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Gapinske L, Clark L, Caro-Rivera LM, Bashir R. Cryopreservation Alters Tissue Structure and Improves Differentiation of Engineered Skeletal Muscle. Tissue Eng Part A 2023; 29:557-568. [PMID: 37463097 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2023.0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue-engineered skeletal muscle can play an important role in regenerative medicine, disease modeling, drug testing, as well as the actuation of biohybrid machines. As the applications of engineered muscle tissues expand, there exists a growing need to cryopreserve and store these tissues without impairing function. In a previous study, we developed a cryopreservation protocol in which engineered skeletal muscle tissues are frozen before myogenic differentiation. In that study, we found that this cryopreservation process led to a three-fold increase in the force generation of the differentiated muscle. Here, we perform further testing to determine the mechanisms by which cryopreservation enhances engineered skeletal muscle function. We found that cryopreservation alters the microstructure of the tissue by increasing pore size and decreasing elastic modulus of the extracellular matrix (ECM), which leads to increased expression of genes related to cell migration, cell-matrix adhesion, ECM secretion, and protease activity. Specifically, cryopreservation leads to the upregulation of many ECM proteins, including laminin, fibronectin, and several types of collagens, as well as integrins and matrix metalloproteinases. These changes to ECM structure and composition were associated with enhanced myogenic differentiation, as evidenced by the upregulation of late-stage myogenic markers and increased force generation. These results highlight the need to understand the effects of cryopreservation on the ECM of other tissues as we strive to advance tissue and organ cryopreservation protocols for regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Gapinske
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Nick Holonyak Jr. Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Lindsay Clark
- HPCBio, Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Lourdes Marinna Caro-Rivera
- Nick Holonyak Jr. Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Rashid Bashir
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
- Nick Holonyak Jr. Micro and Nanotechnology Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Piasecka-Belkhayat A, Skorupa A. Crystallisation Degree Analysis during Cryopreservation of Biological Tissue Applying Interval Arithmetic. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2186. [PMID: 36984066 PMCID: PMC10058769 DOI: 10.3390/ma16062186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents the numerical modelling of heat transfer and changes proceeding in the homogeneous sample, caused by the crystallisation phenomenon during cryopreservation by vitrification. Heat transfer was simulated in a microfluidic system in which the working fluid flowed in micro-channels. The analysed process included single-phase flow during warming, and two-phase flow during cooling. In the model under consideration, interval parameters were assumed. The base of the mathematical model is given by the Fourier equation, with a heat source including the degree of ice crystallisation. The formulated problem has been solved using the interval version of the finite difference method, with the rules of the directed interval arithmetic. The fourth order Runge-Kutta algorithm has been applied to determine the degree of crystallisation. In the final part of this paper, examples of numerical computations are presented.
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El-Nabulsi RA. Fractal Pennes and Cattaneo-Vernotte bioheat equations from product-like fractal geometry and their implications on cells in the presence of tumour growth. J R Soc Interface 2021; 18:20210564. [PMID: 34465211 PMCID: PMC8437240 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2021.0564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, the Pennes and Cattaneo-Vernotte bioheat transfer equations in the presence of fractal spatial dimensions are derived based on the product-like fractal geometry. This approach was introduced recently, by Li and Ostoja-Starzewski, in order to explore dynamical properties of anisotropic media. The theory is characterized by a modified gradient operator which depends on two parameters: R which represents the radius of the tumour and R0 which represents the radius of the spherical living tissue. Both the steady and unsteady states for each fractal bioheat equation were obtained and their implications on living cells in the presence of growth of a large tumour were analysed. Assuming a specific heating/cooling by a constant heat flux equivalent to the metabolic heat generation in the tissue, it was observed that the solutions of the fractal bioheat equations are robustly affected by fractal dimensions, the radius of the tumour growth and the dimensions of the living cell tissue. The ranges of both the fractal dimensions and temperature were obtained, analysed and compared with recent studies. This study confirms the importance of fractals in medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rami Ahmad El-Nabulsi
- Research Center for Quantum Technology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
- Department of Physics and Materials Science, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University 50200, Thailand
- Athens Institute for Education and Research, Mathematics and Physics Divisions, 8 Valaoritou Street, Kolonaki 10671, Athens, Greece
