Deletion of the cell-division inhibitor MinC results in lysis of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

CcpN: a moonlighting protein regulating catabolite repression of gluconeogenic genes in Bacillus subtilis also affects cell length and interacts with DivIVA

CcpN is a transcriptional repressor in Bacillus subtilis that binds to the promoter region of gapB and pckA, downregulating their expression in the presence of glucose. CcpN also represses sr1, which encodes a small noncoding regulatory RNA that suppresses the arginine biosynthesis gene cluster. CcpN has homologues in other Gram-positive bacteria, including Enterococcus faecalis. We report the interaction of CcpN with DivIVA of B. subtilis as determined using bacterial two-hybrid and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays. Insertional inactivation of CcpN leads to cell elongation and formation of straight chains of cells. These findings suggest that CcpN is a moonlighting protein involved in both gluconeogenesis and cell elongation.

EF1025, a Hypothetical Protein From Enterococcus faecalis, Interacts With DivIVA and Affects Cell Length and Cell Shape

DivIVA plays multifaceted roles in Gram-positive organisms through its association with various cell division and non-cell division proteins. We report a novel DivIVA interacting protein in Enterococcus faecalis, named EF1025 (encoded by EF1025), which is conserved in Gram-positive bacteria. The interaction of EF1025 with DivIVAEf was confirmed by Bacterial Two-Hybrid, Glutathione S-Transferase pull-down, and co-immunoprecipitation assays. EF1025, which contains a DNA binding domain and two Cystathionine β-Synthase (CBS) domains, forms a decamer mediated by the two CBS domains. Viable cells were recovered after insertional inactivation or deletion of EF1025 only through complementation of EF1025 in trans. These cells were longer than the average length of E. faecalis cells and had distorted shapes. Overexpression of EF1025 also resulted in cell elongation. Immuno-staining revealed comparable localization patterns of EF1025 and DivIVAEf in the later stages of division in E. faecalis cells. In summary, EF1025 is a novel DivIVA interacting protein influencing cell length and morphology in E. faecalis.

The E. coli MinCDE system in the regulation of protein patterns and gradients

Molecular self-organziation, also regarded as pattern formation, is crucial for the correct distribution of cellular content. The processes leading to spatiotemporal patterns often involve a multitude of molecules interacting in complex networks, so that only very few cellular pattern-forming systems can be regarded as well understood. Due to its compositional simplicity, the Escherichia coli MinCDE system has, thus, become a paradigm for protein pattern formation. This biological reaction diffusion system spatiotemporally positions the division machinery in E. coli and is closely related to ParA-type ATPases involved in most aspects of spatiotemporal organization in bacteria. The ATPase MinD and the ATPase-activating protein MinE self-organize on the membrane as a reaction matrix. In vivo, these two proteins typically oscillate from pole-to-pole, while in vitro they can form a variety of distinct patterns. MinC is a passenger protein supposedly operating as a downstream cue of the system, coupling it to the division machinery. The MinCDE system has helped to extract not only the principles underlying intracellular patterns, but also how they are shaped by cellular boundaries. Moreover, it serves as a model to investigate how patterns can confer information through specific and non-specific interactions with other molecules. Here, we review how the three Min proteins self-organize to form patterns, their response to geometric boundaries, and how these patterns can in turn induce patterns of other molecules, focusing primarily on experimental approaches and developments.

The Min-protein oscillations in Escherichia coli: an example of self-organized cellular protein waves

In the rod-shaped bacterium Escherichia coli, selection of the cell centre as the division site involves pole-to-pole oscillations of the proteins MinC, MinD and MinE. This spatio-temporal pattern emerges from interactions among the Min proteins and with the cytoplasmic membrane. Combining experimental studies in vivo and in vitro together with theoretical analysis has led to a fairly good understanding of Min-protein self-organization. In different geometries, the system can, in addition to standing waves, also produce travelling planar and spiral waves as well as coexisting stable stationary distributions. Today it stands as one of the best-studied examples of cellular self-organization of proteins.This article is part of the theme issue 'Self-organization in cell biology'.

MinC N- and C-Domain Interactions Modulate FtsZ Assembly, Division Site Selection, and MinD-Dependent Oscillation in Escherichia coli

