Application of hepatocyte-like cells to enhance hepatic safety risk assessment in drug discovery

Bioengineered MSCGFPCxcr2-Mmp13 Transplantation Alleviates Hepatic Fibrosis by Regulating Mammalian Target of Rapamycin Signaling

Aims: Hepatic fibrosis is the pathological change during chronic liver diseases (CLD) that turns into cirrhosis if not reversed timely. Allogenic mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy is an alternative to liver transplantation for CLD. However, poor engraftment of the transplanted MSCs limits their therapeutic efficacy. MSCs express chemokine receptors that regulate their physiology. We observed several-fold increased expressions of Cxcl3 and decreased expression of Mmp13 in the fibrotic liver. Therefore, we bioengineered MSCs with stable overexpression of Cxcr2 (CXCL3-cognate receptor) and Mmp13, collagenase (MSCGFPCxcr2-Mmp13). Results: The CXCL3/CXCR2 axis significantly increased migration through the activation of AKT/ERK/mTOR signaling. These bioengineered MSCs transdifferentiated into hepatocyte-like cells (MSCGFPCxcr2-Mmp13-HLCs) that endured the drug-/hepatotoxicant-induced toxicity by significantly increasing the antioxidants-Nrf2 and Sod2, while decreasing the apoptosis-Cyt C, Casp3, Casp9, and drug-metabolizing enzyme-Cyp1A1, Cyp1A2, Cyp2E1 markers. Therapeutic transplantation of MSCGFPCxcr2-Mmp13 abrogated AAP-/CCl4-induced hepatic fibrosis in mice by CXCR2-mediated targeted engraftment and MMP-13-mediated reduction in collagen. Mechanistically, induction of CXCL3/CXCR2 axis-activated mTOR-p70S6K signaling led to increased targeted engraftment and modulation of the oxidative stress by increasing the expression and activity of nuclear Nrf2 and SOD2 expression in the regenerated hepatic tissues. A marked change in the fate of transplanted MSCGFPCxcr2-Mmp13 toward hepatocyte lineage demonstrated by co-immunostaining of GFP/HNF4α along with reduced COL1α1 facilitated the regeneration of the fibrotic liver. Innovation and Conclusions: Our study suggests the therapeutic role of allogenic Cxcr2/Mmp13-bioengineered MSC transplantation decreases the hepatic oxidative stress as an effective translational therapy for hepatic fibrosis mitigation-mediated liver regeneration.

Correlation of meniscus tear type with synovial inflammation and the therapeutic potential of docosapentaenoic acid

BACKGROUND

Synovitis, characterized by inflammation of the synovial membrane, is commonly induced by meniscus tears. However, significant differences in inflammatory responses and the key inflammatory mediators of synovium induced by different types of meniscal tears remain unclear.

METHODS

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was employed to identify the type of meniscus tear, and the quantification of synovial inflammation was assessed through H&E staining assay. Transcription and expression levels of IL-1β and IL-6 were evaluated using bioinformatics, ELISA, RT-qPCR, and IHC of CD68 staining assays. The therapeutic potential of Docosapentaenoic Acid (DPA) was determined through network pharmacology, ELISA, and RT-qPCR assays. The safety of DPA was assessed using colony formation and EdU staining assays.

RESULTS

The results indicate that both IL-1β and IL-6 play pivotal roles in synovitis pathogenesis, with distinct expression levels across various subtypes. Among tested meniscus tears, oblique tear and bucket handle tear induced the most severe inflammation, followed by radial tear and longitudinal tear, while horizontal tear resulted in the least inflammation. Furthermore, in synovial inflammation induced by specific meniscus tears, the anterior medial tissues exhibited significantly higher local inflammation than the anterior lateral and suprapatellar regions, highlighting the clinical relevance and practical guidance of anterior medial tissues' inflammatory levels. Additionally, we identified the essential omega-3 fatty acid DPA as a potential therapeutic agent for synovitis, demonstrating efficacy in blocking the transcription and expression of IL-1β and IL-6 with minimal side effects.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide valuable insights into the nuanced nature of synovial inflammation induced by various meniscal tear classifications and contribute to the development of new adjunctive therapeutic agents in the management of synovitis.