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Piasecka-Belkhayat A, Skorupa A. Numerical Study of Heat and Mass Transfer during Cryopreservation Process with Application of Directed Interval Arithmetic. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 14:2966. [PMID: 34072730 PMCID: PMC8198271 DOI: 10.3390/ma14112966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In the present paper, numerical modelling of heat and mass transfer proceeding in a two-dimensional axially symmetrical articular cartilage sample subjected to a cryopreservation process is presented. In the model under consideration, interval parameters were assumed. The heat transfer process is described using the Fourier interval equation, while the cryoprotectant transport (DMSO) across the cell membrane is analyzed using a two-parameter model taking into account the simulation of the water volume in the chondrocytes and the change in DMSO concentration over time. The liquidus tracking (LT) protocol introduced by Pegg et al. was used to model the cryopreservation process. This procedure divides the heating and cooling phases into eight and seven steps, respectively, allowing precise regulation of temperature and cryoprotectant (CPA) concentration of bathing solutions. This protocol protects chondrocytes from ice crystal, osmotic stress, and electrolyte damage. The obtained interval concentrations of cryoprotectant in chondrocytes were compared with previous simulations obtained using the deterministic model and they are mostly in agreement with the simulation data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna Skorupa
- Department of Computational Mechanics and Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, Konarskiego 18A, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;
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Xia Y, Huang LX, Chen H, Li J, Chen KK, Hu H, Wang FB, Ding Z, Guo SS. Acoustic Droplet Vitrification Method for High-Efficiency Preservation of Rare Cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:12950-12959. [PMID: 33703892 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c01452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Cryopreservation is a key step for current translational medicine including reproductive medicine, regenerative medicine, and cell therapy. However, it is challenging to preserve rare cells for practical applications due to the difficulty in handling low numbers of cells as well as the lack of highly efficient and biocompatible preservation protocols. Here, we developed an acoustic droplet vitrification method for high-efficiency handling and preservation of rare cells. By employing an acoustic droplet ejection device, we can encapsulate rare cells into water-in-air droplets with a volume from ∼pL to ∼nL and deposit these cell-containing droplets into a droplet array onto a substrate. By incorporating a cooling system into the droplet array substrate, we can vitrify hundreds to thousands of rare cells at an ultrafast speed (about ∼2 s) based on the high surface to volume ratio of the droplets. By optimizing this method with three different cell lines (a human lung cancer cell line, A549 cells, a human liver cell line, L02 cells, and a mouse embryonic fibroblast cell line, 3T3-L1 cells), we developed an effective protocol with excellent cell viability (e.g., >85% for days, >70% for months), proliferation, and adhesion. As a proof-of-concept application, we demonstrated that our method can rapidly handle and efficiently preserve rare cells, highlighting its broad applications in species diversity, basic research, and clinical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Xia
- Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro/Nano-Structures, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lan-Xiang Huang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hui Chen
- Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro/Nano-Structures, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Juan Li
- Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro/Nano-Structures, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Ke-Ke Chen
- Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro/Nano-Structures, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hang Hu
- Department of Colorectal and Anal Surgery, Hubei Key Laboratory of Intestinal and Colorectal Diseases, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Fu-Bing Wang
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Zhao Ding
- Department of Colorectal and Anal Surgery, Hubei Key Laboratory of Intestinal and Colorectal Diseases, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Shi-Shang Guo
- Key Laboratory of Artificial Micro/Nano-Structures, Ministry of Education, School of Physics and Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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6
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Numerical Modeling of Heat and Mass Transfer during Cryopreservation Using Interval Analysis. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app11010302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In the paper, the numerical analysis of heat and mass transfer proceeding in an axially symmetrical articular cartilage sample subjected to the cryopreservation process is presented. In particular, a two-dimensional (axially symmetrical) model with imprecisely defined parameters is considered. The base of the heat transfer model is given by the interval Fourier equation and supplemented by initial boundary conditions. The phenomenon of cryoprotectant transport (Me2SO) through the extracellular matrix is described by the interval mass transfer equation. The liquidus-tracking (LT) method is used to control the temperature, which avoids the formation of ice regardless of the cooling and warming rates. In the LT process, the temperature decreases/increases gradually during addition/removal of the cryoprotectant, and the articular cartilage remains on or above the liquidus line so that no ice forms, independent of the cooling/warming rate. The discussed problem is solved using the interval finite difference method with the rules of directed interval arithmetic. Examples of numerical computations are presented in the final part of the paper. The obtained results of the numerical simulation are compared with the experimental results, realized for deterministically defined parameters.