The Min system in Escherichia coli, consisting of MinC, MinD, and MinE proteins, regulates division site selection by preventing assembly of the FtsZ-ring (Z-ring) and exhibits polar oscillation in vivo MinC antagonizes FtsZ polymerization, and in vivo, the cellular location of MinC is controlled by a direct association with MinD at the membrane. To further understand the interactions of MinC with FtsZ and MinD, we performed a mutagenesis screen to identify substitutions in minC that are associated with defects in cell division. We identified amino acids in both the N- and C-domains of MinC that are important for direct interactions with FtsZ and MinD in vitro, as well as mutations that modify the observed in vivo oscillation of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-MinC. Our results indicate that there are two distinct surface-exposed sites on MinC that are important for direct interactions with FtsZ, one at a cleft on the surface of the N-domain and a second on the C-domain that is adjacent to the MinD interaction site. Mutation of either of these sites leads to slower oscillation of GFP-MinC in vivo, although the MinC mutant proteins are still capable of a direct interaction with MinD in phospholipid recruitment assays. Furthermore, we demonstrate that interactions between FtsZ and both sites of MinC identified here are important for assembly of FtsZ-MinC-MinD complexes and that the conserved C-terminal end of FtsZ is not required for MinC-MinD complex formation with GTP-dependent FtsZ polymers.IMPORTANCE Bacterial cell division proceeds through the coordinated assembly of the FtsZ-ring, or Z-ring, at the site of division. Assembly of the Z-ring requires polymerization of FtsZ, which is regulated by several proteins in the cell. In Escherichia coli, the Min system, which contains MinC, MinD, and MinE proteins, exhibits polar oscillation and inhibits the assembly of FtsZ at nonseptal locations. Here, we identify regions on the surface of MinC that are important for contacting FtsZ and destabilizing FtsZ polymers.

The distinctive cell division interactome of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

BACKGROUND

Bacterial cell division is an essential process driven by the formation of a Z-ring structure, as a cytoskeletal scaffold at the mid-cell, followed by the recruitment of various proteins which form the divisome. The cell division interactome reflects the complement of different interactions between all divisome proteins. To date, only two cell division interactomes have been characterized, in Escherichia coli and in Streptococcus pneumoniae. The cell divison proteins encoded by Neisseria gonorrhoeae include FtsZ, FtsA, ZipA, FtsK, FtsQ, FtsI, FtsW, and FtsN. The purpose of the present study was to characterize the cell division interactome of N. gonorrhoeae using several different methods to identify protein-protein interactions. We also characterized the specific subdomains of FtsA implicated in interactions with FtsZ, FtsQ, FtsN and FtsW.

RESULTS

Using a combination of bacterial two-hybrid (B2H), glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays, and surface plasmon resonance (SPR), nine interactions were observed among the eight gonococcal cell division proteins tested. ZipA did not interact with any other cell division proteins. Comparisons of the N. gonorrhoeae cell division interactome with the published interactomes from E. coli and S. pneumoniae indicated that FtsA-FtsZ and FtsZ-FtsK interactions were common to all three species. FtsA-FtsW and FtsK-FtsN interactions were only present in N. gonorrhoeae. The 2A and 2B subdomains of FtsA_Ng were involved in interactions with FtsQ, FtsZ, and FtsN, and the 2A subdomain was involved in interaction with FtsW.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this research indicate that N. gonorrhoeae has a distinctive cell division interactome as compared with other microorganisms.

The helicase DinG responds to stress due to DNA double strand breaks

Neisseria meningitidis (Nm) is a Gram-negative nasopharyngeal commensal that can cause septicaemia and meningitis. The neisserial DNA damage-inducible protein DinG is a helicase related to the mammalian helicases XPD and FANCJ. These helicases belong to superfamily 2, are ATP dependent and exert 5′ → 3′ directionality. To better understand the role of DinG in neisserial genome maintenance, the Nm DinG (DinG_Nm) enzymatic activities were assessed in vitro and phenotypical characterization of a dinG null mutant (NmΔdinG) was performed. Like its homologues, DinG_Nm possesses 5′ → 3′ directionality and prefers DNA substrates containing a 5′-overhang. ATPase activity of DinG_Nm is strictly DNA-dependent and DNA unwinding activity requires nucleoside triphosphate and divalent metal cations. DinG_Nm directly binds SSB_Nm with a K_d of 313 nM. Genotoxic stress analysis demonstrated that NmΔdinG was more sensitive to double-strand DNA breaks (DSB) induced by mitomycin C (MMC) than the Nm wildtype, defining the role of neisserial DinG in DSB repair. Notably, when NmΔdinG cells grown under MMC stress assessed by quantitative mass spectrometry, 134 proteins were shown to be differentially abundant (DA) compared to unstressed NmΔdinG cells. Among the DNA replication, repair and recombination proteins affected, polymerase III subunits and recombinational repair proteins RuvA, RuvB, RecB and RecD were significantly down regulated while TopA and SSB were upregulated under stress condition. Most of the other DA proteins detected are involved in metabolic functions. The present study shows that the helicase DinG is probably involved in regulating metabolic pathways as well as in genome maintenance.