In vitro-in silico pharmacology and chemistry of Stercularin, isolated from Sterculia diversifolia

Stercularin is a coumarin, isolated from the ethyl acetate fraction of stem bark and leaves of S. diversifolia. Pharmacologically it is active against cancer, diabetes, and inflammation etc. The molecule is further screened for in vitro pharmacological activities. In addition, a detailed description on its drug likeness and pharmacokinetic profile has been established to further explore its fate as a drug candidate. Stercularin exhibited antiglycation, immunomodulatory, and leishmanicidal activity in three different in vitro models. The IC50 values obtained in these three assays were 80.22 ± 0.46 mg/ml, 12.8 ± 1.6 μg/ml, and 8.32 ± 0.42 μg/ml, respectively. In case of drug likeness evaluation, Stercularin has acceptable physicochemical properties and compliant with major drug likeness descriptors i.e., Lipinski rule, Pfizer rule, GSK rule, and "golden triangle". Accepting Lipinski rule implies the oral drug development of Stercularin. Pharmacokinetically, Stercularin is permeable to Caco-2 and MDCK cell lines. 'Boiled-egg' plot suggest intestinal route of absorption, blood brain barrier nonpermeating, and not affected by p-glycoprotein. Stercularin has high plasma protein binding with low free fraction circulating in the plasma. Stercularin proved to be the substrate and/or inhibitor of CYP 450 system with a moderate half-life and clearance rate to allow flexible dosing regimen. Finally, slight risk of toxicity exists for Stercularin, but not being limiting factors of drug knock out. A nature isolated Stercularin possess pharmacological activities and is predicted to have acceptable pharmacokinetic profile. Further drug development and in vivo studies are desirable for optimization.

Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Hepatocyte-like Cells: Induction Methods and Applications

The development of regenerative medicine provides new options for the treatment of end-stage liver diseases. Stem cells, such as bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), are effective tools for tissue repair in regenerative medicine. iPSCs are an appropriate source of hepatocytes for the treatment of liver disease due to their unlimited multiplication capacity, their coverage of the entire range of genetics required to simulate human disease, and their evasion of ethical implications. iPSCs have the ability to gradually produce hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) with homologous phenotypes and physiological functions. However, how to induce iPSCs to differentiate into HLCs efficiently and accurately is still a hot topic. This review describes the existing approaches for inducing the differentiation of iPSCs into HLCs, as well as some challenges faced, and summarizes various parameters for determining the quality and functionality of HLCs. Furthermore, the application of iPSCs for in vitro hepatoprotective drug screening and modeling of liver disease is discussed. In conclusion, iPSCs will be a dependable source of cells for stem-cell therapy to treat end-stage liver disease and are anticipated to facilitate individualized treatment for liver disease in the future.

Physicochemical Properties, Drug Likeness, ADMET, DFT Studies and in vitro antioxidant activity of Oxindole Derivatives

Poor pharmacokinetic and safety profiles create significant hurdles in the drug development process. This work focuses on a detailed understanding of drug discovery interplay among physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, toxicity endpoints, and antioxidant properties of oxindole derivatives. DFT compıutations were also performed at B3LYP/6-311G** level to evaluate the physicochemical properties, global reactivity features, and intramolecular interactions. The BOILED-Egg pharmacokinetic model envisaged gastrointestinal absorption, blood-brain barrier penetration, and no interaction with p-glycoprotein for compounds C1 and C2. The physicochemical evaluation revealed that C1 possesses superior drug-like properties fit for oral absorption. Both derivatives were predicted to have high plasma protein binding, efficient distribution, and inhibiting CYP 450 major isoforms but serve as substrates only for a few of them. Both molecules have mild to moderate clearance rates. Out of ten toxicity parameters, only hepatotoxicity was predicted. DFT results implied that the meta position of the -OH group made the possibility of charge transfer greater than -para positioned -OH, due to the ΔN_max (eV) values of molecules C1 and C2 being calculated at 2.596 and 2.477, respectively. Both C1 and C2 exhibited a concentration dependant DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activity. The chemical structure-physicochemical-pharmacokinetic relationship identified the meta position as the favorite for the electron-withdrawing hydroxyl group. This provides useful insight to medicinal chemists to design 6-chlorooxindole derivatives with an acceptable drug-like and pharmacokinetic property.

