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Haycock J, Maehr T, Dastjerdi A, Steinbach F. Immunostimulation of Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus) blood cells by parapoxvirus ovis and CpG motif-containing bacterial plasmid DNA upregulates innate immune gene expression. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1329820. [PMID: 38590526 PMCID: PMC10999609 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1329820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The immune system of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is poorly studied, compared to that of livestock, rodents or humans. The innate immune response has become a focus of interest in relation to Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs). EEHVs cause a fatal hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD) and are a significant threat to captive Asian elephant populations worldwide. Similar to other herpesvirus infections, nearly all animals become infected, but only some develop disease. As progression to EEHV-HD is often acute, a robust innate immune response is crucial to control EEHV infections. This is invariably true of the host in the first instance, but it can also potentially be modulated by intervention strategies. Here, two immunostimulant veterinary medicinal products, authorized for use in domestic species, were tested for their ability to induce innate anti-viral immune responses in Asian elephant blood cells. Sequence data were obtained for a range of previously unidentified Asian elephant immune genes, including C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10), interferon stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) and myxovirus GTPase 1 (Mx1), and were employed in the design of species-specific qPCR assays. These assays were subsequently used in analyses to determine fold changes in gene expression over a period of 24 hours. This study demonstrates that both immunostimulant medications are capable of inducing significant innate anti-viral immune responses which suggests that both could be beneficial in controlling EEHV infections in Asian elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Haycock
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Tanja Maehr
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | - Akbar Dastjerdi
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
- Department of Virology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, United Kingdom
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ELEPHANT ENDOTHELIOTROPIC HERPESVIRUS HEMORRHAGIC DISEASE OUTBREAK IN AN INDIAN ZOO. J Zoo Wildl Med 2022; 52:1286-1297. [PMID: 34998302 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus hemorrhagic disease (EEHV HD) is an acute viral infection of growing Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Four apparently healthy subadult Asian elephants aged between 6 and 10 yr at Nandankanan Zoological Park (NKZP), India, died of EEHV HD during August-September 2019. All four elephants were rescued from different reserved forests of Odisha state at less than 1 yr of age and hand reared in the NKZP. Elephants exhibited the clinical signs of lethargy, head swelling, fever, loss of appetite, abdominal distension, scant urination and defecation, signs of colic, lameness, trunk discharge, cyanosis/ulceration of tongue, erratic behavior, and recumbence before death. Period of illness varied between 28 and 42 h. Thrombocytopenia was the common significant hematological observation. No significant biochemical alterations were recorded except for higher creatinine concentrations. Analysis of blood samples in RT-PCR assay using two different sets of primers and probes that targeted terminase gene and major DNA-binding protein gene followed by cPCR and sequencing was positive for EEHV-1A in all four animals. Postmortem examination of all four carcasses showed hemorrhages in internal organs, including the hard palate, heart, lungs, stomach, mesenteric lymph nodes, mesentery, colon serosa, spleen, liver, kidney, and meninges. Histopathology showed congestion and/or hemorrhages in heart, lung, brain, kidney, and liver. There was presence of intranuclear inclusion bodies in the sinusoidal epithelial cells. The outbreak of EEHV HD that resulted in the acute death of four juvenile captive Asian elephants within <30 d, the first of its kind documented in India, is increasing the fear of similar outbreaks in the future.
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Mahato G, Sarma KK, Pathak DC, Barman NN, Gogoi P, Dutta M, Basumatary P. Endotheliotropic herpesvirus infection in Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus) of Assam, India. Vet World 2019; 12:1790-1796. [PMID: 32009758 PMCID: PMC6925033 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.1790-1796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is an emerging disease of elephant. Therefore, a study was conducted to know the actual status of the disease in Assam State of India. Materials and Methods: A total of 289 Asian elephants of Assam were screened during 2 years of study from April 2017 to March 2019. The clinical symptoms of diseased as well as gross and histopathological changes of dead elephants were recorded for the diagnosis of the disease. Virus involved in the occurrence of the disease was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: In the present study, a total of three elephant calves out of 22 were found positive to EEHV1A. On the other hand, three adult asymptomatic elephants were also found positive for EEHV1 on screening 267 captive Asian elephants of Assam. The amplified PCR product showed band size of 520, 600, and 930 bp. The PCR amplified product with size 600 bp had shown the gene sequence for EEHV1U77/HEL. Gross lesions include congested blood vessels of the liver and intestinal mucosa, foci of petechiae in the spleen, and heart and focal ulceration in the dorsal surface of the tongue. Microscopically, the kidneys showed intertubular edema and focal areas of degeneration associated with coagulative necrosis of the tubular epithelium. The liver showed hydropic degeneration and fatty changes of the hepatocytes. There was a massive proliferation of fibroblasts in the interlobular spaces which penetrated the necrosed areas of the hepatic lobules. Conclusion: A total of three wild rescued elephant calves and three asymptomatic adults were found positive for EEHV1A during the 2 years of study. The PCR amplified product with size 600 bp had shown the gene sequence for EEHV1U77/HEL.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mahato
- Department of Veterinary Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - K K Sarma
- Department of Surgery and Radiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - D C Pathak
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - N N Barman
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - P Gogoi
- Junior Research Fellow DBT-Twinning Project NER, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - M Dutta