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Leal-Marin S, Kern T, Hofmann N, Pogozhykh O, Framme C, Börgel M, Figueiredo C, Glasmacher B, Gryshkov O. Human Amniotic Membrane: A review on tissue engineering, application, and storage. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2020; 109:1198-1215. [PMID: 33319484 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Human amniotic membrane (hAM) has been employed as scaffolding material in a wide range of tissue engineering applications, especially as a skin dressing and as a graft for corneal treatment, due to the structure of the extracellular matrix and excellent biological properties that enhance both wound healing and tissue regeneration. This review highlights recent work and current knowledge on the application of native hAM, and/or production of hAM-based tissue-engineered products to create scaffolds mimicking the structure of the native membrane to enhance the hAM performance. Moreover, an overview is presented on the available (cryo) preservation techniques for storage of native hAM and tissue-engineered products that are necessary to maintain biological functions such as angiogenesis, anti-inflammation, antifibrotic and antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Leal-Marin
- Institute for Multiphase Processes, Leibniz University Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
| | - Thomas Kern
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Eye Hospital, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nicola Hofmann
- German Society for Tissue Transplantation (DGFG), Hannover, Germany
| | - Olena Pogozhykh
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Engineering, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Carsten Framme
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Eye Hospital, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Börgel
- German Society for Tissue Transplantation (DGFG), Hannover, Germany
| | - Constanca Figueiredo
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Engineering, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Birgit Glasmacher
- Institute for Multiphase Processes, Leibniz University Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
| | - Oleksandr Gryshkov
- Institute for Multiphase Processes, Leibniz University Hannover, Garbsen, Germany
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Anderson DM, Benson JD, Kearsley AJ. Foundations of modeling in cryobiology-II: Heat and mass transport in bulk and at cell membrane and ice-liquid interfaces. Cryobiology 2019; 91:3-17. [PMID: 31589832 PMCID: PMC7098062 DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2019.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Modeling coupled heat and mass transport in biological systems is critical to the understanding of cryobiology. In Part I of this series we derived the transport equation and presented a general thermodynamic derivation of the critical components needed to use the transport equation in cryobiology. Here we refine to more cryobiologically relevant instances of a double free-boundary problem with multiple species. In particular, we present the derivation of appropriate mass and heat transport constitutive equations for a system consisting of a cell or tissue with a free external boundary, surrounded by liquid media with an encroaching free solidification front. This model consists of two parts-namely, transport in the "bulk phases" away from boundaries, and interfacial transport. Here we derive the bulk and interfacial mass, energy, and momentum balance equations and present a simplification of transport within membranes to jump conditions across them. We establish the governing equations for this cell/liquid/solid system whose solution in the case of a ternary mixture is explored in Part III of this series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Anderson
- Applied and Computational Mathematics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899-8910, USA; Department of Mathematical Sciences, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA.
| | - James D Benson
- Applied and Computational Mathematics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899-8910, USA; Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E2, Canada.
| | - Anthony J Kearsley
- Applied and Computational Mathematics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899-8910, USA.
