1
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Tan M, Zhang S, Stevens M, Li D, Tan EJ. Antipredator defences in motion: animals reduce predation risks by concealing or misleading motion signals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:778-796. [PMID: 38174819 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Motion is a crucial part of the natural world, yet our understanding of how animals avoid predation whilst moving remains rather limited. Although several theories have been proposed for how antipredator defence may be facilitated during motion, there is often a lack of supporting empirical evidence, or conflicting findings. Furthermore, many studies have shown that motion often 'breaks' camouflage, as sudden movement can be detected even before an individual is recognised. Whilst some static camouflage strategies may conceal moving animals to a certain extent, more emphasis should be given to other modes of camouflage and related defences in the context of motion (e.g. flicker fusion camouflage, active motion camouflage, motion dazzle, and protean motion). Furthermore, when motion is involved, defence strategies are not necessarily limited to concealment. An animal can also rely on motion to mislead predators with regards to its trajectory, location, size, colour pattern, or even identity. In this review, we discuss the various underlying antipredator strategies and the mechanisms through which they may be linked to motion, conceptualising existing empirical and theoretical studies from two perspectives - concealing and misleading effects. We also highlight gaps in our understanding of these antipredator strategies, and suggest possible methodologies for experimental designs/test subjects (i.e. prey and/or predators) and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Shichang Zhang
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Daiqin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Centre for Behavioural Ecology & Evolution, State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, Hubei, China
| | - Eunice J Tan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
- Division of Science, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, Singapore, 138527, Singapore
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2
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Vane-Wright RI. Turning biology to life: some reflections. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
This essay presents various reflections on living systems, what they are and how they evolve, prompted by editing Teleonomy in Living Systems (a special issue of the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society). Conclusions include the suggestion that the linked notions of teleonomy and agency represent fundamental properties of matter that become apparent only when organized in the way that we consider to be that of a living system. As such, they are factors that form part of the intrinsic ‘a priori’ of living systems, as they evolve in form through space and time. Biology, the science of life and living systems, needs to be ‘biological’ if it is to be anything at all. Understanding the role of teleonomy (internal, inherent goal-seeking) will always play a necessary part in this endeavour: teleonomy represents one of the fundamental properties of living systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard I Vane-Wright
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), University of Kent , Canterbury CT2 7NR , UK
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum , London SW7 5BD , UK
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3
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Skelhorn J, Rowland HM. Eyespot configuration and predator approach direction affect the antipredator efficacy of eyespots. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.951967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many prey species possess eyespots: paired markings that often consist of two or more concentric circles. Predators are wary of such prey because eyespots are conspicuous and/or mistaken for vertebrate eyes. Here we used naïve domestic chicks as predators of artificial moth-like prey to test the hypothesis that both eyespots configuration and predator approach direction affect the antipredator efficacy of eyespots. We found that when chicks approached prey straight on, eyespots configuration did not influence attack latency. Chicks that approached from either the left or the right, were slower to attack prey in which the central circle of the eyespot was centrally placed or shifted in the direction of the chick’s approach, compared to prey in which the central circle had been shifted away from the direction of approach. These findings suggest that eyespots composed of concentric circles may protect prey against predators approaching from a wider range of directions than eyespots composed of eccentric circles. They are also consistent with the idea that eyespots are mistaken for eyes, and are perceived to pose a lesser risk when their “gaze” is averted from the approaching predator.
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4
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Riley JL, Haff TM, Ryeland J, Drinkwater E, Umbers KDL. The protective value of the colour and shape of the mountain katydid's antipredator defence. J Evol Biol 2022. [PMID: 35960499 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Deimatic behaviour is performed by prey when attacked by predators as part of an antipredator strategy. The behaviour is part of a sequence that consists of several defences, for example they can be preceded by camouflage and followed by a hidden putatively aposematic signal that is only revealed when the deimatic behaviour is performed. When displaying their hidden signal, mountain katydids (Acripeza reticulata) hold their wings vertically, exposing striking red and black stripes with blue spots and oozing an alkaloid-rich chemical defence derived from its Senecio diet. Understanding differences and interactions between deimatism and aposematism has proven problematic, so in this study we isolated the putative aposematic signal of the mountain katydid's antipredator strategy to measure its survival value in the absence of their deimatic behaviour. We manipulated two aspects of the mountain katydid's signal, colour pattern and whole body shape during display. We deployed five kinds of clay models, one negative control and four katydid-like treatments, in 15 grids across part of the mountain katydid's distribution to test the hypothesis that their hidden signal is aposematic. If this hypothesis holds true, we expected that the models, which most closely resembled real katydids would be attacked the least. Instead, we found that models that most closely resembled real katydids were the most likely to be attacked. We suggest several ideas to explain these results, including that the deimatic phase of the katydid's display, the change from a camouflaged state to exposing its hidden signal, may have important protective value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia L Riley
- Department of Biology, Mount Allison University, Sackville, New Brunswick, Canada.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Tonya M Haff
- Australian National Wildlife Collection, CSIRO, Acton, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Julia Ryeland
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Eleanor Drinkwater
- School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK
| | - Kate D L Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Science, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia
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5
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Drinkwater E, Allen WL, Endler JA, Hanlon RT, Holmes G, Homziak NT, Kang C, Leavell BC, Lehtonen J, Loeffler‐Henry K, Ratcliffe JM, Rowe C, Ruxton GD, Sherratt TN, Skelhorn J, Skojec C, Smart HR, White TE, Yack JE, Young CM, Umbers KDL. A synthesis of deimatic behaviour. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2022; 97:2237-2267. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eleanor Drinkwater
- Department of Animal Science Writtle University College Writtle Chelmsford CM1 3RR UK
| | - William L. Allen
- Department of Biosciences Swansea University Sketty Swansea SA2 8PP UK
| | - John A. Endler
- Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Life & Environmental Sciences Deakin University Waurn Ponds VIC 3216 Australia
| | | | - Grace Holmes
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH UK
| | - Nicholas T. Homziak
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
- Entomology and Nematology Department University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
| | - Changku Kang
- Department of Biosciences Mokpo National University Muan Jeollanamdo 58554 South Korea
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology Seoul National University Seoul 08826 South Korea
- Department of Agriculture and Life Sciences Seoul National University Seoul 08826 South Korea
| | - Brian C. Leavell
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette IN 47907 USA
| | - Jussi Lehtonen
- Faculty of Science, School of Life and Environmental Sciences The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä 40014 Finland
| | | | - John M. Ratcliffe
- Department of Biology University of Toronto Mississauga Mississauga ON L5L 1C6 Canada
| | - Candy Rowe
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH UK
| | - Graeme D. Ruxton
- School of Biology University of St Andrews St Andrews Fife KY16 9TH UK
| | - Tom N. Sherratt
- Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
| | - John Skelhorn
- Biosciences Institute, Faculty of Medical Sciences Newcastle University Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH UK
| | - Chelsea Skojec
- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, Florida Museum of Natural History University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
- Entomology and Nematology Department University of Florida Gainesville FL 32611 USA
| | - Hannah R. Smart
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment Western Sydney University Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
| | - Thomas E. White
- Faculty of Science, School of Life and Environmental Sciences The University of Sydney Sydney NSW 2006 Australia
| | - Jayne E. Yack
- Department of Biology Carleton University Ottawa ON K1S 5B6 Canada
| | | | - Kate D. L. Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment Western Sydney University Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
- School of Science Western Sydney University Penrith NSW 2751 Australia
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6