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - P Basumatary
- Assistant Manager, Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Bokakhat, Assam, India
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Pavulraj S, Eschke K, Prahl A, Flügger M, Trimpert J, van den Doel PB, Andreotti S, Kaessmeyer S, Osterrieder N, Azab W. Fatal Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus Infection of Two Young Asian Elephants. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7100396. [PMID: 31561506 PMCID: PMC6843339 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7100396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) can cause a devastating haemorrhagic disease in young Asian elephants worldwide. Here, we report the death of two young Asian elephants after suffering from acute haemorrhagic disease due to EEHV-1A infection. We detected widespread distribution of EEHV-1A in various organs and tissues of the infected elephants. Enveloped viral particles accumulated within and around cytoplasmic electron-dense bodies in hepatic endothelial cells were detected. Attempts to isolate the virus on different cell cultures showed limited virus replication; however, late viral protein expression was detected in infected cells. We further showed that glycoprotein B (gB) of EEHV-1A possesses a conserved cleavage site Arg-X-Lys/Arg-Arg that is targeted by the cellular protease furin, similar to other members of the Herpesviridae. We have determined the complete 180 kb genome sequence of EEHV-1A isolated from the liver by next-generation sequencing and de novo assembly. As virus isolation in vitro has been unsuccessful and limited information is available regarding the function of viral proteins, we have attempted to take the initial steps in the development of suitable cell culture system and virus characterization. In addition, the complete genome sequence of an EEHV-1A in Europe will facilitate future studies on the epidemiology and diagnosis of EEHV infection in elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selvaraj Pavulraj
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Kathrin Eschke
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Adriane Prahl
- Tierpark Hagenbeck gem. GmbH, Lokstedter Grenzstraße 2, 22527 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Flügger
- Tierpark Hagenbeck gem. GmbH, Lokstedter Grenzstraße 2, 22527 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Jakob Trimpert
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Petra B van den Doel
- ViroScience Lab, Erasmus Medical Center, Erasmus MC, Room Ee1714, dr. Molewaterplein 50, Rotterdam, 3015, GE, The Netherlands.
| | - Sandro Andreotti
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Institute of Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Arnimallee 14, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Sabine Kaessmeyer
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Freie Universität Berlin, Koserstraße 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Nikolaus Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Walid Azab
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany.
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Boonprasert K, Punyapornwithaya V, Tankaew P, Angkawanish T, Sriphiboon S, Titharam C, Brown JL, Somgird C. Survival analysis of confirmed elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus cases in Thailand from 2006 - 2018. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219288. [PMID: 31276571 PMCID: PMC6611605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) has been a known cause of death of young elephants in Thailand for over a decade. In this study, we report on the demography, disease characteristics and mortality of 58 elephants with confirmed EEHV hemorrhagic disease between January 2006 and August 2018 using retrospective data subjected to survival analysis. Median age of EEHV presentation was 29 months, and the mortality rate was 68.97% with a median survival time of 36 h. Most EEHV cases occurred in the north of Thailand, the region where most of the country’s captive elephants reside. The hazard ratio analysis identified application of medical procedures and antiviral medications as being significant factors correlated to the risk of death. Our results indicate a need to focus EEHV monitoring efforts on young elephants and to follow current protocols that advise starting treatments before clinical signs appear.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Veerasak Punyapornwithaya
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Food Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pallop Tankaew
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Taweepoke Angkawanish
- Elephant Hospital, National Elephant Institute, Forest Industry Organization, Lampang, Thailand
| | - Supaphen Sriphiboon
- Department of Large Animal and Wildlife Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Nakornpathom, Thailand
| | - Chatchote Titharam
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Janine L. Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, Virginia, United State of America
| | - Chaleamchat Somgird
- Center of Elephant and Wildlife Research, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Department of Companion Animal and Wildlife Clinics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- * E-mail:
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Azab W, Damiani AM, Ochs A, Osterrieder N. Subclinical infection of a young captive Asian elephant with elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus 1. Arch Virol 2017; 163:495-500. [PMID: 29094239 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-017-3628-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) are a continuous threat for young Asian elephants. We report a laboratory-confirmed infection of a 5-year-old female Asian elephant (AZ_2016) in the Berlin Zoologischer Garten. Initially, high EEHV-1 loads were detected in trunk swabs obtained from the young elephant during routine screening. The animal showed no clinical signs except for slight irritability. EEHV-1 was continuously shed for almost one year, with fluctuations in viral load from time to time. Our investigations highlight the continuous threat of EEHV-1 to young captive Asian elephants and stress the importance of routine monitoring of captive elephants to allow early detection of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walid Azab
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Armando Mario Damiani
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany
- Instituto de Medicina y Biología Experimental de Cuyo IMBECU, CCT Mendoza-CONICET, Área de Química Biológica, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, Universidad Nacional de Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - Andreas Ochs
- Zoologischer Garten Berlin AG, Hardenbergplatz 8, 10787, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nikolaus Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Robert von Ostertag-Haus, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany