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9
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Tam E, McGrath M, Sladkova M, AlManaie A, Alostaad A, de Peppo GM. Hypothermic and cryogenic preservation of tissue-engineered human bone. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019; 1460:77-87. [PMID: 31667884 PMCID: PMC7027566 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
To foster translation and commercialization of tissue-engineered products, preservation methods that do not significantly compromise tissue properties need to be designed and tested. Robust preservation methods will enable the distribution of tissues to third parties for research or transplantation, as well as banking of off-the-shelf products. We recently engineered bone grafts from induced pluripotent stem cells and devised strategies to facilitate a tissue-engineering approach to segmental bone defect therapy. In this study, we tested the effects of two potential preservation methods on the survival, quality, and function of tissue-engineered human bone. Engineered bone grafts were cultured for 5 weeks in an osteogenic environment and then stored in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution at 4 °C or in Synth-a-Freeze™ at -80 °C. After 48 h, samples were warmed up in a water bath at 37 °C, incubated in osteogenic medium, and analyzed 1 and 24 h after revitalization. The results show that while storage in Synth-a-Freeze at -80 °C results in cell death and structural alteration of the extracellular matrix, hypothermic storage in PBS does not significantly affect tissue viability and integrity. This study supports the use of short-term hypothermic storage for preservation and distribution of high-quality tissue-engineered bone grafts for research and future clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edmund Tam
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, New York
| | - Madison McGrath
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, New York
| | - Martina Sladkova
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, New York
| | - Athbah AlManaie
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, New York
| | - Anaam Alostaad
- The New York Stem Cell Foundation Research Institute, New York, New York
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10
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Numerical solution of inward solidification of a dilute ternary solution towards a semi-permeable spherical cell. Math Biosci 2019; 316:108240. [PMID: 31465730 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbs.2019.108240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Modeling a cell's response to encroaching ice has informed the development of cryopreservation protocols for four decades. It has been well documented that knowledge of the cellular state as a function of media and cooling rate faciliate informed cryopreservation protocol design and explain mechanisms of damage. However, previous efforts have neglected the interaction between solutes and the encroaching ice front and their effects on the cell state. To address this, here we examine the cryobiologically relevant setting of a spherically-symmetric model of a biological cell separated by a ternary fluid mixture from an encroaching solid-liquid interface. The cell and liquid regions contain cell membrane impermeable intracellular and extracellular salts, respectively, a cell membrane permeable solute commonly used in cryopreservation protocols known as a cryoprotective agent (CPA), and water as a membrane permeable solvent. As cooling and solidification proceed the extracellular chemical environment evolves and leads to mass transport across the cell membrane. Consequently, both the solidification front and the cell membrane are free boundaries whose dynamics are coupled through transport processes in the solid, liquid and cell regions. We describe a numerical procedure to solve this coupled free-boundary problem based on a domain transformation and method of lines approach. We also investigate how the thermal and chemical states inside the cell are influenced by different cooling protocols at the external boundary. Finally, we observe that the previously unaccounted-for partial solute rejection at the advancing solid-liquid interface increases the CPA and salt concentrations in the extracellular liquid as a function of the interface speed and segregation coefficients, suggesting that previous model predictions of the cell state during cryopreservation were inaccurate.
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11
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Bellil M, Saidane A, Bennaoum M. A TLM study of bioheat transfer during freeze-thaw cryosurgery. Biomed Phys Eng Express 2018. [DOI: 10.1088/2057-1976/aae40e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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12
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Shi M, Feng S, Zhang X, Ji C, Xu F, Lu TJ. Droplet based vitrification for cell aggregates: Numerical analysis. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2018; 82:383-393. [PMID: 29656233 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Cell aggregates represent the main format of cells existing in vivo and have been widely used as tissue and disease models in vitro. Nevertheless, the preservation of cell aggregates while maintaining their functionalities for off-the-shelf applications is still challenging. Among various preservation methods, droplet-based vitrification exhibits superior advantages for the cryopreservation of cell aggregates; however, the physical mechanisms underlying droplet-based vitrification of cell aggregate using this method remain elusive. To address this issue, we proposed a voronoi model to construct two-dimensional geometric morphologies of cell aggregates and established a coupled physical model to describe the diffusion, heat transfer and crystallization processes during vitrification. Based on these models, we performed a numerical study on the variation and distribution of cryoprotectant (CPA) concentration, temperature and crystallization in cell aggregates during droplet-based vitrification. The results show that although cell membrane is not an obvious barrier in heat transfer, it affects the diffusion of CPA remarkably as a biologic film and thus the following crystallization in cell aggregates. The effective protection of CPA during vitrification occurs during the initial stage of CPA diffusion, thus a longer CPA loading time does not necessarily lead to significant decrease in crystallization, but rather may induce more toxicity to cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Shi
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China
| | - Shangsheng Feng
- Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Structure Strength and Vibration, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China
| | - Xiaohui Zhang
- Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; MOE Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering, School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China
| | - Changchun Ji
- Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; MOE Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering, School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China
| | - Feng Xu
- Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; MOE Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering, School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China.
| | - Tian Jian Lu
- Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Mechanical Structure Strength and Vibration, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China; MOE Key Laboratory of Multifunctional Structures and Materials, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, PR China.