Computational pharmacology and computational chemistry of 4-hydroxyisoleucine: Physicochemical, pharmacokinetic, and DFT-based approaches

Computational pharmacology and chemistry of drug-like properties along with pharmacokinetic studies have made it more amenable to decide or predict a potential drug candidate. 4-Hydroxyisoleucine is a pharmacologically active natural product with prominent antidiabetic properties. In this study, ADMETLab 2.0 was used to determine its important drug-related properties. 4-Hydroxyisoleucine is compliant with important drug-like physicochemical properties and pharma giants' drug-ability rules like Lipinski's, Pfizer, and GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) rules. Pharmacokinetically, it has been predicted to have satisfactory cell permeability. Blood-brain barrier permeation may add central nervous system (CNS) effects, while a very slight probability of being CYP2C9 substrate exists. None of the well-known toxicities were predicted in silico, being congruent with wet lab results, except for a "very slight risk" for respiratory toxicity predicted. The molecule is non ecotoxic as analyzed with common indicators such as bioconcentration and LC₅₀ for fathead minnow and daphnia magna. The toxicity parameters identified 4-hydroxyisoleucine as non-toxic to androgen receptors, PPAR-γ, mitochondrial membrane receptor, heat shock element, and p53. However, out of seven parameters, not even a single toxicophore was found. The density functional theory (DFT) study provided support to the findings obtained from drug-like property predictions. Hence, it is a very logical approach to proceed further with a detailed pharmacokinetics and drug development process for 4-hydroxyisoleucine.

Induction and Maturation of Hepatocyte-Like Cells In Vitro: Focus on Technological Advances and Challenges

Limited by the poor proliferation and restricted sources of adult hepatocytes, there is an urgent need to find substitutes for proliferation and cultivation of mature hepatocytes in vitro for use in disease treatment, drug approval, and toxicity testing. Hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs), which originate from undifferentiated stem cells or modified adult cells, are considered good candidates because of their advantages in terms of cell source and in vitro expansion ability. However, the majority of induced HLCs are in an immature state, and their degree of differentiation is heterogeneous, diminishing their usability in basic research and limiting their clinical application. Therefore, various methods have been developed to promote the maturation of HLCs, including chemical approaches, alteration of cell culture systems, and genetic manipulation, to meet the needs of in vivo transplantation and in vitro model establishment. This review proposes different cell types for the induction of HLCs, and provide a comprehensive overview of various techniques to promote the generation and maturation of HLCs in vitro.

MicroRNAs: Crucial Players in the Differentiation of Human Pluripotent and Multipotent Stem Cells into Functional Hepatocyte-Like Cells

Hepatic disease negatively impacts liver function and metabolism. Primary human hepatocytes are the gold standard for the prediction and successful treatment of liver disease. However, the sources of hepatocytes for drug toxicity testing and disease modeling are limited. To overcome this issue, pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) have emerged as an alternative strategy for liver disease therapy. Human PSCs, including embryonic stem cells (ESC) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) can self-renew and give rise to all cells of the body. Human PSCs are attractive cell sources for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug discovery, and developmental studies. Several recent studies have shown that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can also differentiate (or trans-differentiate) into hepatocytes. Differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs into functional hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) opens new strategies to study genetic diseases, hepatotoxicity, infection of hepatotropic viruses, and analyze hepatic biology. Numerous in vitro and in vivo differentiation protocols have been established to obtain human PSCs/MSCs-derived HLCs and mimic their characteristics. It was recently discovered that microRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in controlling the ectopic expression of transcription factors and governing the hepatocyte differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs. In this review, we focused on the role of miRNAs in the differentiation of human PSCs and MSCs into hepatocytes.

