Female mate preference explains countergradient variation in the sexual coloration of guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

The Evolution of Gene Expression Plasticity During Adaptation to Salt in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

When environmental change is rapid or unpredictable, phenotypic plasticity can facilitate adaptation to new or stressful environments to promote population persistence long enough for adaptive evolution to occur. However, the underlying genetic mechanisms that contribute to plasticity and its role in adaptive evolution are generally unknown. Two main opposing hypotheses dominate-genetic compensation and genetic assimilation. Here, we predominantly find evidence for genetic compensation over assimilation in adapting the freshwater algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to 36 g/L salt environments over 500 generations. More canalized genes in the high-salt (HS) lines displayed a pattern of genetic compensation (63%) fixing near or at the ancestral native expression level, rather than genetic assimilation of the salt-induced level, suggesting that compensation was more common during adaptation to salt. Network analysis revealed an enrichment of genes involved in energy production and salt-resistance processes in HS lines, while an increase in DNA repair mechanisms was seen in ancestral strains. In addition, whole-transcriptome similarity among ancestral and HS lines displayed the evolution of a similar plastic response to salt conditions in independently reared HS lines. We also found more cis-acting regions in the HS lines; however, the expression patterns of most genes did not mimic that of their inherited sequence. Thus, the expression changes induced via plasticity offer temporary relief, but downstream changes are required for a sustainable solution during the evolutionary process.

Environmental gradients predict the ratio of environmentally acquired carotenoids to self-synthesised pteridine pigments

Carotenoids are important pigments producing integument colouration; however, their dietary availability may be limited in some environments. Many species produce yellow to red hues using a combination of carotenoids and self-synthesised pteridine pigments. A compelling hypothesis is that pteridines replace carotenoids in environments where carotenoid availability is limited. To test this hypothesis, we quantified concentrations of five carotenoid and six pteridine pigments in multiple skin colours and individuals from 27 species of agamid lizards. We show that environmental gradients predict the ratio of carotenoids to pteridines; carotenoid concentrations are lower and pteridine concentrations higher in arid environments with low vegetation productivity. Both carotenoid and pteridine pigments were present in all species, but only pteridine concentrations explained colour variation among species and there were no correlations between carotenoid and pteridine pigments with a similar hue. These results suggest that in arid environments, where carotenoids are likely limited, species may compensate by synthesising more pteridines but do not necessarily replace carotenoids with pteridines of similar hue.

Success of the receptor noise model in predicting colour discrimination in guppies depends upon the colours tested

Accurate knowledge of species colour discrimination is fundamental to explain colour based behaviours and the evolution of colour patterns. We tested how the receptor noise limited model, widely used in behavioural ecology, matched actual colour discrimination thresholds obtained using behavioural tests. Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) were first trained to push a target coloured disk placed among eight grey disks of various luminances on a grey plate. Guppies were then tested to find target disks, which varied in colour contrast from the plate. The target disks followed a gradient going from high contrast to inconspicuous against the grey background. We plotted the percentage of correct choices of each colour in the gradient against the model prediction and determined the discrimination thresholds using the inflection point of the fitted sigmoid curve. We performed the experiment on six colour gradients: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and purple. Four colour gradients: red, orange, green and blue, showed a discrimination threshold that matched the model predictions. However, deviations of the model for the yellow and purple gradients suggest that ecological relevance of some colours could affect decision-making in behavioural tests and that we can no longer assume that the rules for colour discrimination are independent of colours.

The role of phenotypic plasticity on population differentiation

Several evolutionary processes shape the genetic and phenotypic differentiation of populations. Among them, the joint effects of gene flow, selection and phenotypic plasticity are poorly known, especially when trying to understand how maladaptive plasticity affects population divergence. We extended a quantitative genetic model of Hendry et al. (2001) to describe these joint effects on phenotypic and additive genetic divergence between two populations, and their phenotypic and genetic differentiation (PST and QST). With individual-based simulations, we tested our model predictions and further modeled allelic differentiation at neutral (FST) and adaptive (FSTQ) loci. While adaptive phenotypic plasticity allows for large phenotypic divergence and differentiation despite high gene flow, maladaptive plasticity promotes genetic divergence and generates countergradient variation, under extensive migration with phenotypic differences sometimes opposed to genetic differences. Maladaptive plasticity can also promote adaptive phenotypic divergence by reducing the effective gene flow. Overall, plasticity decouples genetic from phenotypic differences between populations, and blurs the correlation between phenotypic divergence and local adaptation. By deriving models of population differentiation for three different life cycles, we further describe the effect of a species' ecology on evolution in structured populations.