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Kundu P, Sukumar S, Kar S. Numerical modeling for freezing and cryogenic preservation for viability of biological tissue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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14
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Zhao F, Vaughan TJ, Mc Garrigle MJ, McNamara LM. A coupled diffusion-fluid pressure model to predict cell density distribution for cells encapsulated in a porous hydrogel scaffold under mechanical loading. Comput Biol Med 2017; 89:181-189. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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15
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Gastal G, Alves B, Alves K, Paiva S, de Tarso S, Ishak G, Bashir S, Gastal E. Effects of Cryoprotectant Agents on Equine Ovarian Biopsy Fragments in Preparation for Cryopreservation. J Equine Vet Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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16
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Hassan MM, Li X, Liu Y, Qin JG. Sperm cryopreservation in the spermcasting Australian flat oyster Ostrea angasi by a programmable freezing method. Cryobiology 2017; 76:119-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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17
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Yong KW, Wan Safwani WKZ, Xu F, Wan Abas WAB, Choi JR, Pingguan-Murphy B. Cryopreservation of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Clinical Applications: Current Methods and Challenges. Biopreserv Biobank 2016; 13:231-9. [PMID: 26280501 DOI: 10.1089/bio.2014.0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold many advantages over embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and other somatic cells in clinical applications. MSCs are multipotent cells with strong immunosuppressive properties. They can be harvested from various locations in the human body (e.g., bone marrow and adipose tissues). Cryopreservation represents an efficient method for the preservation and pooling of MSCs, to obtain the cell counts required for clinical applications, such as cell-based therapies and regenerative medicine. Upon cryopreservation, it is important to preserve MSCs functional properties including immunomodulatory properties and multilineage differentiation ability. Further, a biosafety evaluation of cryopreserved MSCs is essential prior to their clinical applications. However, the existing cryopreservation methods for MSCs are associated with notable limitations, leading to a need for new or improved methods to be established for a more efficient application of cryopreserved MSCs in stem cell-based therapies. We review the important parameters for cryopreservation of MSCs and the existing cryopreservation methods for MSCs. Further, we also discuss the challenges to be addressed in order to preserve MSCs effectively for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kar Wey Yong
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia .,2 Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an, P.R. China
| | | | - Feng Xu
- 2 Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an, P.R. China .,3 The Key Library of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Wan Abu Bakar Wan Abas
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jane Ru Choi
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia .,2 Bioinspired Engineering and Biomechanics Center (BEBC), Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an, P.R. China
| | - Belinda Pingguan-Murphy
- 1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Phenotypic and functional characterization of long-term cryopreserved human adipose-derived stem cells. Sci Rep 2015; 5:9596. [PMID: 25872464 PMCID: PMC4397835 DOI: 10.1038/srep09596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryopreservation represents an effective technique to maintain the functional properties of human adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) and allows pooling of cells via long-term storage for clinical applications, e.g., cell-based therapies. It is crucial to reduce freezing injury during the cryopreservation process by loading the ASCs with the optimum concentration of suitable cryoprotective agents (CPAs). In this study, human ASCs were preserved for 3 months in different combinations of CPAs, including 1) 0.25 M trehalose; 2) 5% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO); 3) 10% DMSO; 4) 5% DMSO + 20% fetal bovine serum (FBS); 5) 10% DMSO + 20% FBS; 6) 10% DMSO + 90% FBS. Interestingly, even with a reduction of DMSO to 5% and without FBS, cryopreserved ASCs maintained high cell viability comparable with standard cryomedium (10% DMSO + 90% FBS), with normal cell phenotype and proliferation rate. Cryopreserved ASCs also maintained their differentiation capability (e.g., to adipocytes, osteocytes and chondrocytes) and showed an enhanced expression level of stemness markers (e.g., NANOG, OCT-4, SOX-2 and REX-1). Our findings suggest that 5% DMSO without FBS may be an ideal CPA for an efficient long-term cryopreservation of human ASCs. These results aid in establishing standardized xeno-free long-term cryopreservation of human ASCs for clinical applications.