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Juntorp E, Åkerman M, Fitzpatrick JL. Are behavioral responses to eyespots in sticklebacks influenced by the visual environment? An experimental examination. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e9089. [PMID: 35813913 PMCID: PMC9256514 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.9089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Eyespots are taxonomically widespread color patterns consisting of large concentric rings that are commonly assumed to protect prey by influencing the behaviors of predators. Although there is ample experimental evidence supporting an anti-predator function of eyespots in terrestrial animals, whether eyespots have a similar deterring function in aquatic animals remains unclear. Furthermore, studies in terrestrial systems suggest that the protective function of eyespots depends on ambient light conditions where predators encounter them, but this effect has never been tested in aquatic environments. Here, we examine how eyespots influence behavioral responses in an aquatic environment under different visual environments, using laboratory-reared three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) as model predators. Specifically, we experimentally examined behavioral responses of sticklebacks toward artificial prey patterns (control vs. eyespots) under two different light environment treatments (low vs. high). We found that eyespots did not postpone attacks from sticklebacks. However, sticklebacks approaching eyespots stopped more frequently than sticklebacks approaching prey items with a control pattern. Sticklebacks were (marginally) slower to attack prey in the low-light treatment, but the light level did not influence stickleback behavioral responses toward eyespots. We conclude that eyespots can modulate some behaviors of an aquatic predator, albeit with a different functional role from that previously demonstrated in terrestrial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelina Juntorp
- Department of Zoology: EthologyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
| | - Madicken Åkerman
- Department of Zoology: EthologyStockholm UniversityStockholmSweden
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7
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Martin E, Steinmetz HL, Baek SY, Gilbert FR, Brandley NC. Rapid Shifts in Visible Carolina Grasshopper (Dissosteira carolina) Coloration During Flights. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.900544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Some brightly colored structures are only visible when organisms are moving, such as parts of wings that are only visible in flight. For example, the primarily brown Carolina grasshopper (Dissosteira carolina) has contrasting black-and-cream hindwings that appear suddenly when it takes off, then oscillate unpredictably throughout the main flight before disappearing rapidly upon landing. However, the temporal dynamics of hindwing coloration in motion have not previously been investigated, particularly for animals that differ from humans in their temporal vision. To examine how quickly this coloration appears to a variety of non-human observers, we took high-speed videos of D. carolina flights in the field. For each of the best-quality takeoffs and landings, we performed a frame-by-frame analysis on how the relative sizes of the different-colored body parts changed over time. We found that in the first 7.6 ± 1.5 ms of takeoff, the hindwings unfurled to encompass 50% of the visible grasshopper, causing it to roughly double in size. During the main flight, the hindwings transitioned 6.4 ± 0.4 times per second between pauses and periods of active wing-beating (31.4 ± 0.5 Hz), creating an unstable, confusing image. Finally, during landings, the hindwings disappeared in 11.3 ± 3.0 ms, shrinking the grasshopper to 69 ± 9% of its main flight size. Notably, these takeoffs and landings occurred faster than most recorded species are able to sample images, which suggests that they would be near-instantaneous to a variety of different viewers. We therefore suggest that D. carolina uses its hindwings to initially startle predators (deimatic defense) and then confuse them and disrupt their search images (protean defense) before rapidly returning to crypsis.
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8
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Sandoval L, Wilson DR. Neotropical birds respond innately to unfamiliar acoustic signals. Am Nat 2022; 200:419-434. [DOI: 10.1086/720441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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9
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Berardo C, Geritz S. Coevolution of the reckless prey and the patient predator. J Theor Biol 2021; 530:110873. [PMID: 34425133 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2021.110873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The war of attrition in game theory is a model of a stand-off situation between two opponents where the winner is determined by its persistence. We model a stand-off between a predator and a prey when the prey is hiding and the predator is waiting for the prey to come out from its refuge, or when the two are locked in a situation of mutual threat of injury or even death. The stand-off is resolved when the predator gives up or when the prey tries to escape. Instead of using the asymmetric war of attrition, we embed the stand-off as an integral part of the predator-prey model of Rosenzweig and MacArthur derived from first principles. We apply this model to study the coevolution of the giving-up rates of the prey and the predator, using the adaptive dynamics approach. We find that the long term evolutionary process leads to three qualitatively different scenarios: the predator gives up immediately, while the prey never gives up; the predator never gives up, while the prey adopts any giving-up rate greater than or equal to a given positive threshold value; the predator goes extinct. We observe that some results are the same as for the asymmetric war of attrition, but others are quite different.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Berardo
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Stefan Geritz
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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10
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Lohse K, Mackintosh A, Vila R. The genome sequence of the European peacock butterfly, Aglais io (Linnaeus, 1758). Wellcome Open Res 2021; 6:258. [PMID: 36072556 PMCID: PMC9372638 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17204.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a genome assembly from an individual male Aglais io (also known as Inachis io and Nymphalis io) (the European peacock; Arthropoda; Insecta; Lepidoptera; Nymphalidae). The genome sequence is 384 megabases in span. The majority (99.91%) of the assembly is scaffolded into 31 chromosomal pseudomolecules, with the Z sex chromosome assembled. Gene annotation of this assembly on Ensembl has identified 11,420 protein coding genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konrad Lohse
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Roger Vila
- Institut de Biologia Evolutiva (CSIC - Universitat Pompeu Fabra), Barcelona, Spain
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11
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Alexiuk MR, Lalonde MML, Marcus JM. Phylogenetic analysis of the complete mitochondrial genome of the Japanese peacock butterfly Aglais io geisha (Stichel 1907) (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Mitochondrial DNA B Resour 2021; 6:3082-3084. [PMID: 34595344 PMCID: PMC8477945 DOI: 10.1080/23802359.2021.1981168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The peacock butterfly Aglais io (Linnaeus, 1758) (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae: Nymphalini) is a colorful and charismatic flagship butterfly species whose range spans from the British Isles and Europe through temperate Asia and the Far East. In Europe, it has been used as a model species for studying the effects of GMO maize pollen on caterpillar growth and survivorship. The Japanese subspecies, Aglais io geisha (Stichel 1907), is not as well studied as its European counterpart. Genome skimming by Illumina sequencing allowed the assembly of a complete circular mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of 15,252 bp from A. io geisha consisting of 80.6% AT nucleotides, 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNAs, two rRNAs, and a control region in the gene order typical of butterfly species. Aglais io geisha COX1 gene features an atypical start codon (CGA) while COX1, COX2, CYTB, ND1, ND3, ND4, and ND5 display incomplete stop codons finished by the addition of 3' A residues to the mRNA. Bayesian phylogenetic reconstruction places A. io geisha within a clade with European A. io mitogenomes in the tribe Nymphalini, which is consistent with previous phylogenetic hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeffrey M. Marcus
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
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12
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Lucas J, Ros A, Gugele S, Dunst J, Geist J, Brinker A. The hunter and the hunted-A 3D analysis of predator-prey interactions between three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and larvae of different prey fishes. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256427. [PMID: 34437615 PMCID: PMC8389440 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions play a key life history role, as animals cope with changing predation risk and opportunities to hunt prey. It has recently been shown that the hunting success of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) targeting fish larvae is dependent on both the size of the prey and the prior exposure of its species to stickleback predation. The purpose of the current study was to identify the behavioural predator-prey interactions explaining the success or failure of sticklebacks hunting larvae of three potential prey species [roach (Rutilus rutilus), perch (Perca fluviatilis) and whitefish (Coregonus wartmannii)] in a 3D environment. Trials were carried out for each prey species at four different size classes in a standardised laboratory setup and were recorded using a slow motion, stereo camera setup. 75 predator-prey interactions including both failed and successful hunts were subject to the analysis. 3D track analysis indicated that sticklebacks applied different strategies. Prey with less complex predator escape responses, i.e. whitefish larvae, were hunted using a direct but stealthy approach ending in a lunge, while the behaviourally more complex roach and perch larvae were hunted with a faster approach. A multivariate logistic regression identified that slow average speed and acceleration of the prey in the initial stages of the hunt increased the probability of stickleback success. Furthermore, predators adjusted their swimming direction more often when hunting larger whitefish compared to smaller whitefish. The results suggest that appropriate and adequately timed avoidance behaviours, which vary between prey species and ontogenetic stages, significantly increase the chances of outmanoeuvring and escaping stickleback predation. Small whitefish larvae can reach similar levels of swimming performance compared to older conspecifics, but display ineffective anti-predator behaviours, resulting in higher hunting success for sticklebacks. Thus, the development of appropriate anti-predator behaviours depending on size appears to be the crucial factor to escaping predation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorrit Lucas