Effects of dispersal plasticity on population divergence and speciation

Phenotypic plasticity is thought to have a role in driving population establishment, local adaptation and speciation. However, dispersal plasticity has been underappreciated in this literature. Plasticity in the decision to disperse is taxonomically widespread and I provide examples for insects, molluscs, polychaetes, vertebrates and flowering plants. Theoretical work is limited but indicates an interaction between dispersal distance and plasticity in the decision to disperse. When dispersal is confined to adjacent patches, dispersal plasticity may enhance local adaptation over unconditional (non-plastic) dispersal. However, when dispersal distances are greater, plasticity in dispersal decisions strongly reduces the potential for local adaptation and population divergence. Upon dispersal, settlement may be random, biased but genetically determined, or biased but plastically determined. Theory shows that biased settlement of either type increases population divergence over random settlement. One model suggests that plasticity further enhances chances of speciation. However, there are many strategies for deciding on where to settle such as a best-of-N strategy, sequential sampling with a threshold for acceptance or matching with natal habitat. To date, these strategies do not seem to have been compared within a single model. Although we are just beginning to explore evolutionary effects of dispersal plasticity, it clearly has the potential to enhance as well as inhibit population divergence. Additional work should pay particular attention to dispersal distance and the strategy used to decide on where to settle.

Phenotypic plasticity and epigenetic marking: an assessment of evidence for genetic accommodation

The relationship between genotype (which is inherited) and phenotype (the target of selection) is mediated by environmental inputs on gene expression, trait development, and phenotypic integration. Phenotypic plasticity or epigenetic modification might influence evolution in two general ways: (1) by stimulating evolutionary responses to environmental change via population persistence or by revealing cryptic genetic variation to selection, and (2) through the process of genetic accommodation, whereby natural selection acts to improve the form, regulation, and phenotypic integration of novel phenotypic variants. We provide an overview of models and mechanisms for how such evolutionary influences may be manifested both for plasticity and epigenetic marking. We point to promising avenues of research, identifying systems that can best be used to address the role of plasticity in evolution, as well as the need to apply our expanding knowledge of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms to our understanding of how genetic accommodation occurs in nature. Our review of a wide variety of studies finds widespread evidence for evolution by genetic accommodation.

Multiple pigment cell types contribute to the black, blue, and orange ornaments of male guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

The fitness of male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) highly depends on the size and number of their black, blue, and orange ornaments. Recently, progress has been made regarding the genetic mechanisms underlying male guppy pigment pattern formation, but we still know little about the pigment cell organization within these ornaments. Here, we investigate the pigment cell distribution within the black, blue, and orange trunk spots and selected fin color patterns of guppy males from three genetically divergent strains using transmission electron microscopy. We identified three types of pigment cells and found that at least two of these contribute to each color trait. Further, two pigment cell layers, one in the dermis and the other in the hypodermis, contribute to each trunk spot. The pigment cell organization within the black and orange trunk spots was similar between strains. The presence of iridophores in each of the investigated color traits is consistent with a key role for this pigment cell type in guppy color pattern formation.

Experimental tests for heritable morphological color plasticity in non-native brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations

The success of invasive species is frequently attributed to phenotypic plasticity, which facilitates persistence in novel environments. Here we report on experimental tests to determine whether the intensity of cryptic coloration patterns in a global invader (brown trout, Salmo trutta) was primarily the result of plasticity or heritable variation. Juvenile F₁ offspring were created through experimental crosses of wild-caught parents and reared for 30 days in the laboratory in a split-brood design on either light or dark-colored gravel substrate. Skin and fin coloration quantified with digital photography and image analysis indicated strong plastic effects in response to substrate color; individuals reared on dark substrate had both darker melanin-based skin color and carotenoid-based fin colors than other members of their population reared on light substrate. Slopes of skin and fin color reaction norms were parallel between environments, which is not consistent with heritable population-level plasticity to substrate color. Similarly, we observed weak differences in population-level color within an environment, again suggesting little genetic control on the intensity of skin and fin colors. Taken as whole, our results are consistent with the hypothesis that phenotypic plasticity may have facilitated the success of brown trout invasions and suggests that plasticity is the most likely explanation for the variation in color intensity observed among these populations in nature.