Stem cell therapy in liver regeneration: Focus on mesenchymal stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells

The liver has the ability to repair itself after injury; however, a variety of pathological changes in the liver can affect its ability to regenerate, and this could lead to liver failure. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are considered a good source of cells for regenerative medicine, as they regulate liver regeneration through different mechanisms, and their efficacy has been demonstrated by many animal experiments and clinical studies. Induced pluripotent stem cells, another good source of MSCs, have also made great progress in the establishment of organoids, such as liver disease models, and in drug screening. Owing to the recent developments in MSCs and induced pluripotent stem cells, combined with emerging technologies including graphene, nano-biomaterials, and gene editing, precision medicine and individualized clinical treatment may be realized in the near future.

Thyroid Hormone Effect on the Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells into Hepatocyte-Like Cells

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) hold great potential as an unlimited source for obtaining hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) for drug research. However, current applications of HLCs have been severely limited by the inability to produce mature hepatocytes from hiPSCs in vitro. Thyroid hormones are one of the hormones that surge during the perinatal period when liver maturation takes place. Here we assessed the influence of thyroid hormone on hepatic progenitor differentiation to HLCs. We analyzed gene and protein expression of early and late hepatic markers and demonstrated the selective activity of thyroid hormone on different genes. Particularly, we demonstrated thyroid hormone-dependent inhibition of the fetal hepatic marker AFP. Our study sheds light on the role of thyroid hormone during liver differentiation and maturation.

Characterization of a commercially available line of iPSC hepatocytes as models of hepatocyte function and toxicity for regulatory purposes

It has recently become possible to produce hepatocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-heps), which may offer some advantages over primary human hepatocytes (Prim-heps) in the regulatory environment. The aim of this research was to assess similarities and differences between commercially available iPSC-heps and Prim-heps in preliminary assays of drug metabolism, hepatotoxicity, and drug transport. Hepatocytes were either cultured in collagen-coated 96-well plates (Prim-heps and 2d-iPSC-heps) or in ultra-low adhesion plates as spheroids (3d-iPSC-heps). 3d-iPSC-heps were used to enhance physiological cell-cell contacts, which is essential to maintain the phenotype of mature hepatocytes. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4, CYP1A2, and CYP2B6 activity levels were evaluated using fluorescent assays. Phase II metabolism was assessed by HPLC measurement of formation of glucuronides and sulfates of 4-methylumbelliferone, 1-naphthol, and estradiol. The toxicity of acetaminophen, amiodarone, aspirin, clozapine, tacrine, tamoxifen, and troglitazone was monitored using a luminescent cell viability assay. Canaliculi formation was monitored by following the fluorescence of 5,6-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate. All culture models showed similar levels of basal CYP3A4, CYP1A2 and CYP2B6 activity. However, while Prim-heps showed a vigorous response to CYP inducing agents, 2d-iPSC-heps showed no response and 3d-iPSC-heps displayed an inconclusive response. 2d-iPSC-heps showed reduced, yet appreciable, glucuronide and sulfate formation compared to Prim-heps. All culture models showed similar activity in tests of hepatotoxicity, with Prim-heps generally being more sensitive. All models formed canaliculi capable of transporting carboxy-2',7'-dichlorofluorescein. The iPSC-heps appear to be useful for toxicity and transport studies, but metabolic activity is not optimum, and metabolism studies would benefit from a more mature model.

Stem Cells for Next Level Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century

The call for a paradigm change in toxicology from the United States National Research Council in 2007 initiates awareness for the invention and use of human-relevant alternative methods for toxicological hazard assessment. Simple 2D in vitro systems may serve as first screening tools, however, recent developments infer the need for more complex, multicellular organotypic models, which are superior in mimicking the complexity of human organs. In this review article most critical organs for toxicity assessment, i.e., skin, brain, thyroid system, lung, heart, liver, kidney, and intestine are discussed with regards to their functions in health and disease. Embracing the manifold modes-of-action how xenobiotic compounds can interfere with physiological organ functions and cause toxicity, the need for translation of such multifaceted organ features into the dish seems obvious. Currently used in vitro methods for toxicological applications and ongoing developments not yet arrived in toxicity testing are discussed, especially highlighting the potential of models based on embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells of human origin. Finally, the application of innovative technologies like organs-on-a-chip and genome editing point toward a toxicological paradigm change moves into action.