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Albert Ros
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Sarah Gugele
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Julian Dunst
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
| | - Juergen Geist
- Aquatic Systems Biology Unit, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Center of Life and Food Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Alexander Brinker
- Fisheries Research Station Baden-Wuerttemberg, LAZBW, Langenargen, Germany
- University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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13
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Chan IZW, Ngan ZC, Naing L, Lee Y, Gowri V, Monteiro A. Predation favours Bicyclus anynana butterflies with fewer forewing eyespots. Proc Biol Sci 2021; 288:20202840. [PMID: 34034526 PMCID: PMC8150031 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There are fewer eyespots on the forewings versus hindwings of nymphalids but the reasons for this uneven distribution remain unclear. One possibility is that, in many butterflies, the hindwing covers part of the ventral forewing at rest and there are fewer forewing sectors to display eyespots (covered eyespots are not continuously visible and are less likely to be under positive selection). A second explanation is that having fewer forewing eyespots confers a selective advantage against predators. We analysed wing overlap at rest in 275 nymphalid species with eyespots and found that many have exposed forewing sectors without eyespots: i.e. wing overlap does not constrain the forewing from having the same number or more eyespots than the hindwing. We performed two predation experiments with mantids to compare the relative fitness of and attack damage patterns on two forms of Bicyclus anynana butterflies, both with seven hindwing eyespots, but with two (in wild-type) or four (in Spotty) ventral forewing eyespots. Spotty experienced more intense predation on the forewings, were shorter-lived and laid fewer eggs. These results suggest that predation pressure limits forewing eyespot number in B. anynana. This may occur if attacks on forewing eyespots have more detrimental consequences for flight than attacks on hindwing eyespots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Z. W. Chan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
| | - Zhe Ching Ngan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
| | - Lin Naing
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
| | - Yueying Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
| | - V Gowri
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4 117557, Singapore
- Science Division, Yale-NUS College, 16 College Avenue West, 138527, Singapore
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14
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Koutrouditsou LK, Nudds RL. No evidence of sexual dimorphism in the tails of the swallowtail butterflies Papilio machaon gorganus and P. m. britannicus. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:4744-4749. [PMID: 33976844 PMCID: PMC8093745 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The European swallowtail butterfly (Papilio machaon) is so named, because of the long and narrow prominences extending from the trailing edge of their hindwings and, although not a true tail, they are referred to as such. Despite being a defining feature, an unequivocal function for the tails is yet to be determined, with predator avoidance (diverting an attack from the rest of the body), and enhancement of aerodynamic performance suggested. The swallowtail, however, is sexually size dimorphic with females larger than males, but whether the tail is also sexually dimorphic is unknown. Here, museum specimens were used to determine whether sexual selection has played a role in the evolution of the swallowtail butterfly tails in a similar way to that seen in the tail streamers of the barn swallow (Hirundo rustica), where the males have longer streamers than those of the females. Previously identified sexual dimorphism in swallowtail butterfly size was replicated, but no evidence for dimorphism in tail length was found. If evolved to mimic antennae and a head to divert a predatory attack, and if an absolute tail size was the most effective for this, then the tail would probably be invariant with butterfly hindwing size. The slope of the relationship between tail length and size, however, although close to zero, was nonetheless statistically significantly above (tail length ∝ hindwing area 0.107 ± 0.011). The slope also did not equate to that expected for geometric similarity (tail length ∝ hindwing area1/2) suggesting that tail morphology is not solely driven by aerodynamics. It seems likely then, that tail morphology is primarily determined by, and perhaps a compromise of several, factors associated with predator avoidance (e.g. false head mimicry and a startling function). Of course, experimental data are required to confirm this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia K. Koutrouditsou
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and HealthUniversity of ManchesterManchesterUK
| | - Robert L. Nudds
- School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and HealthUniversity of ManchesterManchesterUK
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15
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Low ML, Naranjo M, Yack JE. Survival Sounds in Insects: Diversity, Function, and Evolution. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.641740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Insect defense sounds have been reported for centuries. Yet, aside from the well-studied anti-bat sounds of tiger moths, little is understood about the occurrence, function, and evolution of these sounds. We define a defense sound as an acoustic signal (air- or solid-borne vibration) produced in response to attack or threat of attack by a predator or parasitoid and that promotes survival. Defense sounds have been described in 12 insect orders, across different developmental stages, and between sexes. The mechanisms of defensive sound production include stridulation, percussion, tymbalation, tremulation, and forced air. Signal characteristics vary between species, and we discuss how morphology, the intended receiver, and specific functions of the sounds could explain this variation. Sounds can be directed at predators or non-predators, and proposed functions include startle, aposematism, jamming, and alarm, although experimental evidence for these hypotheses remains scant for many insects. The evolutionary origins of defense sounds in insects have not been rigorously investigated using phylogenetic methodology, but in most cases it is hypothesized that they evolved from incidental sounds associated with non-signaling behaviors such as flight or ventilatory movements. Compared to our understanding of visual defenses in insects, sonic defenses are poorly understood. We recommend that future investigations focus on testing hypotheses explaining the functions and evolution of these survival sounds using predator-prey experiments and comparative phylogenetics.
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Domínguez-Castanedo O, Muñoz-Campos TM, Valdesalici S, Valdez-Carbajal S, Passos C. Male mate choice in the annual killifish Millerichthys robustus and its relationship with female polymorphism, size and fecundity. ETHOL ECOL EVOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/03949370.2021.1883121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Omar Domínguez-Castanedo
- Departamento El Hombre y su Ambiente, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco, Calzada del Hueso No. 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, Coyoacán, CDMX 04906, México
| | - Tessy M. Muñoz-Campos
- Licenciatura En Biología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco, Calzada del Hueso No. 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, Coyoacán, CDMX 04906, México
| | - Stefano Valdesalici
- Associazione Italiana Killifish, Via Cà Bertacchi 5, 42030 Viano (Reggio Emilia), Italy
| | - Sharon Valdez-Carbajal
- Licenciatura En Biología, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco, Calzada del Hueso No. 1100, Col. Villa Quietud, Coyoacán, CDMX 04906, México
| | - Carlos Passos
- Sección de Etología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la Republica, Iguá 4225, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
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Beldade P, Monteiro A. Eco-evo-devo advances with butterfly eyespots. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2021; 69:6-13. [PMID: 33434722 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2020.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Eyespots on the wings of different nymphalid butterflies have become valued models in eco-evo-devo. They are ecologically significant, evolutionarily diverse, and developmentally tractable. Their study has provided valuable insight about the genetic and developmental basis of inter-specific diversity and intra-specific variation, as well as into other key themes in evo-evo-devo: evolutionary novelty, developmental constraints, and phenotypic plasticity. Here we provide an overview of eco-evo-devo studies of butterfly eyespots, highlighting previous reviews, and focusing on both the most recent advances and the open questions expected to be solved in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Beldade
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, 2780-156 Oeiras, Portugal; CE3C: Centre for Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Changes, Faculty of Sciences, University of Lisbon, Campo Grande C2, 1749-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore; Science Division, Yale-NUS College, Singapore 138614, Singapore.