Dissecting the role of conformational change and membrane binding by the bacterial cell division regulator MinE in the stimulation of MinD ATPase activity

The bacterial cell division regulators MinD and MinE together with the division inhibitor MinC localize to the membrane in concentrated zones undergoing coordinated pole-to-pole oscillation to help ensure that the cytokinetic division septum forms only at the mid-cell position. This dynamic localization is driven by MinD-catalyzed ATP hydrolysis, stimulated by interactions with MinE's anti-MinCD domain. This domain is buried in the 6-β-stranded MinE "closed" structure, but is liberated for interactions with MinD, giving rise to a 4-β-stranded "open" structure through an unknown mechanism. Here we show that MinE-membrane interactions induce a structural change into a state resembling the open conformation. However, MinE mutants lacking the MinE membrane-targeting sequence stimulated higher ATP hydrolysis rates than the full-length protein, indicating that binding to MinD is sufficient to trigger this conformational transition in MinE. In contrast, conformational change between the open and closed states did not affect stimulation of ATP hydrolysis rates in the absence of membrane binding, although the MinD-binding residue Ile-25 is critical for this conformational transition. We therefore propose an updated model where MinE is brought to the membrane through interactions with MinD. After stimulation of ATP hydrolysis, MinE remains bound to the membrane in a state that does not catalyze additional rounds of ATP hydrolysis. Although the molecular basis for this inhibited state is unknown, previous observations of higher-order MinE self-association may explain this inhibition. Overall, our findings have general implications for Min protein oscillation cycles, including those that regulate cell division in bacterial pathogens.

An Escherichia coli expression model reveals the species-specific function of FtsA from Neisseria gonorrhoeae in cell division

Escherichia coli (Ec) has been used to study the function of cell division proteins from different microorganisms, especially when genetic tools are limited for studying these proteins in their native hosts. The expression of ftsA from Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) disrupted cell division in E. coli resulting in a significant increase in cell length. In some cells, FtsANg localised to the division site and the poles of E. coli cells, but the majority of cells showed no specifical localisation. FtsANg did not complement an E. coli ftsA mutant strain. Bacterial two-hybrid and GST pull-down assays indicated that FtsANg interacted with FtsNEc, but no other cell division proteins from E. coli. This interaction was mediated through the 2A and 2B subdomains of FtsANg. This evidence suggests that the function of FtsANg is species specific.

The Type IVa Pilus Machinery Is Recruited to Sites of Future Cell Division

Type IVa pili (T4aP) are ubiquitous microbial appendages used for adherence, twitching motility, DNA uptake, and electron transfer. Many of these functions depend on dynamic assembly and disassembly of the pilus by a megadalton-sized, cell envelope-spanning protein complex located at the poles of rod-shaped bacteria. How the T4aP assembly complex becomes integrated into the cell envelope in the absence of dedicated peptidoglycan (PG) hydrolases is unknown. After ruling out the potential involvement of housekeeping PG hydrolases in the installation of the T4aP machinery in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, we discovered that key components of inner (PilMNOP) and outer (PilQ) membrane subcomplexes are recruited to future sites of cell division. Midcell recruitment of a fluorescently tagged alignment subcomplex component, mCherry-PilO, depended on PilQ secretin monomers—specifically, their N-terminal PG-binding AMIN domains. PilP, which connects PilO to PilQ, was required for recruitment, while PilM, which is structurally similar to divisome component FtsA, was not. Recruitment preceded secretin oligomerization in the outer membrane, as loss of the PilQ pilotin PilF had no effect on localization. These results were confirmed in cells chemically blocked for cell division prior to outer membrane invagination. The hub protein FimV and a component of the polar organelle coordinator complex—PocA—were independently required for midcell recruitment of PilO and PilQ. Together, these data suggest an integrated, energy-efficient strategy for the targeting and preinstallation—rather than retrofitting—of the T4aP system into nascent poles, without the need for dedicated PG-remodeling enzymes.

The peptidoglycan (PG) layer of bacterial cell envelopes has limited porosity, representing a physical barrier to the insertion of large protein complexes involved in secretion and motility. Many systems include dedicated PG hydrolase components that create space for their insertion, but the ubiquitous type IVa pilus (T4aP) system lacks such an enzyme. Instead, we found that components of the T4aP system are recruited to future sites of cell division, where they could be incorporated into the cell envelope during the formation of new poles, eliminating the need for PG hydrolases. Targeting depends on the presence of septal PG-binding motifs in specific components, as removal of those motifs causes delocalization. This preinstallation strategy for the T4aP assembly system would ensure that both daughter cells are poised to extrude pili from new poles as soon as they separate from one another.

Division site positioning in bacteria: one size does not fit all

Spatial regulation of cell division in bacteria has been a focus of research for decades. It has been well studied in two model rod-shaped organisms, Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, with the general belief that division site positioning occurs as a result of the combination of two negative regulatory systems, Min and nucleoid occlusion. These systems influence division by preventing the cytokinetic Z ring from forming anywhere other than midcell. However, evidence is accumulating for the existence of additional mechanisms that are involved in controlling Z ring positioning both in these organisms and in several other bacteria. In some cases the decision of where to divide is solved by variations on a common evolutionary theme, and in others completely different proteins and mechanisms are involved. Here we review the different ways bacteria solve the problem of finding the right place to divide. It appears that a one-size-fits-all model does not apply, and that individual species have adapted a division-site positioning mechanism that best suits their lifestyle, environmental niche and mode of growth to ensure equal partitioning of DNA for survival of the next generation.