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Scherr T, Pursley S, Monroe WT, Nandakumar K. A numerical study on distributions during cryoprotectant loading caused by laminar flow in a microchannel. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2013; 7:24104. [PMID: 24404009 PMCID: PMC3612124 DOI: 10.1063/1.4793714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we conduct a computational study on the loading of cryoprotective agents into cells in preparation for cryopreservation. The advantages of microfluidics in cryopreserving cells include control of fluid flow parameters for reliable cryoprotectant loading and reproducible streamlined processing of samples. A 0.25 m long, three inlet T-junction microchannel serves as an idealized environment for this process. The flow field and concentration distribution are determined from a computational fluid dynamics study and cells are tracked as inert particles in a Lagrangian frame. These particles are not confined to streamlines but can migrate laterally due to the Segre-Sildeberg effect for particles in a shear flow. During this tracking, the local concentration field surrounding the cell is monitored. This data are used as input into the Kedem-Katchalsky equations to numerically study passive solute transport across the cell membrane. As a result of the laminar flow, each cell has a unique pathline in the flow field resulting in different residence times and a unique external concentration field along its path. However, in most previous studies, the effect of a spatially varying concentration field on the transport across the cell membrane is ignored. The dynamics of this process are investigated for a population of cells released from the inlet. Using dimensional analysis, we find a governing parameter α, which is the ratio of the time scale for membrane transport to the average residence time in the channel. For [Formula: see text], cryoprotectant loading is completed to within 5% of the target concentration for all of the cells. However, for [Formula: see text], we find the population of cells does not achieve complete loading and there is a distribution of intracellular cryoprotective agent concentration amongst the population. Further increasing α beyond a value of 2 leads to negligible cryoprotectant loading. These simulations on populations of cells may lead to improved microfluidic cryopreservation protocols where more consistent cryoprotective agent loading and freezing can be achieved, thus increasing cell survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Scherr
- Cain Department of Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State University, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - S Pursley
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, and LSU Agricultural Center, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - W T Monroe
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, and LSU Agricultural Center, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - K Nandakumar
- Cain Department of Chemical Engineering, Louisiana State University, Louisiana 70803, USA
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Ceyhan E, Xu F, Gurkan UA, Emre AE, Turali ES, El Assal R, Acikgenc A, Wu CAM, Demirci U. Prediction and control of number of cells in microdroplets by stochastic modeling. LAB ON A CHIP 2012; 12:4884-93. [PMID: 23034772 PMCID: PMC3524309 DOI: 10.1039/c2lc40523g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Manipulation and encapsulation of cells in microdroplets has found many applications in various fields such as clinical diagnostics, pharmaceutical research, and regenerative medicine. The control over the number of cells in individual droplets is important especially for microfluidic and bioprinting applications. There is a growing need for modeling approaches that enable control over a number of cells within individual droplets. In this study, we developed statistical models based on negative binomial regression to determine the dependence of number of cells per droplet on three main factors: cell concentration in the ejection fluid, droplet size, and cell size. These models were based on experimental data obtained by using a microdroplet generator, where the presented statistical models estimated the number of cells encapsulated in droplets. We also propose a stochastic model for the total volume of cells per droplet. The statistical and stochastic models introduced in this study are adaptable to various cell types and cell encapsulation technologies such as microfluidic and acoustic methods that require reliable control over number of cells per droplet provided that settings and interaction of the variables is similar.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elvan Ceyhan
- Department of Mathematics, College of Sciences, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Feng Xu
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Umut Atakan Gurkan
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ahmet Emrehan Emre
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Emine Sumeyra Turali
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Rami El Assal
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ali Acikgenc
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Chung-an Max Wu
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Utkan Demirci