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A release from developmental bias accelerates morphological diversification in butterfly eyespots. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:27474-27480. [PMID: 33093195 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2008253117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Development can bias the independent evolution of traits sharing ontogenetic pathways, making certain evolutionary changes less likely. The eyespots commonly found on butterfly wings each have concentric rings of differing colors, and these serially repeated pattern elements have been a focus for evo-devo research. In the butterfly family Nymphalidae, eyespots have been shown to function in startling or deflecting predators and to be involved in sexual selection. Previous work on a model species of Mycalesina butterfly, Bicyclus anynana, has provided insights into the developmental control of the size and color composition of individual eyespots. Experimental evolution has also shown that the relative size of a pair of eyespots on the same wing surface is highly flexible, whereas they are resistant to diverging in color composition, presumably due to the underlying shared developmental process. This fixed color composition has been considered as a prime example of developmental bias with significant consequences for wing pattern evolution. Here, we test this proposal by surveying eyespots across the whole subtribe of Mycalesina butterflies and demonstrate that developmental bias shapes evolutionary diversification except in the genus Heteropsis which has gained independent control of eyespot color composition. Experimental manipulations of pupal wings reveal that the bias has been released through a novel regional response of the wing tissue to a conserved patterning signal. Our study demonstrates that development can bias the evolutionary independence of traits, but it also shows how bias can be released through developmental innovations, thus, allowing rapid morphological change, facilitating evolutionary diversification.
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Debat V, Chazot N, Jarosson S, Blandin P, Llaurens V. What Drives the Diversification of Eyespots in Morpho Butterflies? Disentangling Developmental and Selective Constraints From Neutral Evolution. Front Ecol Evol 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2020.00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Song W, Lee SI, Jablonski PG. Evolution of switchable aposematism: insights from individual-based simulations. PeerJ 2020; 8:e8915. [PMID: 32309047 PMCID: PMC7153555 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Some defended prey animals can switch on their normally hidden aposematic signals. This switching may occur in reaction to predators’ approach (pre-attack signals) or attack (post-attack signals). Switchable aposematism has been relatively poorly studied, but we can expect that it might bring a variety of benefits to an aposmetic organism. First, the switching could startle the predators (deimatism). Second, it could facilitate aversive learning. Third, it could minimize exposure or energetic expense, as the signal can be switched off. These potential benefits might offset costs of developing, maintaining and utilizing the switchable traits. Here we focused on the third benefit of switchability, the cost-saving aspect, and developed an individual-based computer simulation of predators and prey. In 88,128 model runs, we observed evolution of permanent, pre-attack, or post-attack aposematic signals of varying strength. We found that, in general, the pre-attack switchable aposematism may require moderate predator learning speed, high basal detectability, and moderate to high signal cost. On the other hand, the post-attack signals may arise under slow predator learning, low basal detectability and high signal cost. When predator population turnover is fast, it may lead to evolution of post-attack aposematic signals that are not conforming to the above tendency. We also suggest that a high switching cost may exert different selection pressure on the pre-attack than the post-attack switchable strategies. To our knowledge, these are the first theoretical attempts to systematically explore the evolution of switchable aposematism relative to permanent aposematism in defended prey. Our simulation model is capable of addressing additional questions beyond the scope of this article, and we open the simulation software, program manual and source code for free public use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woncheol Song
- Laboratory of Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sang-im Lee
- School of Undergraduate Studies, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, Daegu, South Korea
| | - Piotr G. Jablonski
- Laboratory of Behavioral Ecology and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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21
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Smart IE, Cuthill IC, Scott-Samuel NE. In the corner of the eye: camouflaging motion in the peripheral visual field. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192537. [PMID: 31937225 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most animals need to move, and motion will generally break camouflage. In many instances, most of the visual field of a predator does not fall within a high-resolution area of the retina and so, when an undetected prey moves, that motion will often be in peripheral vision. We investigate how this can be exploited by prey, through different patterns of movement, to reduce the accuracy with which the predator can locate a cryptic prey item when it subsequently orients towards a target. The same logic applies for a prey species trying to localize a predatory threat. Using human participants as surrogate predators, tasked with localizing a target on peripherally viewed computer screens, we quantify the effects of movement (duration and speed) and target pattern. We show that, while motion is certainly detrimental to camouflage, should movement be necessary, some behaviours and surface patterns reduce that cost. Our data indicate that the phenotype that minimizes localization accuracy is unpatterned, having the mean luminance of the background, does not use a startle display prior to movement, and has short (below saccadic latency), fast movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioan E Smart
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Innes C Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TQ, UK
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Perez-Martinez CA, Riley JL, Whiting MJ. Uncovering the function of an enigmatic display: antipredator behaviour in the iconic Australian frillneck lizard. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
When faced with a predator, some animals engage in a deimatic display to startle the predator momentarily, resulting in a pause or retreat, thereby increasing their chance of escape. Frillneck lizards (Chlamydosaurus kingii) are characterised by a large, pronounced frill that extends from the base of the head to beyond the neck and, when displayed, can be up to six times the width of the head. We used behavioural assays with a model avian predator to demonstrate that their display conforms to deimatic display theory. First, juveniles and adults deployed the frill in encounters with a model predator. Second, the display revealed three colour patches (white and red–orange patches on the frill; yellow mouth palate) that facilitate a transition from a cryptic to a conspicuous state as perceived by a raptor visual system. Third, the display was performed with movements that amplified its effect. The frill area was larger in males than in females, which suggests that the frill might also be co-opted for male–male contests. If future research confirms a role of the frill in male agonistic interactions, frillneck lizards will be a rare case in which a structure has a dual function in a deimatic display and a sexually selected signal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia L Riley
- Ecology and Evolution Research Centre, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Martin J Whiting
- Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Chan IZW, Rafi FZ, Monteiro A. Interacting Effects of Eyespot Number and Ultraviolet Reflectivity on Predation Risk in Bicyclus anynana (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2019; 19:19. [PMID: 31830273 PMCID: PMC6907000 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iez123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Small marginal eyespots on lepidopteran wings are conspicuous elements that attract a predator's attention to deflect attacks away from the body, but the role of ultraviolet (UV) reflectivity at the center of these patterns and variation in eyespot number in altering the function of eyespots remains unclear. Here, we performed a field-based predation experiment with artificial prey items based on the appearance of squinting bush brown butterflies Bicyclus anynana (Butler, 1879). We tested how two visual properties of the wing pattern affect predation risk: i) the number of eyespots on the ventral forewing surface-two or four; and ii) the UV reflectivity of eyespot centers-normal (where the UV reflectivity of the centers contrasts strongly with that of the darker surrounding ring) or blocked (where this contrast is reduced). In total, 807 prey items were deployed at two sites. We found a significant interaction between the number of ventral forewing eyespots and UV reflectivity in the eyespot centers: in items with fewer eyespots, blocking UV resulted in increased predation risk whereas in items with more eyespots, blocking UV resulted in decreased predation risk. If higher predation of paper models can be equated with higher levels of wing margin/eyespot conspicuity, these results demonstrate that UV reflectivity is an important factor in making eyespots more conspicuous to predators and suggest that the fitness of particular butterfly eyespot number variants may depend on the presence or absence of UV in their centers and on the ability of local predator guilds to detect UV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian Z W Chan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Fathima Zohara Rafi
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Yale-NUS College, Singapore
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24
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Umbers KDL, White TE, De Bona S, Haff T, Ryeland J, Drinkwater E, Mappes J. The protective value of a defensive display varies with the experience of wild predators. Sci Rep 2019; 9:463. [PMID: 30679660 PMCID: PMC6346059 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-36995-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation has driven the evolution of diverse adaptations for defence among prey, and one striking example is the deimatic display. While such displays can resemble, or indeed co-occur with, aposematic 'warning' signals, theory suggests deimatic displays may function independently of predator learning. The survival value of deimatic displays against wild predators has not been tested before. Here we used the mountain katydid Acripeza reticulata to test the efficacy of a putative deimatic display in the wild. Mountain katydids have a complex defence strategy; they are camouflaged at rest, but reveal a striking red-, blue-, and black-banded abdomen when attacked. We presented live katydids to sympatric (experienced) and allopatric (naive) natural predators, the Australian magpie Cracticus tibicen, and observed bird reactions and katydid behaviors and survival during repeated interactions. The efficacy of the katydids' defence differed with predator experience. Their survival was greatest when faced with naïve predators, which provided clear evidence of the protective value of the display. In contrast, katydid survival was consistently less likely when facing experienced predators. Our results suggest that sympatric predators have learned to attack and consume mountain katydids despite their complex defense, and that their post-attack display can be an effective deterrent, particularly against naïve predators. These results suggest that deimatism does not require predator learning to afford protection, but that a predator can learn to expect the display and subsequently avoid it or ignore it. That sympatric predators learn to ignore the defense is a possible explanation for the mountain katydid's counter-intuitive behavior of revealing warning colors only after tactile stimuli from predator attack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate D L Umbers
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia.