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Kleiboeker SB, Turnquist SE, Johnson PJ, Kreeger JM. Detection and Nucleotide Sequencing of a DNA-Packaging Protein Gene of Equine Gammaherpesviruses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016; 16:67-74. [PMID: 14974850 DOI: 10.1177/104063870401600112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous studies, novel putative viral pathogens designated that asinine herpesvirus 4 (AsHV4) and asinine herpesvirus 5 (AsHV5) were associated with fatal interstitial pneumonia in donkeys ( Equus asinus). Nucleotide sequence analysis of a portion of the DNA polymerase gene identified these putative pathogens as herpesviruses and possibly as members of the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily. Although similar to equine herpesvirus 2 (EHV2) and equine herpesvirus 5 (EHV5), sequence diversity was observed among the detected viruses. In this study, novel sequence is reported for a DNA-packaging protein gene of EHV5 plus AsHV4, AsHV5, and a newly described putative pathogen herein designated asinine herpesvirus 6 (AsHV6). Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences suggested that the equine gammaherpesviruses may form a separate clade within the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily. Based on the sequence of EHV2 and the novel sequences reported in this study, a PCR assay was developed to detect equine gammaherpesviruses. Products of the predicted size were produced after amplification of DNA from EHV2, EHV5, AsHV4, AsHV5, and AsHV6. This nonnested assay was shown to consistently amplify approximately 10 genomic copies of EHV2. Amplification products were not produced from DNA template of other alpha- and gammaherpesviruses. Because the role of gammaherpesviruses has not been well defined in equine disease, it is envisioned that a single, sensitive PCR assay to detect these potential pathogens will facilitate further assessment of their role in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven B Kleiboeker
- Veterinary Medical Diagnostic Laboratory, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
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First reported case of elephant endotheliotropic herpes virus infection in Laos. J Zoo Wildl Med 2014; 45:704-7. [PMID: 25314848 DOI: 10.1638/2013-0264r1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) is now recognized as one of the main causes of death of young Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in North American zoos. Its impact in wild and domestic elephant populations in Asia is not clearly understood. This article describes the first case of EEHV infection in Lao People's Democratic Republic of a 2.5-yr-old domestic male Asian elephant. Clinical signs and pathological findings reported here are consistent with previous infections in Asian elephant calves. Phylogenetic analyses showed 100% homology with other EEHV-1A strains identified in Asia, Europe, and North America. Contamination of the molecular assays was ruled out, because the DNA polymerase sequence identified in this study differed from the positive control by two base pairs.
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Abstract
Elephant populations are under intense pressure internationally from habitat destruction and poaching for ivory and meat. They also face pressure from infectious agents, including elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus 1 (EEHV1), which kills ~20% of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) born in zoos and causes disease in the wild. EEHV1 is one of at least six distinct EEHV in a phylogenetic lineage that appears to represent an ancient but newly recognized subfamily (the Deltaherpesvirinae) in the family Herpesviridae.
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Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses EEHV1A, EEHV1B, and EEHV2 from cases of hemorrhagic disease are highly diverged from other mammalian herpesviruses and may form a new subfamily. J Virol 2014; 88:13523-46. [PMID: 25231303 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01673-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED A family of novel endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) assigned to the genus Proboscivirus have been identified as the cause of fatal hemorrhagic disease in 70 young Asian elephants worldwide. Although EEHV cannot be grown in cell culture, we have determined a total of 378 kb of viral genomic DNA sequence directly from clinical tissue samples from six lethal cases and two survivors. Overall, the data obtained encompass 57 genes, including orthologues of 32 core genes common to all herpesviruses, 14 genes found in some other herpesviruses, plus 10 novel genes, including a single large putative transcriptional regulatory protein (ORF-L). On the basis of differences in gene content and organization plus phylogenetic analyses of conserved core proteins that have just 20% to 50% or less identity to orthologues in other herpesviruses, we propose that EEHV1A, EEHV1B, and EEHV2 could be considered a new Deltaherpesvirinae subfamily of mammalian herpesviruses that evolved as an intermediate branch between the Betaherpesvirinae and Gammaherpesvirinae. Unlike cytomegaloviruses, EEHV genomes encode ribonucleotide kinase B subunit (RRB), thymidine kinase (TK), and UL9-like origin binding protein (OBP) proteins and have an alphaherpesvirus-like dyad symmetry Ori-Lyt domain. They also differ from all known betaherpesviruses by having a 40-kb large-scale inversion of core gene blocks I, II, and III. EEHV1 and EEHV2 DNA differ uniformly by more than 25%, but EEHV1 clusters into two major subgroups designated EEHV1A and EEHV1B with ancient partially chimeric features. Whereas large segments are nearly identical, three nonadjacent loci totaling 15 kb diverge by between 21 and 37%. One strain of EEHV1B analyzed is interpreted to be a modern partial recombinant with EEHV1A. IMPORTANCE Asian elephants are an endangered species whose survival is under extreme pressure in wild range countries and whose captive breeding populations in zoos are not self-sustaining. In 1999, a novel class of herpesviruses called EEHVs was discovered. These viruses have caused a rapidly lethal hemorrhagic disease in 20% of all captive Asian elephant calves born in zoos in the United States and Europe since 1980. The disease is increasingly being recognized in Asian range countries as well. These viruses cannot be grown in cell culture, but by direct PCR DNA sequence analysis from segments totaling 15 to 30% of the genomes from blood or necropsy tissue from eight different cases, we have determined that they fall into multiple types and chimeric subtypes of a novel Proboscivirus genus, and we propose that they should also be classified as the first examples of a new mammalian herpesvirus subfamily named the Deltaherpesvirinae.