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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21
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Zhang X, Catalano PN, Gurkan UA, Khimji I, Demirci U. Emerging technologies in medical applications of minimum volume vitrification. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2012; 6:1115-29. [PMID: 21955080 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell/tissue biopreservation has broad public health and socio-economic impact affecting millions of lives. Cryopreservation technologies provide an efficient way to preserve cells and tissues targeting the clinic for applications including reproductive medicine and organ transplantation. Among these technologies, vitrification has displayed significant improvement in post-thaw cell viability and function by eliminating harmful effects of ice crystal formation compared to the traditional slow freezing methods. However, high cryoprotectant agent concentrations are required, which induces toxicity and osmotic stress to cells and tissues. It has been shown that vitrification using small sample volumes (i.e., <1 µl) significantly increases cooling rates and hence reduces the required cryoprotectant agent levels. Recently, emerging nano- and micro-scale technologies have shown potential to manipulate picoliter to nanoliter sample sizes. Therefore, the synergistic integration of nanoscale technologies with cryogenics has the potential to improve biopreservation methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zhang
- Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham & Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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22
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XU F, WANG PF, LIN M, LU TJ, NG EYK. QUANTIFICATION AND THE UNDERLYING MECHANISM OF SKIN THERMAL DAMAGE: A REVIEW. J MECH MED BIOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1142/s0219519410003459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Skin thermal damage is the most common thermal trauma in civilian and military communities. Besides, advances in laser, microwave, and similar technologies have led to recent developments of thermal treatments for diseases involving skin tissue aiming at inducing damage precisely within targeted tissue structures without affecting the surrounding healthy tissue. Pain sensation accompanying thermal damage is also a serious problem for burn patients. Therefore, it is of great importance to quantify the thermal damage in skin tissue. In this review, we detail the progress of the state-of-the-art mathematical models and experimental methods for the quantification of thermal damage (both heat damage and cold damage) and the general development of thermal treatments in tissue engineering. This could enable better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of skin thermal damage and the optimization of clinical thermal therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. XU
- Biomedical Engineering and Biomechanics Center, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, P. R. China
- HST-Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA 02129, USA
| | - P. F. WANG
- Biomedical Engineering and Biomechanics Center, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, P. R. China
| | - M. LIN
- Biomedical Engineering and Biomechanics Center, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, P. R. China
| | - T. J. LU
- Biomedical Engineering and Biomechanics Center, School of Aerospace, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, P. R. China
| | - E. Y. K. NG
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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The resistance of breast cancer stem cells to conventional hyperthermia and their sensitivity to nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy. Biomaterials 2012; 33:2961-70. [PMID: 22245557 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.12.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 12/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Breast tumors contain a small population of tumor initiating stem-like cells, termed breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs). These cells, which are refractory to chemotherapy and radiotherapy, are thought to persist following treatment and drive tumor recurrence. We examined whether BCSCs are similarly resistant to hyperthermic therapy, and whether nanoparticles could be used to overcome this resistance. Using a model of triple-negative breast cancer stem cells, we show that BCSCs are markedly resistant to traditional hyperthermia and become enriched in the surviving cell population following treatment. In contrast, BCSCs are sensitive to nanotube-mediated thermal treatment and lose their long-term proliferative capacity after nanotube-mediated thermal therapy. Moreover, use of this therapy in vivo promotes complete tumor regression and long-term survival of mice bearing cancer stem cell-driven breast tumors. Mechanistically, nanotube thermal therapy promotes rapid membrane permeabilization and necrosis of BCSCs. These data suggest that nanotube-mediated thermal treatment can simultaneously eliminate both the differentiated cells that constitute the bulk of a tumor and the BCSCs that drive tumor growth and recurrence.
