1
|
Petersen KB, Kellogg EA. Diverse ecological functions and the convergent evolution of grass awns. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2022; 109:1331-1345. [PMID: 36048829 PMCID: PMC9828495 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.16060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The awn of grasses is a long, conspicuous outgrowth of the floral bracts in a grass spikelet. It is known to impact agricultural yield, but we know little about its broader ecological function, nor the selective forces that lead to its evolution. Grass awns are phenotypically diverse across the extant ~12,000 species of Poaceae. Awns have been lost and gained repeatedly over evolutionary time, between and within lineages, suggesting that they could be under selection and might provide adaptive benefit in some environments. Despite the phylogenetic context, we know of no studies that have tested whether the origin of awns correlates with putative selective forces on their form and function. Presence or absence of awns is not plastic; rather, heritability is high. The awns of grasses often are suggested as adaptations for dispersal, and most experimental work has been aimed at testing this hypothesis. Proposed dispersal functions include soil burial, epizoochory, and aerial orientation. Awns may also protect the seed from drought, herbivores, or fire by helping it become buried in soil. We do not fully understand the fitness or nutrient costs of awn production, but in some species awns function in photosynthesis, providing carbon to the seed. Here we show that awns likely provide an adaptive advantage, but argue that studies on awn function have lacked critical phylogenetic information to demonstrate adaptive convergent evolution, are taxonomically biased, and often lack clear alternative hypotheses.
Collapse
|
2
|
Barrett CF, Huebner CD, Bender ZA, Budinsky TA, Corbett CW, Latvis M, McKain MR, Motley M, Skibicki SV, Thixton HL, Santee MV, Cumberledge AN. Digitized collections elucidate invasion history and patterns of awn polymorphism in Microstegium vimineum. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2022; 109:689-705. [PMID: 35435240 PMCID: PMC9327524 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Digitized collections can help illuminate the mechanisms behind the establishment and spread of invasive plants. These databases provide a record of traits in space and time that allows for investigation of abiotic and biotic factors that influence invasive species. METHODS Over 1100 digitized herbarium records were examined to investigate the invasion history and trait variation of Microstegium vimineum. Presence-absence of awns was investigated to quantify geographic patterns of this polymorphic trait, which serves several functions in grasses, including diaspore burial and dispersal to germination sites. Floret traits were further quantified, and genomic analyses of contemporary samples were conducted to investigate the history of M. vimineum's introduction and spread into North America. RESULTS Herbarium records revealed similar patterns of awn polymorphism in native and invaded ranges of M. vimineum, with awned forms predominating at higher latitudes and awnless forms at lower latitudes. Herbarium records and genomic data suggested initial introduction and spread of the awnless form in the southeastern United States, followed by a putative secondary invasion and spread of the awned form from eastern Pennsylvania. Awned forms have longer florets, and floret size varies significantly with latitude. There is evidence of a transition zone with short-awned specimens at mid-latitudes. Genomic analyses revealed two distinct clusters corresponding to awnless and awned forms, with evidence of admixture. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate the power of herbarium data to elucidate the invasion history of a problematic weed in North America and, together with genomic data, reveal a possible key trait in introduction success: presence or absence of an awn.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig F. Barrett
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Cynthia D. Huebner
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
- USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station180 Canfield StreetMorgantownWest Virginia26505USA
- Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, 4100 Agricultural Sciences BuildingP.O. Box 6108MorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Zoe A. Bender
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
- Department of BiologyGettysburg College300 North Washington StreetGettysburgPennsylvania17325USA
| | - Trezalka A. Budinsky
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Pittsburgh4249 Fifth AvenuePittsburghPennsylvania15260USA
| | - Cameron W. Corbett
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Maribeth Latvis
- Department of Natural Resource ManagementSouth Dakota State University, 1390 College Avenue, South Dakota State UniversityBrookingsSouth Dakota57007USA
| | - Michael R. McKain
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Alabama300 Hackberry LaneTuscaloosaAlabama35487USA
| | - M'Kayla Motley
- Department of Biological SciencesUniversity of Alabama300 Hackberry LaneTuscaloosaAlabama35487USA
| | - Samuel V. Skibicki
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Hana L. Thixton
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Mathilda V. Santee
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| | - Aubrey N. Cumberledge
- Department of BiologyWest Virginia University53 Campus DriveMorgantownWest Virginia26506USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Wilson RJ, Siqueira AF, Brooks SJ, Price BW, Simon LM, Walt SJ, Fenberg PB. Applying computer vision to digitised natural history collections for climate change research: Temperature‐size responses in British butterflies. Methods Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/2041-210x.13844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J. Wilson