How to get (a)round: mechanisms controlling growth and division of coccoid bacteria

Bacteria come in a range of shapes, including round, rod-shaped, curved and spiral cells. This morphological diversity implies that different mechanisms exist to guide proper cell growth, division and chromosome segregation. Although the majority of studies on cell division have focused on rod-shaped cells, the development of new genetic and cell biology tools has provided mechanistic insight into the cell cycles of bacteria with different shapes, allowing us to appreciate the underlying molecular basis for their morphological diversity. In this Review, we discuss recent progress that has advanced our knowledge of the complex mechanisms for chromosome segregation and cell division in bacteria which have, deceptively, the simplest possible shape: the cocci.

Maintenance of the cell morphology by MinC in Helicobacter pylori

In the model organism Escherichia coli, Min proteins are involved in regulating the division of septa formation. The computational genome analysis of Helicobacter pylori, a gram-negative microaerophilic bacterium causing gastritis and peptic ulceration, also identified MinC, MinD, and MinE. However, MinC (HP1053) shares a low identity with those of other bacteria and its function in H. pylori remains unclear. In this study, we used morphological and genetic approaches to examine the molecular role of MinC. The results were shown that an H. pylori mutant lacking MinC forms filamentous cells, while the wild-type strain retains the shape of short rods. In addition, a minC mutant regains the short rods when complemented with an intact minC_Hp gene. The overexpression of MinC_Hp in E. coli did not affect the growth and cell morphology. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that MinC_Hp forms helix-form structures in H. pylori, whereas MinC_Hp localizes at cell poles and pole of new daughter cell in E. coli. In addition, co-immunoprecipitation showed MinC can interact with MinD but not with FtsZ during mid-exponential stage of H. pylori. Altogether, our results show that MinC_Hp plays a key role in maintaining proper cell morphology and its function differs from those of MinC_Ec.

Regulation of minD by oxyR in Neisseria gonorrhoeae

In Neisseria gonorrhoeae, cytokinesis involves Escherichia coli homologues of minC, minD and minE which are encoded as part of a min operon. MinD, a 30 kD protein component of the MinC-MinD septum inhibitory complex, together with MinE, mediates cell division site selection. Gonococci mutated in minD display aberrant cytokinesis, abnormal morphology, defective microcolony formation and virulence. minD is 274 bp upstream of oxyR, another min operon gene in N. gonorrhoeae, which encodes a redox-responsive transcriptional regulator implicated in responses to oxidative stress. In this study, we aimed to examine the oxyR-mediated regulation of minD. We observed the cotranscription of oxyR with the minCDE gene cluster. The mutation of oxyR resulted in non-midline formation of the division septum, anomalous DNA segregation, and increased aggregation of bacterial cells. qRT-PCR and Western Blot analysis revealed upregulation of minD in an oxyR mutant as compared to its isogenic wild-type N. gonorrhoeae strain in stationary phase. Furthermore, the exposure to oxidative stress in the form of H2O2 increased MinD expression levels in wild-type N. gonorrhoeae. Using β-galactosidase activity-based promoter assays, we found that oxyR negatively regulates the promoter region (PminD) upstream of minD. Our results demonstrate the involvement of oxyR in cell division and minD expression in N. gonorrhoeae.

Comparing contractile apparatus-driven cytokinesis mechanisms across kingdoms

Cytokinesis is the final stage of the cell cycle during which a cell physically divides into two daughters through the assembly of new membranes (and cell wall in some cases) between the forming daughters. New membrane assembly can either proceed centripetally behind a contractile apparatus, as in the case of prokaryotes, archaea, fungi, and animals or expand centrifugally, as in the case of higher plants. In this article, we compare the mechanisms of cytokinesis in diverse organisms dividing through the use of a contractile apparatus. While an actomyosin ring participates in cytokinesis in almost all centripetally dividing eukaryotes, the majority of bacteria and archaea (except Crenarchaea) divide using a ring composed of the tubulin-related protein FtsZ. Curiously, despite molecular conservation of the division machinery components, division site placement and its cell cycle regulation occur by a variety of unrelated mechanisms even among organisms from the same kingdom. While molecular motors and cytoskeletal polymer dynamics contribute to force generation during eukaryotic cytokinesis, cytoskeletal polymer dynamics alone appears to be sufficient for force generation during prokaryotic cytokinesis. Intriguingly, there are life forms on this planet that appear to lack molecules currently known to participate in cytokinesis and how these cells perform cytokinesis remains a mystery waiting to be unravelled.