Understanding Idiosyncratic Toxicity: Lessons Learned from Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions (IADRs) encompass a diverse group of toxicities that can vary by drug and patient. The complex and unpredictable nature of IADRs combined with the fact that they are rare makes them particularly difficult to predict, diagnose, and treat. Common clinical characteristics, the identification of human leukocyte antigen risk alleles, and drug-induced proliferation of lymphocytes isolated from patients support a role for the adaptive immune system in the pathogenesis of IADRs. Significant evidence also suggests a requirement for direct, drug-induced stress, neoantigen formation, and stimulation of an innate response, which can be influenced by properties intrinsic to both the drug and the patient. This Perspective will provide an overview of the clinical profile, mechanisms, and risk factors underlying IADRs as well as new approaches to study these reactions, focusing on idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury.

Insulin-Producing Cell Transplantation Platform for Veterinary Practice

Diabetes mellitus (DM) remains a global concern in both human and veterinary medicine. Type I DM requires prolonged and consistent exogenous insulin administration to address hyperglycemia, which can increase the risk of diabetes complications such as retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and heart disorders. Cell-based therapies have been successful in human medicine using the Edmonton protocol. These therapies help maintain the production of endogenous insulin and stabilize blood glucose levels and may possibly be adapted to veterinary clinical practice. The limited number of cadaveric pancreas donors and the long-term use of immunosuppressive agents are the main obstacles for this protocol. Over the past decade, the development of potential therapies for DM has mainly focused on the generation of effective insulin-producing cells (IPCs) from various sources of stem cells that can be transplanted into the body. Another successful application of stem cells in type I DM therapies is transplanting generated IPCs. Encapsulation can be an alternative strategy to protect IPCs from rejection by the body due to their immunoisolation properties. This review summarizes current concepts of IPCs and encapsulation technology for veterinary clinical application and proposes a potential stem-cell-based platform for veterinary diabetic regenerative therapy.

Generation of hepatic spheroids using human hepatocyte-derived liver progenitor-like cells for hepatotoxicity screening

Rationale: The idiosyncratic drug-induced liver injury (iDILI) is a major cause of acute liver injury and a key challenge in late-stage drug development. Individual heterogeneity is considered to be an essential factor of iDILI. However, few in vitro model can predict heterogeneity in iDILI. We have previously shown that mouse and human hepatocytes can be converted to expandable liver progenitor-like cells in vitro (HepLPCs). However, the limited proliferation potential of human HepLPCs confines its industrial application. Here, we reported the generation of a novel hepatocyte model not only to provide unlimited cell sources for human hepatocytes but also to establish a tool for studying iDILI in vitro.

Methods: Human primary hepatocytes were isolated by modified two-step perfusion technique. The chemical reprogramming culture condition together with gene-transfer were then used to generate the immortalized HepLPC cell lines (iHepLPCs). Growth curve, doubling time, and karyotype were analyzed to evaluate the proliferation characteristics of iHepLPCs. Modified Hepatocyte Maturation Medium and 3D spheroid culture were applied to re-differentiate iHepLPCs.

Results: iHepLPCs exhibited efficient expansion for at least 40 population doublings, with a stable proliferative ability. They could easily differentiate back into metabolically functional hepatocytes in vitro within 10 days. Furthermore, under three-dimensional culture conditions, the formed hepatic spheroids showed multiple liver functions and toxicity profiles close to those of primary human hepatocytes. Importantly, we established a hepatocyte bank by generating a specific number of such cell lines. Screening for population heterogeneity allowed us to analyze the in vitro heterogeneous responses to hepatotoxicity induced by molecular targeted drugs.

Conclusions: In light of the proliferative capacity and the heterogeneity they represented, these iHepLPCs cell lines may offer assistance in studying xenobiotic metabolism as well as liver diseases in vitro.