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Detection of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus infection among healthy Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in South India. J Wildl Dis 2014; 50:279-87. [PMID: 24484479 DOI: 10.7589/2012-09-236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic disease in Asian (Elephas maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) elephants. Of the seven known EEHV species, EEHV1 is recognized as the most common cause of hemorrhagic disease among Asian elephants in human care worldwide. Recent data collected from ex situ Asian elephants located in multiple North American and European institutions suggest that subclinical EEHV1 infection is common in this population of elephants. Although fatal EEHV1-associated hemorrhagic disease has been reported in range countries, data are lacking regarding the prevalence of subclinical EEHV infections among in situ Asian elephants. We used previously validated EEHV-specific quantitative real-time PCR assays to detect subclinical EEHV infection in three regionally distinct Asian elephant cohorts, totaling 46 in situ elephants in South India, during October and November 2011. Using DNA prepared from trunk washes, we detected EEHV1, EEHV3/4, and EEHV5 at frequencies of 7, 9, and 20% respectively. None of the trunk washes was positive for EEHV2 or 6. At least one EEHV species was detectable in 35% (16/46) of the samples that were screened. These data suggest that subclinical EEHV infection among in situ Asian elephants occurs and that Asian elephants may be natural hosts for EEHV1, EEHV3 or 4, and EEHV5, but not EEHV2 and EEHV6. The methodology described in this study provides a foundation for further studies to determine prevalences of EEHV infection in Asian elephants throughout the world.
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Kinetics of viral loads and genotypic analysis of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-1 infection in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). J Zoo Wildl Med 2013; 44:42-54. [PMID: 23505702 DOI: 10.1638/1042-7260-44.1.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic disease in juvenile Asian elephants (Elphas maximus); however, sporadic shedding of virus in trunk washes collected from healthy elephants also has been detected. Data regarding the relationship of viral loads in blood compared with trunk washes are lacking, and questions about whether elephants can undergo multiple infections with EEHVs have not been addressed previously. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to determine the kinetics of EEHV1 loads, and genotypic analysis was performed on EEHV1 DNA detected in various fluid samples obtained from five Asian elephants that survived detectable EEHV1 DNAemia on at least two separate occasions. In three elephants displaying clinical signs of illness, preclinical EEHV1 DNAemia was detectable, and peak whole-blood viral loads occurred 3-8 days after the onset of clinical signs. In two elephants with EEHV1 DNAemia that persisted for 7-21 days, no clinical signs of illness were observed. Detection of EEHV1 DNA in trunk washes peaked approximately 21 days after DNAemia, and viral genotypes detected during DNAemia matched those detected in subsequent trunk washes from the same elephant. In each of the five elephants, two distinct EEHV1 genotypes were identified in whole blood and trunk washes at different time points. In each case, these genotypes represented both an EEHV1A and an EEHV1B subtype. These data suggest that knowledge of viral loads could be useful for the management of elephants before or during clinical illness. Furthermore, sequential infection with both EEHV1 subtypes occurs in Asian elephants, suggesting that they do not elicit cross-protective sterilizing immunity. These data will be useful to individuals involved in the husbandry and clinical care of Asian elephants.
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Complete genome sequences of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses 1A and 1B determined directly from fatal cases. J Virol 2013; 87:6700-12. [PMID: 23552421 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00655-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A highly lethal hemorrhagic disease associated with infection by elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) poses a severe threat to Asian elephant husbandry. We have used high-throughput methods to sequence the genomes of the two genotypes that are involved in most fatalities, namely, EEHV1A and EEHV1B (species Elephantid herpesvirus 1, genus Proboscivirus, subfamily Betaherpesvirinae, family Herpesviridae). The sequences were determined from postmortem tissue samples, despite the data containing tiny proportions of viral reads among reads from a host for which the genome sequence was not available. The EEHV1A genome is 180,421 bp in size and consists of a unique sequence (174,601 bp) flanked by a terminal direct repeat (2,910 bp). The genome contains 116 predicted protein-coding genes, of which six are fragmented, and seven paralogous gene families are present. The EEHV1B genome is very similar to that of EEHV1A in structure, size, and gene layout. Half of the EEHV1A genes lack orthologs in other members of subfamily Betaherpesvirinae, such as human cytomegalovirus (genus Cytomegalovirus) and human herpesvirus 6A (genus Roseolovirus). Notable among these are 23 genes encoding type 3 membrane proteins containing seven transmembrane domains (the 7TM family) and seven genes encoding related type 2 membrane proteins (the EE50 family). The EE50 family appears to be under intense evolutionary selection, as it is highly diverged between the two genotypes, exhibits evidence of sequence duplications or deletions, and contains several fragmented genes. The availability of the genome sequences will facilitate future research on the epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of EEHV-associated disease.