Interrogation of global mutagenesis data with a genome scale model of Neisseria meningitidis to assess gene fitness in vitro and in sera

Background

Neisseria meningitidis is an important human commensal and pathogen that causes several thousand deaths each year, mostly in young children. How the pathogen replicates and causes disease in the host is largely unknown, particularly the role of metabolism in colonization and disease. Completed genome sequences are available for several strains but our understanding of how these data relate to phenotype remains limited.

Results

To investigate the metabolism of N. meningitidis we generated and then selected a representative Tn5 library on rich medium, a minimal defined medium and in human serum to identify genes essential for growth under these conditions. To relate these data to a systems-wide understanding of the pathogen's biology we constructed a genome-scale metabolic network: Nmb_iTM560. This model was able to distinguish essential and non-essential genes as predicted by the global mutagenesis. These essentiality data, the library and the Nmb_iTM560 model are powerful and widely applicable resources for the study of meningococcal metabolism and physiology. We demonstrate the utility of these resources by predicting and demonstrating metabolic requirements on minimal medium, such as a requirement for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, and by describing the nutritional and biochemical status of N. meningitidis when grown in serum, including a requirement for both the synthesis and transport of amino acids.

Conclusions

This study describes the application of a genome scale transposon library combined with an experimentally validated genome-scale metabolic network of N. meningitidis to identify essential genes and provide novel insight into the pathogen's metabolism both in vitro and during infection.

A minD mutant of enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 has reduced adherence to human epithelial cells

Adherence to epithelial cells is a prerequisite for intestinal colonization by the bacterial pathogen, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). The deletion of minD, a cell division gene, in EHEC caused reduced adherence to human epithelioid cervical carcinoma (HeLa) and human colonic adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells as compared to wild-type. The minD mutant formed minicells and filaments owing to aberrant cytokinesis. Moreover, its ability to form microcolonies as typically seen in the co-cultures of wild-type with Caco-2 cells, was abolished. In conclusion, the present study highlights the importance of minD in regards to EHEC adherence to human epithelial cells.

Attenuated virulence of min operon mutants of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and their interactions with human urethral epithelial cells

Neisseria gonorrhoeae, a sexually-transmitted gram-negative bacterium, causes gonorrhoea in humans. The min genes of N. gonorrhoeae are involved in cell division site selection with oxyR co-transcribed with these genes. The mutation in min genes and oxy R cause aberrant cell morphology and aggregation patterns, respectively. Our objective was to assess the contribution of neisserial min operon cell division genes i.e. minC, minD and oxyR in virulence. Compared to the N. gonorrhoeae parental strain (Ng CH811Str(R)), its isogenic mutants with insertionally inactivated minC (Ng CSRC1), minD (Ng CJSD1) or oxyR (Ng KB1) showed reduced adherence to and invasion of urethral epithelial cells. This may be explained by defective microcolony formation in the mutant strains, possibly owing to abnormal morphology and aggregation. The expression levels of surface virulence factors like Opa, pilin and lipooligosaccharide in the mutants were unchanged relative to Ng CH811Str(R). Furthermore, in urethral epithelial cells, the min and oxyR mutants induced the release of proinflammatory cytokines like IL6 and IL8 to levels similar to that induced by the parental strain. Taken together, our studies indicate that inactivation of minC, minD or oxyR in N. gonorrhoeae attenuates its ability to bind to and invade urethral epithelial cells without altering its potential to induce IL6 and IL8 release.

1H, 13C, 15N chemical shift assignments for the Neisseria gonorrhoeae MinE regulator of cell division septum placement

MinE acts together with MinC and MinD to prevent placement of the cell division septum in the polar regions of gram negative bacteria, thereby ensuring that productive cell division occurs solely at the mid-cell. Here we report the backbone and side chain (1)H, (13)C and (15)N resonance assignments for MinE from Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

Positioning cytokinesis

Cytokinesis is the terminal step of the cell cycle during which a mother cell divides into daughter cells. Often, the machinery of cytokinesis is positioned in such a way that daughter cells are born roughly equal in size. However, in many specialized cell types or under certain environmental conditions, the cell division machinery is placed at nonmedial positions to produce daughter cells of different sizes and in many cases of different fates. Here we review the different mechanisms that position the division machinery in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell types. We also describe cytokinesis-positioning mechanisms that are not adequately explained by studies in model organisms and model cell types.

Bacillus subtilis MinC destabilizes FtsZ-rings at new cell poles and contributes to the timing of cell division

Division site selection in rod-shaped bacteria depends on nucleoid occlusion, which prevents division over the chromosome and MinCD, which prevent division at the poles. MinD is thought to localize MinC to the cell poles where it prevents FtsZ assembly. Time-lapse microscopy demonstrates that in Bacillus subtilis transient polar FtsZ rings assemble adjacent to recently completed septa and that in minCD strains these persist and are used for division, producing a minicell. This suggests that MinC acts when division proteins are released from newly completed septa to prevent their immediate reassembly at new cell poles. The minCD mutant appears to uncouple FtsZ ring assembly from cell division and thus shows a variable interdivisional time and a rapid loss of cell cycle synchrony. Functional MinC-GFP expressed from the chromosome minCD locus is dynamic. It is recruited to active division sites before septal biogenesis, rotates around the septum, and moves away from completed septa. Thus high concentrations of MinC are found primarily at the septum and, more transiently, at the new cell pole. DivIVA and MinD recruit MinC to division sites, rather than mediating the stable polar localization previously thought to restrict MinC activity to the pole. Together, our results suggest that B. subtilis MinC does not inhibit FtsZ assembly at the cell poles, but rather prevents polar FtsZ rings adjacent to new cell poles from supporting cell division.