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia.
| | - Thomas E White
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sebastiano De Bona
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Tonya Haff
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | - Julia Ryeland
- School of Science & Health, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW, 2751, Australia
| | | | - Johanna Mappes
- Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Stoddard MC, Miller AE, Eyster HN, Akkaynak D. I see your false colours: how artificial stimuli appear to different animal viewers. Interface Focus 2018; 9:20180053. [PMID: 30603072 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2018.0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of artificially coloured stimuli, especially to test hypotheses about sexual selection and anti-predator defence, has been common in behavioural ecology since the pioneering work of Tinbergen. To investigate the effects of colour on animal behaviour, many researchers use paints, markers and dyes to modify existing colours or to add colour to synthetic models. Because colour perception varies widely across species, it is critical to account for the signal receiver's vision when performing colour manipulations. To explore this, we applied 26 typical coloration products to different types of avian feathers. Next, we measured the artificially coloured feathers using two complementary techniques-spectrophotometry and digital ultraviolet--visible photography-and modelled their appearance to mammalian dichromats (ferret, dog), trichromats (honeybee, human) and avian tetrachromats (hummingbird, blue tit). Overall, artificial colours can have dramatic and sometimes unexpected effects on the reflectance properties of feathers, often differing based on feather type. The degree to which an artificial colour differs from the original colour greatly depends on an animal's visual system. 'White' paint to a human is not 'white' to a honeybee or blue tit. Based on our analysis, we offer practical guidelines for reducing the risk of introducing unintended effects when using artificial colours in behavioural experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Caswell Stoddard
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Audrey E Miller
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Harold N Eyster
- Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6T 1Z4
| | - Derya Akkaynak
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
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Dapporto L, Hardy PB, Dennis RLH. Evidence for adaptive constraints on size of marginal wing spots in the grayling butterfly,Hipparchia semele. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/bly179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Leonardo Dapporto
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Sesto Fiorentino, Florence, Italy
| | | | - Roger L H Dennis
- School of Life Sciences and Education, Staffordshire University, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire, UK
- Centre for Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
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Holmes GG, Delferrière E, Rowe C, Troscianko J, Skelhorn J. Testing the feasibility of the startle-first route to deimatism. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10737. [PMID: 30013124 PMCID: PMC6048153 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28565-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Many prey species perform deimatic displays that are thought to scare or startle would-be predators, or elicit other reflexive responses that lead to attacks being delayed or abandoned. The form of these displays differs among species, but often includes prey revealing previously-hidden conspicuous visual components. The evolutionary route(s) to deimatism are poorly understood, but it has recently been suggested that the behavioural component of the displays evolves first followed by a conspicuous visual component. This is known as the “startle-first hypothesis”. Here we use an experimental system in which naïve domestic chicks forage for artificial deimatic prey to test the two key predictions of this hypothesis: (1) that movement can deter predators in the absence of conspicuously coloured display components; and, (2) that the combination of movement and conspicuously coloured display components is more effective than movement alone. We show that both these predictions hold, but only when the movement is fast. We thus provide evidence for the feasibility of ‘the startle-first hypothesis’ of the evolution of deimatism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace G Holmes
- Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
| | - Emeline Delferrière
- Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Candy Rowe
- Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Jolyon Troscianko
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life & Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - John Skelhorn
- Centre for Behaviour & Evolution, Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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Wound healing, calcium signaling, and other novel pathways are associated with the formation of butterfly eyespots. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:788. [PMID: 29037153 PMCID: PMC5644175 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4175-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background One hypothesis surrounding the origin of novel traits is that they originate from the co-option of pre-existing genes or larger gene regulatory networks into novel developmental contexts. Insights into a trait’s evolutionary origins can, thus, be gained via identification of the genes underlying trait development, and exploring whether those genes also function in other developmental contexts. Here we investigate the set of genes associated with the development of eyespot color patterns, a trait that originated once within the Nymphalid family of butterflies. Although several genes associated with eyespot development have been identified, the eyespot gene regulatory network remains largely unknown. Results In this study, next-generation sequencing and transcriptome analyses were used to identify a large set of genes associated with eyespot development of Bicyclus anynana butterflies, at 3-6 h after pupation, prior to the differentiation of the color rings. Eyespot-associated genes were identified by comparing the transcriptomes of homologous micro-dissected wing tissues that either develop or do not develop eyespots in wild-type and a mutant line of butterflies, Spotty, with extra eyespots. Overall, 186 genes were significantly up and down-regulated in wing tissues that develop eyespots compared to wing tissues that do not. Many of the differentially expressed genes have yet to be annotated. New signaling pathways, including the Toll, Fibroblast Growth Factor (FGF), extracellular signal–regulated kinase (ERK) and/or Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signaling pathways are associated for the first time with eyespot development. In addition, several genes involved in wound healing and calcium signaling were also found to be associated with eyespots. Conclusions Overall, this study provides the identity of many new genes and signaling pathways associated with eyespots, and suggests that the ancient wound healing gene regulatory network may have been co-opted to cells at the center of the pattern to aid in eyespot origins. New transcription factors that may be providing different identities to distinct wing sectors, and genes with sexually dimorphic expression in the eyespots were also identified. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4175-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Kjernsmo K, Merilaita S. Resemblance to the Enemy’s Eyes Underlies the Intimidating Effect of Eyespots. Am Nat 2017; 190:594-600. [DOI: 10.1086/693473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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31
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Experimental evidence suggests that specular reflectance and glossy appearance help amplify warning signals. Sci Rep 2017; 7:257. [PMID: 28325898 PMCID: PMC5427979 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-00217-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Specular reflection appears as a bright spot or highlight on any smooth glossy convex surface and is caused by a near mirror-like reflectance off the surface. Convex shapes always provide the ideal geometry for highlights, areas of very strong reflectance, regardless of the orientation of the surface or position of the receiver. Despite highlights and glossy appearance being common in chemically defended insects, their potential signalling function is unknown. We tested the role of highlights in warning colouration of a chemically defended, alpine leaf beetle, Oreina cacaliae. We reduced the beetles' glossiness, hence their highlights, by applying a clear matt finish varnish on their elytra. We used blue tits as predators to examine whether the manipulation affected their initial latency to attack, avoidance learning and generalization of warning colouration. The birds learned to avoid both dull and glossy beetles but they initially avoided glossy prey more than dull prey. Interestingly, avoidance learning was generalized asymmetrically: birds that initially learned to avoid dull beetles avoided glossy beetles equally strongly, but not vice versa. We conclude that specular reflectance and glossiness can amplify the warning signal of O. cacaliae, augmenting avoidance learning, even if it is not critical for it.