Drug-Drug Combinations Can Enhance Toxicity as Shown by Monocyte-Derived Hepatocyte-like Cells From Patients With Idiosyncratic Drug-Induced Liver Injury

Study identifier

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT 02353455.

Expression of serine/threonine protein kinase SGK1F promotes an hepatoblast state in stem cells directed to differentiate into hepatocytes

The rat pancreatic AR42J-B13 (B-13) cell line differentiates into non-replicative hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells in response to glucocorticoid. Since this response is dependent on an induction of serine/threonine protein kinase 1 (SGK1), this may suggest that a general pivotal role for SGK1 in hepatocyte maturation. To test this hypothesis, the effects of expressing adenoviral-encoded flag tagged human SGK1F (AdV-SGK1F) was examined at 3 stages of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) differentiation to hepatocytes. B-13 cells infected with AdV-SGK1F in the absence of glucocorticoid resulted in expression of flag tagged SGK1F protein; increases in β-catenin phosphorylation; decreases in Tcf/Lef transcriptional activity; expression of hepatocyte marker genes and conversion of B-13 cells to a cell phenotype near-similar to B-13/H cells. Given this demonstration of functionality, iPSCs directed to differentiate towards hepatocyte-like cells using a standard protocol of chemical inhibitors and mixtures of growth factors were additionally infected with AdV-SGK1F, either at an early time point during differentiation to endoderm; during endoderm differentiation to anterior definitive endoderm and hepatoblasts and once converted to hepatocyte-like cells. SGK1F expression had no effect on differentiation to endoderm, likely due to low levels of expression. However, expression of SGK1F in both iPSCs-derived endoderm and hepatocyte-like cells both resulted in promotion of cells to an hepatoblast phenotype. These data demonstrate that SGK1 expression promotes an hepatoblast phenotype rather than maturation of human iPSC towards a mature hepatocyte phenotype and suggest a transient role for Sgk1 in promoting an hepatoblast state in B-13 trans-differentiation to B-13/H cells.

Designer human tissue: coming to a lab near you

Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) offer a scalable alternative to primary and transformed human tissue. PSCs include human embryonic stem cells, derived from the inner cell mass of blastocysts unsuitable for human implantation; and induced PSCs, generated by the reprogramming of somatic cells. Both cell types display the ability to self-renew and retain pluripotency, promising an unlimited supply of human somatic cells for biomedical application. A distinct advantage of using PSCs is the ability to select for genetic background, promising personalized modelling of human biology ‘in a dish’ or immune-matched cell-based therapies for the clinic. This special issue will guide the reader through stem cell self-renewal, pluripotency and differentiation. The first articles focus on improving cell fidelity, understanding the innate immune system and the importance of materials chemistry, biofabrication and bioengineering. These are followed by articles that focus on industrial application, commercialization and label-free assessment of tissue formation. The special issue concludes with an article discussing human liver cell-based therapies past, present and future.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Designer human tissue: coming to a lab near you’.

Application of human pluripotent stem cells and pluripotent stem cell-derived cellular models for assessing drug toxicity

Introduction: Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are capable of differentiating into all types of cells in the body and so provide suitable toxicology screening systems even for hard-to-obtain human tissues. Since hPSCs can also be generated from differentiated cells and current gene editing technologies allow targeted genome modifications, hPSCs can be applied for drug toxicity screening both in normal and disease-specific models. Targeted hPSC differentiation is still a challenge but cardiac, neuronal or liver cells, and complex cellular models are already available for practical applications. Areas covered: The authors review new gene-editing and cell-biology technologies to generate sensitive toxicity screening systems based on hPSCs. Then the authors present the use of undifferentiated hPSCs for examining embryonic toxicity and discuss drug screening possibilities in hPSC-derived models. The authors focus on the application of human cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, and neural cultures in toxicity testing, and discuss the recent possibilities for drug screening in a 'body-on-a-chip' model system. Expert opinion: hPSCs and their genetically engineered derivatives provide new possibilities to investigate drug toxicity in human tissues. The key issues in this regard are still the selection and generation of proper model systems, and the interpretation of the results in understanding in vivo drug effects.