Dual localization pathways for the engulfment proteins during Bacillus subtilis sporulation

Engulfment in Bacillus subtilis is mediated by two complementary systems, SpoIID, SpoIIM and SpoIIP (DMP), which are essential for engulfment, and the SpoIIQ-SpoIIIAGH (Q-AH) zipper, which provides a secondary engulfment mechanism and recruits other proteins to the septum. We here identify two mechanisms by which DMP localizes to the septum. The first depends on SpoIIB, which is recruited to the septum during division and provides a septal landmark for efficient DMP localization. However, sporangia lacking SpoIIB ultimately localize DMP and complete engulfment, suggesting a second mechanism for DMP localization. This secondary targeting pathway depends on SpoIVFA and SpoIVFB, which are recruited to the septum by the Q-AH zipper. The absence of a detectable localization phenotype in mutants lacking only SpoIVFAB (or Q-AH) suggests that SpoIIB provides the primary DMP localization pathway while SpoIVFAB provides a secondary pathway. In keeping with this hypothesis, the spoIIB spoIVFAB mutant strain has a synergistic engulfment defect at septal thinning (which requires DMP) and is completely defective in DMP localization. Thus, the Q-AH zipper both provides a compensatory mechanism for engulfment when DMP activity is reduced, and indirectly provides a compensatory mechanism for septal localization of DMP when its primary targeting pathway is disrupted.

Identification and functional characterization of pfm, a novel gene involved in swimming motility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an important opportunistic pathogen, has a single polar flagellum which is an important virulence and colonization factor by providing swimming motility. This paper describes the functional characterization of a novel gene pfm (PA2950) of P. aeruginosa. The pfm encodes a protein that is similar to a number of short-chain alcohol dehydrogenases of other bacterial species. Mutation of this gene results in a defect in swimming motility which can be completed back to that of wild type by a plasmid containing the pfm. Interestingly, the pfm mutant possesses an intact flagellum which does not rotate, thus giving rise to a non-motile phenotype. The pfm gene is encoded on an operon together with two upstream genes which code for electron transfer flavoprotein (ETF). Yeast two-hybrid tests indicated that the PFM interacts with the ETF, suggesting that the putative dehydrogenase (PFM) is involved in energy metabolism that is critical for the rotation of flagellum in P. aeruginosa.

A Sinorhizobium meliloti minE mutant has an altered morphology and exhibits defects in legume symbiosis

Sinorhizobium meliloti differentiates from rod-shaped, free-living cells into pleomorphic, non-dividing, N(2)-fixing bacteroids within alfalfa root nodules. Here, the role of the minCDE genes in bacteroid differentiation and in free-living cell division is examined. Disruption of the minE gene resulted in large, swollen and branched free-living cells, and in symbiosis a minE mutation resulted in a defect in nitrogen fixation with activity reduced by approximately 70 % compared to the wild-type. It has been demonstrated that the minCDE genes form an operon driven by a promoter located 173 bp upstream of minC. The minCDE genes were expressed in free-living cells and in both the infection zone and the symbiotic zone of alfalfa nodules; however, no changes in the free-living cell morphology, growth or symbiotic N(2) fixation were detected as a result of deletion of these genes. Induced production of individual or combinations of Min proteins in S. meliloti altered its rod-shaped cell morphology. Moreover, cell morphologies resulting from the overexpression of the S. meliloti Min proteins in Escherichia coli suggested similar functions for the E. coli and S. meliloti min genes. These data suggest that there is greater redundancy in the roles of cell division genes in S. meliloti compared with E. coli.

N terminus determinants of MinC from Neisseria gonorrhoeae mediate interaction with FtsZ but do not affect interaction with MinD or homodimerization

While bacterial cell division has been widely studied in rod-shaped bacteria, the mechanism of cell division in round (coccal) bacteria remains largely enigmatic. In the present study, interaction between the cell division inhibitor MinC from Neisseria gonorrhoeae (MinC(Ng)) and the gonococcal cell division proteins MinD(Ng) and FtsZ(Ng) are demonstrated. Protein truncation and site-directed mutagenic approaches determined which N-terminal residues were essential for cell division inhibition by MinC(Ng) using cell morphology as an indicator of protein functionality. Truncation from or mutation at the 13th amino acid of the N terminus of MinC(Ng) resulted in loss of protein function. Bioinformatic analyses predicted that point mutations of L35P and L68P would affect the alpha-helical conformation of the protein and we experimentally showed that these mutations alter the functionality of MinC(Ng). The bacterial two-hybrid system showed that interaction of MinC(Ng) with FtsZ(Ng) is abrogated upon truncation of 13 N-terminal residues while MinC(Ng)-MinD(Ng) interaction or MinC(Ng) homodimerization is unaffected. These data confirm interactions among gonococcal cell division proteins and determine the necessity of the 13th amino acid for MinC(Ng) function.

