determined in real-time through a finite-state Markov chain constructed from independent observations on the interactions between zebrafish and their predator. Specifically, we designed a 3D-printed robotic replica of the zebrafish allopatric predator red tiger Oscar fish (Astronotus ocellatus), instrumented to interact in real-time with live subjects. We investigated the role of closed-loop control in modulating fear response in zebrafish through the analysis of the focal fish ethogram and the information-theoretic quantification of the interaction between the subject and the replica. Our results indicate that closed-loop control elicits consistent fear response in zebrafish and that zebrafish quickly adjust their behavior to avoid the predator's attacks. The augmented degree of interactivity afforded by the Markov-chain-dependent actuation of the replica constitutes a fundamental advancement in the study of animal-robot interactions and offers a new means for the development of experimental paradigms to study fear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Spinello
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
| | - Yanpeng Yang
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Key Laboratory of Mechanism Theory and Equipment Design of Ministry of Education, School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Simone Macrì
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Centre for Behavioural Sciences and Mental Health, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Maurizio Porfiri
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New York University, Tandon School of Engineering, Brooklyn, NY, United States
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29
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Hollins JPW, Thambithurai D, Van Leeuwen TE, Allan B, Koeck B, Bailey D, Killen SS. Shoal familiarity modulates effects of individual metabolism on vulnerability to capture by trawling. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz043. [PMID: 31380110 PMCID: PMC6661965 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Impacts of fisheries-induced evolution may extend beyond life history traits to more cryptic aspects of biology, such as behaviour and physiology. Understanding roles of physiological traits in determining individual susceptibility to capture in fishing gears and how these mechanisms change across contexts is essential to evaluate the capacity of commercial fisheries to elicit phenotypic change in exploited populations. Previous work has shown that metabolic traits related to anaerobic swimming may determine individual susceptibility to capture in trawls, with fish exhibiting higher anaerobic performance more likely to evade capture. However, high densities of fish aggregated ahead of a trawl net may exacerbate the role of social interactions in determining an individual fish's behaviour and likelihood of capture, yet the role of social environment in modulating relationships between individual physiological traits and vulnerability to capture in trawls remains unknown. By replicating the final moments of capture in a trawl using shoals of wild minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus), we investigated the role of individual metabolic traits in determining susceptibility to capture among shoals of both familiar and unfamiliar conspecifics. We expected that increased shoal cohesion and conformity of behaviour in shoals of familiar fish would lessen the role of individual metabolic traits in determining susceptibility to capture. However, the opposite pattern was observed, with individual fish exhibiting high anaerobic capacity less vulnerable to capture in the trawl net, but only when tested alongside familiar conspecifics. This pattern is likely due to stronger cohesion within familiar shoals, where maintaining a minimal distance from conspecifics, and thus staying ahead of the net, becomes limited by individual anaerobic swim performance. In contrast, lower shoal cohesion and synchronicity of behaviours within unfamiliar shoals may exacerbate the role of stochastic processes in determining susceptibility to capture, disrupting relationships between individual metabolic traits and vulnerability to capture.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P W Hollins
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
- Corresponding author: Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
| | - D Thambithurai
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - T E Van Leeuwen
- Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Salmonid Section, 80 East White Hills Road, PO Box 5667, St. John’s, Newfoundland A1C 5X1, Canada
- Department of Ocean Sciences, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, Newfoundland A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - B Allan
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - B Koeck
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - D Bailey
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
| | - S S Killen
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, Graham Kerr Building, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK
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