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32
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Zheng D, Nel A, Jarzembowski EA, Chang SC, Zhang H, Xia F, Liu H, Wang B. Extreme adaptations for probable visual courtship behaviour in a Cretaceous dancing damselfly. Sci Rep 2017; 7:44932. [PMID: 28317876 PMCID: PMC5357891 DOI: 10.1038/srep44932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Courtship behaviours, frequent among modern insects, have left extremely rare fossil traces. None are known previously for fossil odonatans. Fossil traces of such behaviours are better known among the vertebrates, e.g. the hypertelic antlers of the Pleistocene giant deer Megaloceros giganteus. Here we describe spectacular extremely expanded, pod-like tibiae in males of a platycnemidid damselfly from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Such structures in modern damselflies, help to fend off other suitors as well as attract mating females, increasing the chances of successful mating. Modern Platycnemidinae and Chlorocyphidae convergently acquired similar but less developed structures. The new findings provide suggestive evidence of damselfly courtship behaviour as far back as the mid-Cretaceous. These data show an unexpected morphological disparity in dancing damselfly leg structure, and shed new light on mechanisms of sexual selection involving intra- and intersex reproductive competition during the Cretaceous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daran Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 39 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China.,Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - André Nel
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, ISYEB-UMR 7205-CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE, Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, CP 50, Entomologie, F-75005, Paris, France
| | - Edmund A Jarzembowski
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 39 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China.,Department of Earth Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London SW7 5BD, UK
| | - Su-Chin Chang
- Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Haichun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 39 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China
| | | | | | - Bo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 39 East Beijing Road, Nanjing 210008, China.,Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1, Beichen West Road, Beijing 100101, China
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van Bergen E, Osbaldeston D, Kodandaramaiah U, Brattström O, Aduse-Poku K, Brakefield PM. Conserved patterns of integrated developmental plasticity in a group of polyphenic tropical butterflies. BMC Evol Biol 2017; 17:59. [PMID: 28241743 PMCID: PMC5327525 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-017-0907-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Developmental plasticity is thought to have profound macro-evolutionary effects, for example, by increasing the probability of establishment in new environments and subsequent divergence into independently evolving lineages. In contrast to plasticity optimized for individual traits, phenotypic integration, which enables a concerted response of plastic traits to environmental variability, may affect the rate of local adaptation by constraining independent responses of traits to selection. Using a comparative framework, this study explores the evolution of reaction norms for a variety of life history and morphological traits across five related species of mycalesine butterflies from the Old World tropics. RESULTS Our data indicate that an integrated response of a suite of key traits is shared amongst these species. Interestingly, the traits that make up the functional suite are all known to be regulated by ecdysteroid signalling in Bicyclus anynana, one of the species included in this study, suggesting the same underlying hormonal regulator may be conserved within this group of polyphenic butterflies. We also detect developmental thresholds for the expression of alternative morphs. CONCLUSIONS The phenotypic plasticity of a broad suite of morphological and life history traits is integrated and shared among species from three geographically independent lineages of mycalesine butterflies, despite considerable periods of independent evolution and exposure to disparate environments. At the same time, we have detected examples of evolutionary change where independent traits show different patterns of reaction norms. We argue that the expression of more robust phenotypes may occur by shifting developmental thresholds beyond the boundaries of the typical environmental variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik van Bergen
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK.
- Present Address: Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Rua da Quinta Grande 6, P-2780, Oeiras, Portugal.
| | - Dave Osbaldeston
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Ullasa Kodandaramaiah
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
- School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Thiruvananthapuram, CET campus, Trivandrum, 695016, India
| | - Oskar Brattström
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Kwaku Aduse-Poku
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
- Present Address: Department of Biology, City College of New York, City University of New York, Convent Avenue at 138th Street, New York, NY, 10031, USA
| | - Paul M Brakefield
- Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
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34
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Labandeira CC, Yang Q, Santiago-Blay JA, Hotton CL, Monteiro A, Wang YJ, Goreva Y, Shih C, Siljeström S, Rose TR, Dilcher DL, Ren D. The evolutionary convergence of mid-Mesozoic lacewings and Cenozoic butterflies. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2015.2893. [PMID: 26842570 PMCID: PMC4760178 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mid-Mesozoic kalligrammatid lacewings (Neuroptera) entered the fossil record 165 million years ago (Ma) and disappeared 45 Ma later. Extant papilionoid butterflies (Lepidoptera) probably originated 80–70 Ma, long after kalligrammatids became extinct. Although poor preservation of kalligrammatid fossils previously prevented their detailed morphological and ecological characterization, we examine new, well-preserved, kalligrammatid fossils from Middle Jurassic and Early Cretaceous sites in northeastern China to unravel a surprising array of similar morphological and ecological features in these two, unrelated clades. We used polarized light and epifluorescence photography, SEM imaging, energy dispersive spectrometry and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry to examine kalligrammatid fossils and their environment. We mapped the evolution of specific traits onto a kalligrammatid phylogeny and discovered that these extinct lacewings convergently evolved wing eyespots that possibly contained melanin, and wing scales, elongate tubular proboscides, similar feeding styles, and seed–plant associations, similar to butterflies. Long-proboscid kalligrammatid lacewings lived in ecosystems with gymnosperm–insect relationships and likely accessed bennettitalean pollination drops and pollen. This system later was replaced by mid-Cretaceous angiosperms and their insect pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conrad C Labandeira
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA Department of Entomology and BEES Program, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Qiang Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Dynamics and Conservation of Guangdong Higher Education Institute, College of Ecology and Evolution, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, People's Republic of China Geoscience Museum, Shijiazhuang University of Economics, Shijiazhuang 050031, People's Republic of China
| | - Jorge A Santiago-Blay
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA Department of Crop and Agroenvironmental Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez, PR 00681, USA
| | - Carol L Hotton
- Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA National Centre for Biotechnology Information, National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore Yale-NUS College, Singapore 138614, Singapore
| | - Yong-Jie Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
| | - Yulia Goreva
- Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA
| | - ChungKun Shih
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China Department of Paleobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
| | - Sandra Siljeström
- Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA Department of Chemistry, Materials and Surfaces, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Borås 51115, Sweden Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC 20015, USA
| | - Tim R Rose
- Department of Mineral Sciences, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20013, USA
| | - David L Dilcher
- Departments of Geology and Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | - Dong Ren
- College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing 100048, People's Republic of China
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35
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Wee JLQ, Monteiro A. Yellow and the Novel Aposematic Signal, Red, Protect Delias Butterflies from Predators. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0168243. [PMID: 28060944 PMCID: PMC5218396 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Butterflies of the South Asian and Australian genus Delias possess striking colours on the ventral wings that are presumed to serve as warning signals to predators. However, this has not been shown empirically. Here we experimentally tested whether the colours of one member of this diverse genus, Delias hyparete, function as aposematic signals. We constructed artificial paper models with either a faithful colour representation of D. hyparete, or with all of its colours converted to grey scale. We also produced models where single colours were left intact, while others were converted to grey-scale or removed entirely. We placed all model types simultaneously in the field, attached to a live mealworm, and measured relative attack rates at three separate field sites. Faithful models of D. hyparete, suffered the least amount of attacks, followed by grey-scale models with unaltered red patches, and by grey-scale models with unaltered yellow patches. We conclude that red and yellow colours function as warning signals. By mapping dorsal and ventral colouration onto a phylogeny of Delias, we observed that yellow and red colours appear almost exclusively on the ventral wing surfaces, and that basal lineages have mostly yellow, white, and black wings, whereas derived lineages contain red colour in addition to the other colours. Red appears to be, thus, a novel adaptive trait in this lineage of butterflies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Liang Qi Wee
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.,Yale-NUS College, Singapore, Singapore
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36
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37
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Kang C, Moon H, Sherratt TN, Lee SI, Jablonski PG. Multiple lines of anti-predator defence in the spotted lanternfly, Lycorma delicatula(Hemiptera: Fulgoridae). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Changku Kang
- Department of Biology; Carleton University; Ottawa ON Canada ON K1S 5B6
| | - Hyungmin Moon
- School of Biological Sciences; Seoul National University; 08826 1 Gwanak-ro Seoul South Korea
| | | | - Sang-Im Lee
- School of Biological Sciences; Seoul National University; 08826 1 Gwanak-ro Seoul South Korea
- Institute of Advanced Machinery and Design; Seoul National University; 08826 1 Gwanak-ro Seoul South Korea
| | - Piotr G. Jablonski
- School of Biological Sciences; Seoul National University; 08826 1 Gwanak-ro Seoul South Korea
- Museum and Institute of Zoology; Polish Academy of Sciences; Wilcza 64 00-679 Warsaw Poland
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38