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Stanton JJ, Nofs SA, Peng R, Hayward GS, Ling PD. Development and validation of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction assays to detect elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses-2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. J Virol Methods 2012; 186:73-7. [PMID: 22842286 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) can cause lethal hemorrhagic disease in both African and Asian elephants. At least seven EEHV types have been described, and sensitive real-time PCR tests have been developed for EEHV1A and 1B, which are associated with the majority of characterized Asian elephant deaths. Despite growing knowledge of the different EEHV types, the prevalence of each type within African and Asian elephants remains to be determined and there is considerable need for diagnostic tests to detect and discriminate between each EEHV species for clinical management of African and Asian elephants that develop illness from one or more of these viruses. To begin to address these issues, we developed real-time PCR assays for EEHV2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Overall, each assay had robust PCR efficiency, a dynamic linear range over 5log(10) concentrations, a limit of detection of 10 copies/test reaction with 100% sensitivity, and low intra- and inter-assay variability. Each assay proved to be specific for the EEHV targets for which it was designed, with the exception of EEHV3 and EEHV4, which was expected because of greater DNA sequence similarity between these two EEHV species than the others. These new tools will be useful for conducting surveys of EEHV prevalence within captive and range country elephants, for diagnostic testing of elephants with suspected EEHV-associated disease, and for managing the treatment of elephants with EEHV-induced illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Stanton
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, One Baylor Plaza, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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15
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Tarlinton RE, Dunham SP. Pushing the envelope: Advances in molecular techniques for the detection of novel viruses. Vet J 2011; 190:185-186. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/01/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Zielke B, Thomas M, Giede-Jeppe A, Müller R, Stamminger T. Characterization of the betaherpesviral pUL69 protein family reveals binding of the cellular mRNA export factor UAP56 as a prerequisite for stimulation of nuclear mRNA export and for efficient viral replication. J Virol 2011; 85:1804-19. [PMID: 21147923 PMCID: PMC3028876 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01347-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 11/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UL69 of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) encodes a pleiotropic transactivator protein and has a counterpart in every member of the Herpesviridae family thus far sequenced. However, little is known about the conservation of the functions of the nuclear phosphoprotein pUL69 in the homologous proteins of other betaherpesviruses. Therefore, eukaryotic expression vectors were constructed for pC69 of chimpanzee cytomegalovirus, pRh69 of rhesus cytomegalovirus, pM69 of murine cytomegalovirus, pU42 of human herpesvirus 6, and pU42 of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus. Indirect immunofluorescence experiments showed that all pUL69 homologs expressed by these vectors were localized to the cell nucleus. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments identified homodimerization as a conserved feature of all homologs, whereas heterodimerization with pUL69 was restricted to its closer relatives. Further analyses demonstrated that pC69 and pRh69 were the only two homologs that functioned, like pUL69, as viral-mRNA export factors. As we had reported recently that nucleocytoplasmic shuttling and interaction with the cellular DExD/H-box helicases UAP56 and URH49 were prerequisites for the nuclear-mRNA export activity of pUL69, the homologs were characterized with regard to these properties. Heterokaryon assays demonstrated nucleocytoplasmic shuttling for all homologs, and coimmunoprecipitation and mRNA export assays revealed that the interaction of UAP56 and/or URH49 with pC69 or pRh69 was required for mRNA export activity. Moreover, characterization of HCMV recombinants harboring mutations within the N-terminal sequence of pUL69 revealed a strong replication defect of viruses expressing pUL69 variants that were deficient in UAP56 binding. In summary, homodimerization and nucleocytoplasmic shuttling activity were identified as conserved features of betaherpesviral pUL69 homologs. UAP56 binding was shown to represent a unique characteristic of members of the genus Cytomegalovirus that is required for efficient replication of HCMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Zielke
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Marco Thomas
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Antje Giede-Jeppe
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Regina Müller
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Thomas Stamminger
- Institute for Clinical and Molecular Virology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
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17
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Stanton JJ, Zong JC, Latimer E, Tan J, Herron A, Hayward GS, Ling PD. Detection of pathogenic elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in routine trunk washes from healthy adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) by use of a real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay. Am J Vet Res 2010; 71:925-33. [PMID: 20673092 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.71.8.925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the pathogenesis and transmission of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV1) by analyzing various elephant fluid samples with a novel EEHV1-specific real-time PCR assay. ANIMALS 5 apparently healthy captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) from the same herd. PROCEDURES A real-time PCR assay was developed that specifically detects EEHV1. The assay was used to evaluate paired whole blood and trunk-wash samples obtained from the 5 elephants during a 15-week period. Deoxyribonucleic acid sequencing and viral gene subtyping analysis were performed on trunk-wash DNA preparations that had positive results for EEHV1. Viral gene subtypes were compared with those associated with past fatal cases of herpesvirus-associated disease within the herd. RESULTS The PCR assay detected viral DNA to a level of 1,200 copies/mL of whole blood. It was used to detect EEHV1 in trunk secretions of 3 of the 5 elephants surveyed during the 15-week period. Viral gene subtyping analysis identified 2 distinct elephant herpesviruses, 1 of which was identical to the virus associated with a previous fatal case of herpesvirus-associated disease within the herd. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE EEHV1 was shed in the trunk secretions of healthy Asian elephants. Trunk secretions may provide a mode of transmission for this virus. Results of this study may be useful for the diagnosis, treatment, and management of EEHV1-associated disease and the overall management of captive elephant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey J Stanton
- Department of Molecular Virology and Microbiology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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18
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Latimer E, Zong JC, Heaggans SY, Richman LK, Hayward GS. Detection and evaluation of novel herpesviruses in routine and pathological samples from Asian and African elephants: identification of two new probosciviruses (EEHV5 and EEHV6) and two new gammaherpesviruses (EGHV3B and EGHV5). Vet Microbiol 2010; 147:28-41. [PMID: 20579821 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2010] [Revised: 05/21/2010] [Accepted: 05/25/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Systemic infections with elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) cause a rapid onset acute hemorrhagic disease with an 85% mortality rate. More than 60 cases have been confirmed worldwide occurring predominantly in juvenile Asian elephants. Originally, three virus types EEHV1A, EEHV1B and EEHV2 were identified, all members of the Proboscivirus genus within the Betaherpesvirinae. However, four elephant gammaherpesviruses (EGHV) have also been found by DNA PCR approaches in eye and genital secretions of asymptomatic animals, and two more versions of the probosciviruses, EEHV3 and EEHV4, were recently detected in acute hemorrhagic disease cases. To ask whether even more species of elephant herpesviruses may exist, we have developed several new diagnostic DNA PCR assays using multiple round primers in the DNA POL region. These have been used routinely for nearly three years to screen samples submitted to the Elephant Herpesvirus Laboratory for diagnosis of possible cases of EEHV disease in blood and necropsy tissue, as well as in biopsies of other suspicious lesions or growths. Several more cases of EEHV1-associated hemorrhagic disease were confirmed, but in addition, we describe here eleven examples of other known and novel herpesviruses detected and evaluated with these reagents. They include the prototypes of four new elephant herpesviruses, two more within the proboscivirus group EEHV5 and EEHV6, plus two more gammaherpesviruses EGHV3B and EGHV5. We also report initial semi-quantitative PCR assays demonstrating very high viral loads in the blood of the EEHV3 and EEHV4-associated hemorrhagic disease cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin Latimer
- Elephant Herpesvirus Laboratory, Smithsonian National Zoological Park, 3001 Connecticut Ave., Washington, DC 20008, USA.