- School of Ocean and Earth Sciences University of Southampton Southampton UK
- Department of Life Sciences Natural History Museum London UK
| | | | | | | | - Lea M. Simon
- School of Ocean and Earth Sciences University of Southampton Southampton UK
| | - Stéfan J. Walt
- Berkeley Institute for Data Science University of California Berkeley CA USA
| | - Phillip B. Fenberg
- School of Ocean and Earth Sciences University of Southampton Southampton UK
- Department of Life Sciences Natural History Museum London UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Alfonso B, Sansón M, Sangil C, Expósito FJ, Díaz JP, Hernández JC. Herbarium macroalgae specimens reveal a rapid reduction of thallus size and reproductive effort related with climate change. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 174:105546. [PMID: 34968841 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Understanding and forecasting the effects of climate changes on vulnerable species are leading concerns for ecologists and conservation biologists. Herbaria are invaluable for use in long-term data series, and one of the few available methods for quantifying biodiversity changes over large periods of time. Gelidium canariense is an endemic and habitat-forming macroalga of the Canary Islands that coexists with two other habitat-forming Gelidiales: G. arbuscula and Pterocladiella capillacea. This study assesses long-term changes in thallus size and reproductive effort of all specimens deposited in the Herbarium of Universidad de La Laguna of these three Gelidiales species. Also assessed were the effects of seawater temperature and increased incident light on net primary production (NPP), and the effects of extreme desiccation conditions on the relative water content and NPP of the three Gelidiales species. The length of the thallus of the endemic species G. canariense was halved during the past 40 years. The shortening of the thallus coincided with a significant decrease in the number of reproductive structures in both Gelidium species. These morphological changes coincide with a significant increase of the sea surface temperature, air temperature above sea surface and ultraviolet radiation in the studied area. The experiments have revealed the deleterious effects of extreme desiccation and extreme irradiance on all three species. Hence, these results suggest that air temperature and irradiance are related with these morphological changes over time in the habitat-forming Gelidium species and that are most likely compromising the survival of their populations which are already declining.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B Alfonso
- Departamento de Botánica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain.
| | - M Sansón
- Departamento de Botánica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - C Sangil
- Departamento de Botánica, Ecología y Fisiología Vegetal, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - F J Expósito
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - J P Díaz
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain
| | - J C Hernández
- Departamento de Biología Animal, Edafología y Geología, Universidad de La Laguna, Canary Islands, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Albani Rocchetti G, Armstrong CG, Abeli T, Orsenigo S, Jasper C, Joly S, Bruneau A, Zytaruk M, Vamosi JC. Reversing extinction trends: new uses of (old) herbarium specimens to accelerate conservation action on threatened species. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:433-450. [PMID: 33280123 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Although often not collected specifically for the purposes of conservation, herbarium specimens offer sufficient information to reconstruct parameters that are needed to designate a species as 'at-risk' of extinction. While such designations should prompt quick and efficient legal action towards species recovery, such action often lags far behind and is mired in bureaucratic procedure. The increase in online digitization of natural history collections has now led to a surge in the number new studies on the uses of machine learning. These repositories of species occurrences are now equipped with advances that allow for the identification of rare species. The increase in attention devoted to estimating the scope and severity of the threats that lead to the decline of such species will increase our ability to mitigate these threats and reverse the declines, overcoming a current barrier to the recovery of many threatened plant species. Thus far, collected specimens have been used to fill gaps in systematics, range extent, and past genetic diversity. We find that they also offer material with which it is possible to foster species recovery, ecosystem restoration, and de-extinction, and these elements should be used in conjunction with machine learning and citizen science initiatives to mobilize as large a force as possible to counter current extinction trends.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas Abeli
- Department of Science, University Roma Tre, Viale G. Marconi 446, Roma, 00154, Italy
| | - Simone Orsenigo
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, 27100, Italy
| | - Caroline Jasper
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Simon Joly
- Montreal Botanical Garden, Montréal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
- Département de Sciences Biologiques and Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Anne Bruneau
- Département de Sciences Biologiques and Institut de Recherche en Biologie Végétale, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, H1X 2B2, Canada