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De Bona S, Valkonen JK, López-Sepulcre A, Mappes J. Predator mimicry, not conspicuousness, explains the efficacy of butterfly eyespots. Proc Biol Sci 2016; 282:20150202. [PMID: 25854889 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Large conspicuous eyespots on butterfly wings have been shown to deter predators. This has been traditionally explained by mimicry of vertebrate eyes, but recently the classic eye-mimicry hypothesis has been challenged. It is proposed that the conspicuousness of the eyespot, not mimicry, is what causes aversion due to sensory biases, neophobia or sensory overloads. We conducted an experiment to directly test whether the eye-mimicry or the conspicuousness hypothesis better explain eyespot efficacy. We used great tits (Parus major) as model predator, and tested their reaction towards animated images on a computer display. Birds were tested against images of butterflies without eyespots, with natural-looking eyespots, and manipulated spots with the same contrast but reduced resemblance to an eye, as well as images of predators (owls) with and without eyes. We found that mimetic eyespots were as effective as true eyes of owls and more efficient in eliciting an aversive response than modified, less mimetic but equally contrasting eyespots. We conclude that the eye-mimicry hypothesis explains our results better than the conspicuousness hypothesis and is thus likely to be an important mechanism behind the evolution of butterfly eyespots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastiano De Bona
- University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Janne K Valkonen
- University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Andrés López-Sepulcre
- University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland CNRS UMR 7618, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
| | - Johanna Mappes
- University of Jyväskylä, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Jyväskylä, Finland
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39
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40
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Ho S, Schachat SR, Piel WH, Monteiro A. Attack risk for butterflies changes with eyespot number and size. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2016; 3:150614. [PMID: 26909190 PMCID: PMC4736945 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Butterfly eyespots are known to function in predator deflection and predator intimidation, but it is still unclear what factors cause eyespots to serve one function over the other. Both functions have been demonstrated in different species that varied in eyespot size, eyespot number and wing size, leaving the contribution of each of these factors to butterfly survival unclear. Here, we study how each of these factors contributes to eyespot function by using paper butterfly models, where each factor is varied in turn, and exposing these models to predation in the field. We find that the presence of multiple, small eyespots results in high predation, whereas single large eyespots (larger than 6 mm in diameter) results in low predation. These data indicate that single large eyespots intimidate predators, whereas multiple small eyespots produce a conspicuous, but non-intimidating signal to predators. We propose that eyespots may gain an intimidation function by increasing in size. Our measurements of eyespot size in 255 nymphalid butterfly species show that large eyespots are relatively rare and occur predominantly on ventral wing surfaces. By mapping eyespot size on the phylogeny of the family Nymphalidae, we show that these large eyespots, with a potential intimidation function, are dispersed throughout multiple nymphalid lineages, indicating that phylogeny is not a strong predictor of eyespot size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Ho
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Sandra R. Schachat
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Entomology and Plant Pathology, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, MS 39762, USA
- Department of Paleobiology, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, MRC 121, Washington, DC 20013, USA
| | - William H. Piel
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Yale-NUS College, Singapore
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- Yale-NUS College, Singapore
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41
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Kjernsmo K, Grönholm M, Merilaita S. Adaptive constellations of protective marks: eyespots, eye stripes and diversion of attacks by fish. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2015.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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42
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Girard MB, Elias DO, Kasumovic MM. Female preference for multi-modal courtship: multiple signals are important for male mating success in peacock spiders. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20152222. [PMID: 26631566 PMCID: PMC4685782 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.2222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A long-standing goal for biologists has been to understand how female preferences operate in systems where males have evolved numerous sexually selected traits. Jumping spiders of the Maratus genus are exceptionally sexually dimorphic in appearance and signalling behaviour. Presumably, strong sexual selection by females has played an important role in the evolution of complex signals displayed by males of this group; however, this has not yet been demonstrated. In fact, despite apparent widespread examples of sexual selection in nature, empirical evidence is relatively sparse, especially for species employing multiple modalities for intersexual communication. In order to elucidate whether female preference can explain the evolution of multi-modal signalling traits, we ran a series of mating trials using Maratus volans. We used video recordings and laser vibrometry to characterize, quantify and examine which male courtship traits predict various metrics of mating success. We found evidence for strong sexual selection on males in this system, with success contingent upon a combination of visual and vibratory displays. Additionally, independently produced, yet correlated suites of multi-modal male signals are linked to other aspects of female peacock spider behaviour. Lastly, our data provide some support for both the redundant signal and multiple messages hypotheses for the evolution of multi-modal signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeline B Girard
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Damian O Elias
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Michael M Kasumovic
- Evolution and Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Sydney 2052, Australia
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43
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Greggor AL, Thornton A, Clayton NS. Neophobia is not only avoidance: improving neophobia tests by combining cognition and ecology. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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44
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Manesi Z, Van Lange PAM, Pollet TV. Butterfly Eyespots: Their Potential Influence on Aesthetic Preferences and Conservation Attitudes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0141433. [PMID: 26544692 PMCID: PMC4636354 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0141433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has shown that the mere presence of stimuli that resemble eyes is sufficient to attract attention, elicit aesthetic responses, and can even enhance prosocial behavior. However, it is less clear whether eye-like stimuli could also be used as a tool for nature conservation. Several animal species, including butterflies, develop eye-like markings that are known as eyespots. In the present research, we explored whether the mere display of eyespots on butterfly wings can enhance: (a) liking for a butterfly species, and (b) attitudes and behaviors towards conservation of a butterfly species. Four online experimental studies, involving 613 participants, demonstrated that eyespots significantly increased liking for a butterfly species. Furthermore, eyespots significantly increased positive attitudes towards conservation of a butterfly species (Studies 1, 2 and 4), whereas liking mediated the eyespot effect on conservation attitudes (Study 2). However, we also found some mixed evidence for an association between eyespots and actual conservation behavior (Studies 3 and 4). Overall, these findings suggest that eyespots may increase liking for an animal and sensitize humans to conservation. We discuss possible implications for biodiversity conservation and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoi Manesi
- Social and Organizational Psychology, Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Paul A. M. Van Lange
- Social and Organizational Psychology, Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thomas V. Pollet
- Social and Organizational Psychology, Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, VU Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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45
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Differential Expression of Ecdysone Receptor Leads to Variation in Phenotypic Plasticity across Serial Homologs. PLoS Genet 2015; 11:e1005529. [PMID: 26405828 PMCID: PMC4583414 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1005529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Bodies are often made of repeated units, or serial homologs, that develop using the same core gene regulatory network. Local inputs and modifications to this network allow serial homologs to evolve different morphologies, but currently we do not understand which modifications allow these repeated traits to evolve different levels of phenotypic plasticity. Here we describe variation in phenotypic plasticity across serial homologous eyespots of the butterfly Bicyclus anynana, hypothesized to be under selection for similar or different functions in the wet and dry seasonal forms. Specifically, we document the presence of eyespot size and scale brightness plasticity in hindwing eyespots hypothesized to vary in function across seasons, and reduced size plasticity and absence of brightness plasticity in forewing eyespots hypothesized to have the same function across seasons. By exploring the molecular and physiological causes of this variation in plasticity across fore and hindwing serial homologs we discover that: 1) temperature experienced during the wandering stages of larval development alters titers of an ecdysteroid hormone, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), in the hemolymph of wet and dry seasonal forms at that stage; 2) the 20E receptor (EcR) is differentially expressed in the forewing and hindwing eyespot centers of both seasonal forms during this critical developmental stage; and 3) manipulations of EcR signaling disproportionately affected hindwing eyespots relative to forewing eyespots. We propose that differential EcR expression across forewing and hindwing eyespots at a critical stage of development explains the variation in levels of phenotypic plasticity across these serial homologues. This finding provides a novel signaling pathway, 20E, and a novel molecular candidate, EcR, for the regulation of levels of phenotypic plasticity across body parts or serial homologs. One of the most exquisite types of organismal adaptations in nature occurs when organisms are able to change the way they develop in anticipation of the different selective environments they will experience as adults. This leads to variation in adult morphologies that are adaptive. Environmental cues experienced during development often lead to variation in hormonal titers that can have profound effect on the way genes are regulated and on the adult morphology. Here we examine the hormonal and molecular mechanisms that allow specific traits that are repeated in an organism (butterfly eyespots) to either be sensitive to environmental cues–and develop different morphologies—or insensitive to these cues and develop the same morphology. We discover that a specific gene, a hormone receptor, that is expressed in the sensitive eyespots but absent in the insensitive eyespots, is responsible for regulating the level of sensitivity of each of the eyespots to an environmental cue. We identify a molecule that is regulating levels of environmental sensitivity, or phenotypic plasticity, across repeated traits in an organism.