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19
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Garner MM, Helmick K, Ochsenreiter J, Richman LK, Latimer E, Wise AG, Maes RK, Kiupel M, Nordhausen RW, Zong JC, Hayward GS. Clinico-pathologic features of fatal disease attributed to new variants of endotheliotropic herpesviruses in two Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Vet Pathol 2009; 46:97-104. [PMID: 19112123 PMCID: PMC3572918 DOI: 10.1354/vp.46-1-97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The first herpesviruses described in association with serious elephant disease were referred to as endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) because of their ability to infect capillary endothelial cells and cause potentially fatal disease. Two related viruses, EEHV1 and EEHV2, have been described based on genetic composition. This report describes the similarities and differences in clinicopathologic features of 2 cases of fatal endotheliotropic herpesvirus infections in Asian elephants caused by a previously unrecognized virus within the betaherpesvirus subfamily. EEHV3 is markedly divergent from the 2 previously studied fatal probosciviruses, based on polymerase chain reaction sequence analysis of 2 segments of the viral genome. In addition to ascites, widespread visceral edema, petechiae, and capillary damage previously reported, important findings with EEHV3 infection were the presence of grossly visible renal medullary hemorrhage, a tropism for larger veins and arteries in various tissues, relatively high density of renal herpetic inclusions, and involvement of the retinal vessels. These findings indicate a less selective organ tropism, and this may confer a higher degree of virulence for EEHV3.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Garner
- Northwest ZooPath, Monroe WA 98296, USA.
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20
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Abstract
The taxonomy of herpesviruses has been updated by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). The former family Herpesviridae has been split into three families, which have been incorporated into the new order Herpesvirales. The revised family Herpesviridae retains the mammal, bird and reptile viruses, the new family Alloherpesviridae incorporates the fish and frog viruses, and the new family Malacoherpesviridae contains a bivalve virus. Three new genera have been created in the family Herpesviridae, namely Proboscivirus in the subfamily Betaherpesvirinae and Macavirus and Percavirus in the subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae. These genera have been formed by the transfer of species from established genera and the erection of new species, and other new species have been added to some of the established genera. In addition, the names of some nonhuman primate virus species have been changed. The family Alloherpesviridae has been populated by transfer of the genus Ictalurivirus and addition of the new species Cyprinid herpesvirus 3. The family Malacoherpesviridae incorporates the new genus Ostreavirus containing the new species Ostreid herpesvirus 1.
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21
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Ehlers B, Dural G, Marschall M, Schregel V, Goltz M, Hentschke J. Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus, the first betaherpesvirus with a thymidine kinase gene. J Gen Virol 2006; 87:2781-2789. [PMID: 16963736 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.81977-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Endotheliotropic elephant herpesvirus (elephantid herpesvirus 1; ElHV-1) is apathogenic for African elephants (Loxodonta africana), but causes fatal haemorrhagic disease in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). This is thought to occur through transmission from African elephants in places where both species are housed, such as zoological gardens. The virus has caused considerable losses in North American and European zoological gardens and thus severely impedes breeding of the endangered Asian elephant. Previously, the ultrastructural and genetic characterization of ElHV-1 from a male Asian elephant that died from the disease at the Berlin zoological gardens in 1998 have been reported. Here, a partial characterization of the ElHV-1 genome is presented. A 60 kbp locus, spanning 34 open reading frames, was analysed. Most of the detected genes were found to be conserved among the herpesviruses and showed an overall arrangement most similar to that of betaherpesviruses, in particular Human herpesvirus 6 and Human herpesvirus 7. Most importantly, in addition to a protein kinase gene that is homologous to the human cytomegalovirus UL97 gene, a thymidine kinase (TK) gene was found, which is generally missing in betaherpesvirus genomes. Thus, ElHV-1 is the only known betaherpesvirus to encode a TK gene. This peculiarity might contribute to the fulminant pathogenicity of ElHV-1, but also provide a crucial enzymic activity for developing an efficient antiviral therapy with currently available nucleoside analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Ehlers
- Molekulare Genetik und Epidemiologie von Herpesviren, Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Güzin Dural
- Molekulare Genetik und Epidemiologie von Herpesviren, Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Manfred Marschall
- Institut für Klinische und Molekulare Virologie, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Vera Schregel
- Institut für Klinische und Molekulare Virologie, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Schlossgarten 4, 91054 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Michael Goltz
- Molekulare Genetik und Epidemiologie von Herpesviren, Robert Koch-Institut, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jochen Hentschke
- Institut für Lebensmittel, Arzneimittel und Tierseuchen, Invalidenstr. 60, 10557 Berlin, Germany