The C-terminus of MinE from Neisseria gonorrhoeae acts as a topological specificity factor by modulating MinD activity in bacterial cell division

MinE regulates the proper placement of the cytokinetic FtsZ ring at midcell by inducing the pole-to-pole movement of MinCD complexes. While the N-terminus of MinE has been implicated in MinD binding, a clear functional role of the C-terminus has not been elucidated. We previously determined that MinE from Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) was functional in Escherichia coli (Ec). Thus, using E. coli as a model organism, gonococcal MinE (MinE(Ng)) function was examined by generating amino acid substitutions of highly conserved MinE(Ng) residues and by testing the ability of the mutant proteins to interact with gonococcal MinD (MinD(Ng)), to induce a minicell phenotype upon overexpression, to initiate MinD(Ng) oscillation, and to stimulate MinD(Ng) ATPase activity. N-terminal MinE(Ng) mutants were unable to bind to MinD(Ng); thus, they did not induce a minicell phenotype, promote MinD(Ng) oscillation or stimulate MinD(Ng) ATPase activity. While C-terminal MinE(Ng) mutants exhibited reduced abilities to bind to MinD(Ng), we show that differences in MinD(Ng) binding to the C-terminus of MinE(Ng) alter the ability of MinE(Ng) to properly stimulate MinD(Ng) activity. We present four major findings from our studies of MinE(Ng): both the N- and C-termini of MinE(Ng) interact with MinD(Ng); interaction between MinD(Ng) and MinE(Ng) is required for the recruitment of MinD(Ng) to the coiled array; oscillation of MinD(Ng) does not require ATPase stimulation; and, the extent of MinD(Ng) ATPase stimulation depends on the binding strength between MinD(Ng) and the C-terminus of MinE(Ng.).

Enterococcus faecalis divIVA: an essential gene involved in cell division, cell growth and chromosome segregation

Enterococcus faecalis divIVA (divIVAEf) is an essential gene implicated in cell division and chromosome segregation. This gene was disrupted by insertional inactivation creating E. faecalis JHSR1, which was viable only when a wild-type copy of divIVAEf was expressed in trans, confirming the essentiality of the gene. The absence of DivIVAEf in E. faecalis JHSR1 inhibited proper cell division, which resulted in abnormal cell clusters possessing enlarged cells of altered shape instead of the characteristic diplococcal morphology of enterococci. The lower viability of the divIVAEf mutant is caused by improper nucleoid segregation and impaired septation within the numerous cells generated in each cluster. Overexpression of DivIVAEf in Escherichia coli KJB24 resulted in enlarged cells with disrupted cell division, suggesting that this round E. coli mutant strain could be used as an indicator for functionality of DivIVAEf. A Bacillus subtilis divIVA mutant was not complemented by DivIVAEf, indicating that this protein does not recognize DivIVA-specific target sites in B. subtilis, or that it does not interact with other proteins of the cell division machinery of this micro-organism. DivIVAEf also failed to complement a Streptococcus pneumoniae divIVA mutant, supporting the phylogenetic distance between Enterococcus and Streptococcus. Our results indicate that DivIVA is a species-specific multifunctional protein implicated in cell division and chromosome segregation in E. faecalis.

A conserved polar region in the cell division site determinant MinD is required for responding to MinE-induced oscillation but not for localization within coiled arrays

A region in the cell division site determinant MinD required for stimulation by MinE and which determines MinD topological specificity along coil-like structures has been identified. Structural modeling of dimeric MinD and sequence alignment of 24 MinD proteins revealed a conserved polar region in Gram-negative bacterial MinD proteins, corresponding to residues 92-94 of Neisseria gonorrhoeae MinD (MinD(Ng)). Using MinD(Ng) as a paradigm for MinD functionality in Gram-negative organisms, mutation of these conserved residues did not abrogate MinD(Ng) self-association, nor its interaction with MinE(Ng) and the cell division inhibitor MinC. Although the MinD(Ng) mutant dimerized in the presence of ATP, its ATPase activity was not stimulated by MinE(Ng), unlike wild-type MinD(Ng). GFP fusions to either MinD(Ng) or to Escherichia coli MinD bearing simultaneous or individual mutations to residues 92-94 localized within coiled arrays along the E. coli inner cell periphery, similar to wild-type GFP-MinD. However, unlike wild-type GFP-fusions, the mutant proteins were distributed uniformly throughout the array, despite the presence of MinE, which normally imparts topological specificity to MinD by inducing the latter to oscillate from pole-to-pole and away from midcell. Hence, despite localizing along the inner cell periphery as a polymeric structure, the mutant MinD proteins in this study have lost the ability to be efficiently stimulated by MinE(Ng), resulting in a loss of distinct pole-to-pole oscillation.