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46
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Skelhorn J, Holmes GG, Hossie TJ, Sherratt TN. Multicomponent deceptive signals reduce the speed at which predators learn that prey are profitable. Behav Ecol 2015. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arv135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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47
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Prudic KL, Stoehr AM, Wasik BR, Monteiro A. Eyespots deflect predator attack increasing fitness and promoting the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20141531. [PMID: 25392465 PMCID: PMC4262162 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.1531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Some eyespots are thought to deflect attack away from the vulnerable body, yet there is limited empirical evidence for this function and its adaptive advantage. Here, we demonstrate the conspicuous ventral hindwing eyespots found on Bicyclus anynana butterflies protect against invertebrate predators, specifically praying mantids. Wet season (WS) butterflies with larger, brighter eyespots were easier for mantids to detect, but more difficult to capture compared to dry season (DS) butterflies with small, dull eyespots. Mantids attacked the wing eyespots of WS butterflies more frequently resulting in greater butterfly survival and reproductive success. With a reciprocal eyespot transplant, we demonstrated the fitness benefits of eyespots were independent of butterfly behaviour. Regardless of whether the butterfly was WS or DS, large marginal eyespots pasted on the hindwings increased butterfly survival and successful oviposition during predation encounters. In previous studies, DS B. anynana experienced delayed detection by vertebrate predators, but both forms suffered low survival once detected. Our results suggest predator abundance, identity and phenology may all be important selective forces for B. anynana. Thus, reciprocal selection between invertebrate and vertebrate predators across seasons may contribute to the evolution of the B. anynana polyphenism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen L Prudic
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Andrew M Stoehr
- Department of Biology, Butler University, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Bethany R Wasik
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Antónia Monteiro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore NUS-Yale College, Singapore
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48
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Mokkonen M, Lindstedt C. The evolutionary ecology of deception. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2015; 91:1020-1035. [PMID: 26118820 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Through dishonest signals or actions, individuals often misinform others to their own benefit. We review recent literature to explore the evolutionary and ecological conditions for deception to be more likely to evolve and be maintained. We identify four conditions: (1) high misinformation potential through perceptual constraints of perceiver; (2) costs and benefits of responding to deception; (3) asymmetric power relationships between individuals and (4) exploitation of common goods. We discuss behavioural and physiological mechanisms that form a deception continuum from secrecy to overt signals. Deceptive tactics usually succeed by being rare and are often evolving under co-evolutionary arms races, sometimes leading to the evolution of polymorphism. The degree of deception can also vary depending on the environmental conditions. Finally, we suggest a conceptual framework for studying deception and highlight important questions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikael Mokkonen
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland. .,Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
| | - Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Biological and Environmental Science, Centre of Excellence in Biological Interactions, University of Jyväskylä, PO Box 35, Jyväskylä 40014, Finland
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49
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María Arenas L, Walter D, Stevens M. Signal honesty and predation risk among a closely related group of aposematic species. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11021. [PMID: 26046332 PMCID: PMC4457162 DOI: 10.1038/srep11021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many animals have bright colours to warn predators that they have defences and are not worth attacking. However, it remains unclear whether the strength of warning colours reliably indicate levels of defence. Few studies have unambiguously established if warning signals are honest, and have rarely considered predator vision or conspicuousness against the background. Importantly, little data exists either on how differences in signal strength translate into survival advantages. Ladybirds exhibit impressive variation in coloration both among and within species. Here we demonstrate that different levels of toxicity exist among and within ladybird species, and that signal contrast against the background is a good predictor of toxicity, showing that the colours are honest signals. Furthermore, field experiments with ladybird models created with regards to predator vision show that models with lower conspicuousness were attacked more frequently. This provides one of the most comprehensive studies on signal honesty in warning coloration to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina María Arenas
- 1] Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, CB2 3EJ, UK [2] Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Dominic Walter
- Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
| | - Martin Stevens
- Centre for Ecology &Conservation, College of Life &Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn Campus, Penryn, Cornwall, TR10 9FE, UK
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Yorzinski JL, Platt ML, Adams GK. Eye-spots in Lepidoptera attract attention in humans. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2015; 2:150155. [PMID: 26543589 PMCID: PMC4632553 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.150155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Many prey species exhibit defensive traits to decrease their chances of predation. Conspicuous eye-spots, concentric rings of contrasting colours, are one type of defensive trait that some species exhibit to deter predators. We examined the function of eye-spots in Lepidoptera to determine whether they are effective at deterring predators because they resemble eyes ('eye mimicry hypothesis') or are highly salient ('conspicuous signal hypothesis'). We recorded the gaze behaviour of men and women as they viewed natural images of butterflies and moths as well as images in which the eye-spots of these insects were modified. The eye-spots were modified by removing them, scrambling their colours, or replacing them with elliptical or triangular shapes that had either dark or light centres. Participants were generally more likely to look at, spend more time looking at and be faster to first fixate the eye-spots of butterflies and moths that were natural compared with ones that were modified, including the elliptical eye-spots with dark centres that most resembled eyes as well as the scrambled eye-spots that had the same contrast as the natural eye-spots. Participants were most likely to look at eye-spots that were numerous, had a large surface area and were located close to the insects' heads. Participants' pupils were larger when viewing eye-spots compared with the rest of the insects' body, suggesting a greater arousal when viewing eye-spots. Our results provide some support for the conspicuous signal hypothesis (and minimal support for the eye mimicry hypothesis) and suggest that eye-spots may be effective at deterring predators because they are highly conspicuous signals that draw attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. Yorzinski
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Michael L. Platt
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | - Geoffrey K. Adams
- Duke Institute for Brain Sciences and Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27710, USA
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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