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22
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Gompels U, Kasolo F. HHV-6 Genome: Similar and Different. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/s0168-7069(06)12003-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
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23
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Cardoso M, Hyatt A, Selleck P, Lowther S, Prakash V, Pain D, Cunningham AA, Boyle D. Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA polymerase gene of a novel alphaherpesvirus isolated from an Indian Gyps vulture. Virus Genes 2005; 30:371-81. [PMID: 15830156 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-005-6781-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The DNA polymerase gene of a novel herpesvirus, vulture herpesvirus (VHV), isolated from an Indian Gyps vulture was completely sequenced using primer walking and transposon insertion strategies. DNA sequencing analysis revealed a single open reading frame (ORF) of 3660 nucleotides (53% G-C content) able to encode 1219 amino acids. Identification was based on a nucleotide sequence identity of approximately 50% to other herpesvirus sequences found in Genbank. Nine motifs were identified that are conserved amongst all known herpesviruses and are found within the 3'-5' exonuclease and DNA binding functional domains of the DNA polymerase enzyme. Phylogenetic analysis using Clustal W with neighbour-joining revealed VHV to group within the subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, more closely related to the avian herpesviruses than to those of other species. Partial sequence data also revealed VHV to contain other genes fundamental to the structure and replication of all herpesvirus genomes. A Real Time PCR Taqman assay specific for the VHV DNA polymerase gene was designed to detect the presence of VHV genomic material in post mortem tissue samples from diseased birds. Positive tissues included the spleen, rectum, thymus, kidney and brain. A herpesvirus specific to vultures may pose a threat to the management of captive breeding programs being established to assist the survival of wild populations of Gyps vultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Cardoso
- Australian Animal Health Laboratories, CSIRO Livestock Industries, Private Bag 24, Geelong, Victoria, 3220, Australia
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24
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Chmielewicz B, Goltz M, Lahrmann KH, Ehlers B. Approaching virus safety in xenotransplantation: a search for unrecognized herpesviruses in pigs. Xenotransplantation 2003; 10:349-56. [PMID: 12795684 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3089.2003.02074.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The identification of porcine viruses so far unrecognized is required to minimize virus-related risks associated with xenotransplantation. We used a pan-herpes consensus polymerase chain reaction assay to search for unrecognized porcine species of the Herpesviridae. The assay targets conserved regions of the herpesvirus DNA polymerase (DPOL) gene, using primers that were modified to diminish the assay's recognition capacity for the highly prevalent porcine lymphotropic herpesviruses 1, 2 and 3 (PLHV-1, -2, -3), without substantially lowering the universal detection capacity of the assay. Analysis of 495 porcine blood and tissue samples from 294 animals, including 35 samples from 20 immunosuppressed pigs, resulted in the amplification of 128 herpesviral DPOL sequences. Sequence analysis attributed 127 of the amplimers to the known porcine herpesviruses (PLHV-1, -2, -3; porcine cytomegalovirus; pseudorabiesvirus). In none of the pig samples analyzed here, evidence was obtained for the presence of additional novel porcine herpesvirus species. Therefore we conclude that pigs bred for the purpose of xenotransplantation pose a negligible risk of transmitting presently unrecognized herpesviruses to organ recipients.
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25
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Chmielewicz B, Goltz M, Franz T, Bauer C, Brema S, Ellerbrok H, Beckmann S, Rziha HJ, Lahrmann KH, Romero C, Ehlers B. A novel porcine gammaherpesvirus. Virology 2003; 308:317-29. [PMID: 12706081 DOI: 10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A novel porcine gammaherpesvirus was detected in the blood of domestic pigs by PCR. With degenerate-primer PCR and subsequent long-distance PCR approaches a 60-kbp genome stretch was amplified. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of the gammaherpesvirus ORFs 03 to 46 as well as a putative chemokine receptor and a v-bcl-2 gene. The 60-kbp sequence was compared with the corresponding sequence of the porcine lymphotropic herpesvirus 1 (PLHV-1) published recently and the sequence of PLHV-2, which was amplified from porcine tonsil. Considerable sequence differences (amino acid identities: 49-89%) were found between the novel virus and PLHV-1 as well as PLHV-2, which were very closely related to each other (amino acid identities: 85-98%). The novel virus had essentially the same genome organization as PLHV-1 and -2 and was therefore designated PLHV-3. Like PLHV-1 and -2, PLHV-3 was frequently found in the blood and in lymphoid organs of domestic and feral pigs from different geographic locations. In the blood, the PLHVs were detected predominantly in B-cells. Indication for latent as well as productive PLHV-3 infection was found in the porcine B-cell line L23. It can be concluded that the PLHVs are widespread and are likely to cause a persistent B-lymphotropic infection. Since PLHV-1 has been implicated in the development of porcine posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disease, all porcine lymphotropic gammaherpesviruses are of concern when pigs are used as donors in xenotransplantation.