| | - Maria Zytaruk
- Department of English, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Jana C Vamosi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Amézquita EJ, Quigley MY, Ophelders T, Munch E, Chitwood DH. The shape of things to come: Topological data analysis and biology, from molecules to organisms. Dev Dyn 2020; 249:816-833. [PMID: 32246730 PMCID: PMC7383827 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Shape is data and data is shape. Biologists are accustomed to thinking about how the shape of biomolecules, cells, tissues, and organisms arise from the effects of genetics, development, and the environment. Less often do we consider that data itself has shape and structure, or that it is possible to measure the shape of data and analyze it. Here, we review applications of topological data analysis (TDA) to biology in a way accessible to biologists and applied mathematicians alike. TDA uses principles from algebraic topology to comprehensively measure shape in data sets. Using a function that relates the similarity of data points to each other, we can monitor the evolution of topological features-connected components, loops, and voids. This evolution, a topological signature, concisely summarizes large, complex data sets. We first provide a TDA primer for biologists before exploring the use of TDA across biological sub-disciplines, spanning structural biology, molecular biology, evolution, and development. We end by comparing and contrasting different TDA approaches and the potential for their use in biology. The vision of TDA, that data are shape and shape is data, will be relevant as biology transitions into a data-driven era where the meaningful interpretation of large data sets is a limiting factor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erik J Amézquita
- Department of Computational Mathematics, Science & Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Michelle Y Quigley
- Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Tim Ophelders
- Department of Computational Mathematics, Science & Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Elizabeth Munch
- Department of Computational Mathematics, Science & Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Department of Mathematics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Daniel H Chitwood
- Department of Computational Mathematics, Science & Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lendemer J, Thiers B, Monfils AK, Zaspel J, Ellwood ER, Bentley A, LeVan K, Bates J, Jennings D, Contreras D, Lagomarsino L, Mabee P, Ford LS, Guralnick R, Gropp RE, Revelez M, Cobb N, Seltmann K, Aime MC. The Extended Specimen Network: A Strategy to Enhance US Biodiversity Collections, Promote Research and Education. Bioscience 2019; 70:23-30. [PMID: 31949317 PMCID: PMC6956879 DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biz140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Barbara Thiers
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York
| | - Anna K Monfils
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, Michigan
| | - Jennifer Zaspel
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
| | - Elizabeth R Ellwood
- La Brea Tar Pits and Museum, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, California
| | - Andrew Bentley
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,University of Kansas Natural History Museum, Lawrence, Kansas
| | - Katherine LeVan
- New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York.,National Ecological Observatory Network, Boulder, Colorado
| | - John Bates
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois
| | - David Jennings
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | | | | | - Paula Mabee
- University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota
| | - Linda S Ford
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Robert Guralnick
- Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Robert E Gropp
- Biodiversity Collections Network Advisory Committee.,American Institute of Biological Sciences, Washington, DC
| | | | - Neil Cobb
- Merriam-Powell Center, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona
| | - Katja Seltmann
- Cheadle Center for Biodiversity and Ecological Restoration, University of California, Santa Barbara
| | - M Catherine Aime
- Purdue University Herbaria, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Li M, Klein LL, Duncan KE, Jiang N, Chitwood DH, Londo JP, Miller AJ, Topp CN. Characterizing 3D inflorescence architecture in grapevine using X-ray imaging and advanced morphometrics: implications for understanding cluster density. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2019; 70:6261-6276. [PMID: 31504758 PMCID: PMC6859732 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erz394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Inflorescence architecture provides the scaffold on which flowers and fruits develop, and consequently is a primary trait under investigation in many crop systems. Yet the challenge remains to analyse these complex 3D branching structures with appropriate tools. High information content datasets are required to represent the actual structure and facilitate full analysis of both the geometric and the topological features relevant to phenotypic variation in order to clarify evolutionary and developmental inflorescence patterns. We combined advanced imaging (X-ray tomography) and computational approaches (topological and geometric data analysis and structural simulations) to comprehensively characterize grapevine inflorescence architecture (the rachis and all branches without berries) among 10 wild Vitis species. Clustering and correlation analyses revealed unexpected relationships, for example pedicel branch angles were largely independent of other traits. We identified multivariate traits that typified species, which allowed us to classify species with 78.3% accuracy, versus 10% by chance. Twelve traits had strong signals across phylogenetic clades, providing insight into the evolution of inflorescence architecture. We provide an advanced framework to quantify 3D inflorescence and other branched plant structures that can be used to tease apart subtle, heritable features for a better understanding of genetic and environmental effects on plant phenotypes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mao Li