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Zhang X, Khimji I, Shao L, Safaee H, Desai K, Keles HO, Gurkan UA, Kayaalp E, Nureddin A, Anchan RM, Maas RL, Demirci U. Nanoliter droplet vitrification for oocyte cryopreservation. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2011; 7:553-64. [PMID: 22188180 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.11.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Oocyte cryopreservation remains largely experimental, with live birth rates of only 2-4% per thawed oocyte. In this study, we present a nanoliter droplet technology for oocyte vitrification. MATERIALS & METHODS An ejector-based droplet vitrification system was designed to continuously cryopreserve oocytes in nanoliter droplets. Oocyte survival rates, morphologies and parthenogenetic development after each vitrification step were assessed in comparison with fresh oocytes. RESULTS Oocytes were retrieved after cryoprotectant agent loading/unloading, and nanoliter droplet encapsulation showed comparable survival rates to fresh oocytes after 24 h in culture. Also, oocytes recovered after vitrification/thawing showed similar morphologies to those of fresh oocytes. Additionally, the rate of oocyte parthenogenetic activation after nanoliter droplet encapsulation was comparable with that observed for fresh oocytes. This nanoliter droplet technology enables the vitrification of oocytes at higher cooling and warming rates using lower cryoprotectant agent levels (i.e., 1.4 M ethylene glycol, 1.1 M dimethyl sulfoxide and 1 M sucrose), thus making it a potential technology to improve oocyte cryopreservation outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zhang
- Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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25
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Xu F, Wu J, Wang S, Durmus NG, Gurkan UA, Demirci U. Microengineering methods for cell-based microarrays and high-throughput drug-screening applications. Biofabrication 2011; 3:034101. [PMID: 21725152 DOI: 10.1088/1758-5082/3/3/034101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Screening for effective therapeutic agents from millions of drug candidates is costly, time consuming, and often faces concerns due to the extensive use of animals. To improve cost effectiveness, and to minimize animal testing in pharmaceutical research, in vitro monolayer cell microarrays with multiwell plate assays have been developed. Integration of cell microarrays with microfluidic systems has facilitated automated and controlled component loading, significantly reducing the consumption of the candidate compounds and the target cells. Even though these methods significantly increased the throughput compared to conventional in vitro testing systems and in vivo animal models, the cost associated with these platforms remains prohibitively high. Besides, there is a need for three-dimensional (3D) cell-based drug-screening models which can mimic the in vivo microenvironment and the functionality of the native tissues. Here, we present the state-of-the-art microengineering approaches that can be used to develop 3D cell-based drug-screening assays. We highlight the 3D in vitro cell culture systems with live cell-based arrays, microfluidic cell culture systems, and their application to high-throughput drug screening. We conclude that among the emerging microengineering approaches, bioprinting holds great potential to provide repeatable 3D cell-based constructs with high temporal, spatial control and versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xu
- Department of Medicine, Demirci Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, Center for Biomedical Engineering, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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26
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Geckil H, Xu F, Zhang X, Moon S, Demirci U. Engineering hydrogels as extracellular matrix mimics. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2010; 5:469-84. [PMID: 20394538 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.10.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 589] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a complex cellular environment consisting of proteins, proteoglycans, and other soluble molecules. ECM provides structural support to mammalian cells and a regulatory milieu with a variety of important cell functions, including assembling cells into various tissues and organs, regulating growth and cell-cell communication. Developing a tailored in vitro cell culture environment that mimics the intricate and organized nanoscale meshwork of native ECM is desirable. Recent studies have shown the potential of hydrogels to mimic native ECM. Such an engineered native-like ECM is more likely to provide cells with rational cues for diagnostic and therapeutic studies. The research for novel biomaterials has led to an extension of the scope and techniques used to fabricate biomimetic hydrogel scaffolds for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. In this article, we detail the progress of the current state-of-the-art engineering methods to create cell-encapsulating hydrogel tissue constructs as well as their applications in in vitro models in biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hikmet Geckil
- Health Sciences and Technology, Harvard-MIT Health Sciences and Technology, Bio-Acoustic-MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) Laboratory, 65 Landsdowne St., #267, 02139 Cambridge, MA, USA
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27
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Xu F, Lu T, Guo XE. Multi-scale biothermal and biomechanical behaviours of biological materials. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2010; 368:517-519. [PMID: 20047937 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2009.0249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Feng Xu
- HST Center for Bioengineering, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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