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26
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Egyed L, Baska F. Histological lesions in vascular tissues of bovine herpes virus type 4-infected rabbits. Vet Microbiol 2003; 91:1-10. [PMID: 12441227 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(02)00261-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The gamma-herpes virus bovine herpes virus type 4 (BoHV-4) is distributed worldwide in cattle populations with unknown pathogenicity. Bovine endothelial cells were recently shown to be susceptible to BoHV-4 infection in vitro and this virus accelerated the cholesterol-induced atherosclerotic process in rabbits. In this study, the in vivo effect of BoHV-4 on cardiovascular tissue was investigated by intravenous infection of rabbits fed a cholesterol free diet. Inflammatory lesions of vascular tissue in aortic and valvular endothelial cells, and smooth muscle cells were detected by H&E staining, PCR, IF, EM immunohistochemistry, while virus isolation was used to detect virus particles. Acute and chronic vasculitis, signs of chronic endocarditis, with mononuclear cell accumulation and a fresh thrombus was found. Herpes viruses have already been thought to initiate cardio-vascular disorders, now this paper shows that a bovine gamma-herpes virus could also be a causative agent of vascular lesions in mammals fed a normal diet. BoHV-4-infection of rabbits could serve as a useful animal model for research into virus-induced human cardio-vascular diseases.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/metabolism
- Aorta, Thoracic/pathology
- Aorta, Thoracic/virology
- DNA, Viral/chemistry
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- Dexamethasone/metabolism
- Fluorescent Antibody Technique/veterinary
- Heart/virology
- Herpesviridae Infections/pathology
- Herpesviridae Infections/veterinary
- Herpesviridae Infections/virology
- Herpesvirus 4, Bovine/genetics
- Herpesvirus 4, Bovine/growth & development
- Immunosuppressive Agents/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/pathology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/virology
- Myocardium/pathology
- Polymerase Chain Reaction/veterinary
- Rabbits/virology
- Vasculitis/veterinary
- Vasculitis/virology
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Affiliation(s)
- László Egyed
- Veterinary Medical Research Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 18, H-1581 Budapest, Hungary.
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27
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Fickel J, Lieckfeldt D, Richman LK, Streich WJ, Hildebrandt TB, Pitra C. Comparison of glycoprotein B (gB) variants of the elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) isolated from Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Vet Microbiol 2003; 91:11-21. [PMID: 12441228 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(02)00264-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The recently described elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV) have been associated with the deaths of numerous captive elephants. A proposed tool for the detection of EEHV infection in elephants is the PCR-based screening for EEHV-DNA in whole blood samples. Unfortunately, this detection method has only been successful in post-mortem analyses or in animals already displaying clinical signs of EEHV disease, thus rendering this method unsuitable for identification of carrier elephants. Here, we focus on glycoprotein B (gB) for serologic assay development, since gB is an envelope protein known to induce a neutralising antibody response in other herpesvirus infections. We sequenced the entire gB gene from five Asian elephants with EEHV, representing four different gB variants. Computer-aided methods were used to predict functionally important regions within EEHVgB. An extra-cytoplasmic region of 153 amino acids was predicted to be under positive selection and may potentially contain antigenic determinants that will be useful for future serologic assay development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Fickel
- Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Alfred-Kowalke-Strasse 17, D-10315 Berlin, Germany.
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28
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Kleiboeker SB, Schommer SK, Johnson PJ, Ehlers B, Turnquist SE, Boucher M, Kreeger JM. Association of two newly recognized herpesviruses with interstitial pneumonia in donkeys (Equus asinus). J Vet Diagn Invest 2002; 14:273-80. [PMID: 12152805 DOI: 10.1177/104063870201400401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over a period of 6 years, antemortem and postmortem examinations were performed on a number of donkeys suffering from respiratory disease. For many cases, initial diagnostic efforts failed to identify an etiology consistent with the pathologic findings. However, retrospective examination of these cases using consensus primer polymerase chain reaction, designed to recognize herpesviruses from all 3 subfamilies of the Herpesviridae, amplified a fragment of the highly conserved herpesvirus DNA polymerase gene from a number of these animals. Two novel herpesviruses, herein designated asinine herpesvirus 4 (AHV4) and asinine herpesvirus 5 (AHV5), were consistently detected in lung tissue from donkeys in which the histopathology was characterized by interstitial pneumonia and marked syncytial cell formation but not in lung tissue from donkeys with evidence of bacterial or verminous pneumonia. Nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analysis places these new viruses within the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily and indicates that they are most closely related to the recently identified zebra herpesvirus and wildass herpesvirus as well as equine herpesviruses 2 and 5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven B Kleiboeker
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, University of Missouri, College of Veterinary Medicine, Columbia 65211, USA
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29
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Abstract
The complete genome sequences of 26 herpesvirus species, some represented by more than one strain, are currently deposited in the public databases. Their combined length totals over four million base pairs. Several additional genomes are in the pipeline, and a host of partial sequence information is also available. Consequently, researchers have a very detailed picture of the genetic content of herpesviruses and their relationships to each other. This review of the herpesvirus phylogenetic tree explains what is currently known about the evolution of this important virus family by proceeding from the twigs, along the branches, boughs and trunk and towards the root. The account focuses naturally on places where the grasp is secure, but also ventures where the bark is slippery and looks out on regions where footholds have not yet been established.
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