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Laura L Klein
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Biology, Saint Louis University, St Louis, MO, USA
| | | | - Ni Jiang
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Daniel H Chitwood
- Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
- Department of Computational Mathematics, Science and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Jason P Londo
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: Grape Genetics Research Unit, Geneva, NY, USA
| | - Allison J Miller
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St Louis, MO, USA
- Department of Biology, Saint Louis University, St Louis, MO, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Meineke EK, Davies TJ, Daru BH, Davis CC. Biological collections for understanding biodiversity in the Anthropocene. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 374:rstb.2017.0386. [PMID: 30455204 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Global change has become a central focus of modern biology. Yet, our knowledge of how anthropogenic drivers affect biodiversity and natural resources is limited by a lack of biological data spanning the Anthropocene. We propose that the hundreds of millions of plant, fungal and animal specimens deposited in natural history museums have the potential to transform the field of global change biology. We suggest that museum specimens are underused, particularly in ecological studies, given their capacity to reveal patterns that are not observable from other data sources. Increasingly, museum specimens are becoming mobilized online, providing unparalleled access to physiological, ecological and evolutionary data spanning decades and sometimes centuries. Here, we describe the diversity of collections data archived in museums and provide an overview of the diverse uses and applications of these data as discussed in the accompanying collection of papers within this theme issue. As these unparalleled resources are under threat owing to budget cuts and other institutional pressures, we aim to shed light on the unique discoveries that are possible in museums and, thus, the singular value of natural history collections in a period of rapid change.This article is part of the theme issue 'Biological collections for understanding biodiversity in the Anthropocene'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emily K Meineke
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - T Jonathan Davies
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, V6T 1Z4.,African Centre for DNA Barcoding, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
| | - Barnabas H Daru
- Department of Life Sciences, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA
| | - Charles C Davis
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
McAllister CA, McKain MR, Li M, Bookout B, Kellogg EA. Specimen-based analysis of morphology and the environment in ecologically dominant grasses: the power of the herbarium. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2018; 374:rstb.2017.0403. [PMID: 30455217 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Herbaria contain a cumulative sample of the world's flora, assembled by thousands of people over centuries. To capitalize on this resource, we conducted a specimen-based analysis of a major clade in the grass tribe Andropogoneae, including the dominant species of the world's grasslands in the genera Andropogon, Schizachyrium, Hyparrhenia and several others. We imaged 186 of the 250 named species of the clade, georeferenced the specimens and extracted climatic variables for each. Using semi- and fully automated image analysis techniques, we extracted spikelet morphological characters and correlated these with environmental variables. We generated chloroplast genome sequences to correct for phylogenetic covariance and here present a new phylogeny for 81 of the species. We confirm and extend earlier studies to show that Andropogon and Schizachyrium are not monophyletic. In addition, we find all morphological and ecological characters are homoplasious but variable among clades. For example, sessile spikelet length is positively correlated with awn length when all accessions are considered, but when separated by clade, the relationship is positive for three sub-clades and negative for three others. Climate variables showed no correlation with morphological variation in the spikelet pair; only very weak effects of temperature and precipitation were detected on macrohair density.This article is part of the theme issue 'Biological collections for understanding biodiversity in the Anthropocene'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael R McKain
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, 975 North Warson Road, St Louis, MO 63132, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
| | - Mao Li
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, 975 North Warson Road, St Louis, MO 63132, USA
| | - Bess Bookout
- Department of Biology and Natural Resources, Principia College, Elsah, IL, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Kellogg
- Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, 975 North Warson Road, St Louis, MO 63132, USA
| |
Collapse
|