The N terminus of MinD contains determinants which affect its dynamic localization and enzymatic activity

MinD is involved in regulating the proper placement of the cytokinetic machinery in some bacteria, including Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Escherichia coli. Stimulation of the ATPase activity of MinD by MinE has been proposed to induce dynamic, pole-to-pole oscillations of MinD in E. coli. Here, we investigated the effects of deleting or mutating conserved residues within the N terminus of N. gonorrhoeae MinD (MinD(Ng)) on protein dynamism, localization, and interactions with MinD(Ng) and with MinE(Ng). Deletions or mutations were generated in the first five residues of MinD(Ng), and mutant proteins were evaluated by several functional assays. Truncation or mutation of N-terminal residues disrupted MinD(Ng) interactions with itself and with MinE. Although the majority of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-MinD(Ng) mutants could still oscillate from pole to pole in E. coli, the GFP-MinD(Ng) oscillation cycles were significantly faster and were accompanied by increased cytoplasmic localization. Interestingly, in vitro ATPase assays indicated that MinD(Ng) proteins lacking the first three residues or with an I5E substitution possessed higher MinE(Ng)-independent ATPase activities than the wild-type protein. These results indicate that determinants found within the extreme N terminus of MinD(Ng) are implicated in regulating the enzymatic activity and dynamic localization of the protein.

Conserved glycines in the C terminus of MinC proteins are implicated in their functionality as cell division inhibitors

Alignment of 36 MinC sequences revealed four completely conserved C-terminal glycines. As MinC inhibits cytokinesis in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Escherichia coli, the functional importance of these glycines in N. gonorrhoeae MinC (MinC(Ng)) and E. coli MinC (MinC(Ec)) was investigated through amino acid substitution by using site-directed mutagenesis. Each mutant was evaluated for its ability to arrest cell division and to interact with itself and MinD. In contrast to overexpression of wild-type MinC, overexpression of mutant proteins in E. coli did not induce filamentation, indicating that they lost functionality. Yeast two-hybrid studies showed that MinC(Ec) interacts with itself and MinD(Ec); however, no interactions involving MinC(Ng) were detected. Therefore, a recombinant MinC protein, with the N terminus of MinC(Ec) and the C terminus of MinC(Ng), was designed to test for a MinC(Ng)-MinD(Ng) interaction. Each MinC mutant interacted with either MinC or MinD but not both, indicating the specificity of glycine residues for particular protein-protein interactions. Each glycine was mapped on the C-terminal surfaces (A, B, and C) of the solved Thermotoga maritima MinC structure. We found that MinC(Ec) G161, residing in close proximity to the A surface, is involved in homodimerization, which is essential for MinC function. Glycines corresponding to MinC(Ec) G135, G154, and G171, located within or adjacent to the B-C surface junction, are critical for MinC-MinD interactions. Circular dichroism revealed no gross structural perturbations of the mutant proteins, although the contribution of glycines to protein flexibility and stability cannot be discounted. Using molecular modeling, we propose that exposed conserved MinC glycines interact with exposed residues of the alpha-7 helix of MinD.

Identification of ZipA, a signal recognition particle-dependent protein from Neisseria gonorrhoeae

A genetic screen designed to identify proteins that utilize the signal recognition particle (SRP) for targeting in Escherichia coli was used to screen a Neisseria gonorrhoeae plasmid library. Six plasmids were identified in this screen, and each is predicted to encode one or more putative cytoplasmic membrane (CM) proteins. One of these, pSLO7, has three open reading frames (ORFs), two of which have no similarity to known proteins in GenBank other than sequences from the closely related N. meningitidis. Further analyses showed that one of these, SLO7ORF3, encodes a protein that is dependent on the SRP for localization. This gene also appears to be essential in N. gonorrhoeae since it was not possible to generate null mutations in the gene. Although appearing unique to Neisseria at the DNA sequence level, SLO7ORF3 was found to share some features with the cell division gene zipA of E. coli. These features included similar chromosomal locations (with respect to linked genes) as well as similarities in the predicted protein domain structures. Here, we show that SLO7ORF3 can complement an E. coli conditional zipA mutant and therefore encodes a functional ZipA homolog in N. gonorrhoeae. This observation is significant in that it is the first ZipA homolog identified in a non-rod-shaped organism. Also interesting is that this is the fourth cell division protein (the others are FtsE, FtsX, and FtsQ) shown to utilize the SRP for localization, which may in part explain why the genes encoding the three SRP components are essential in bacteria.

Conservation of dynamic localization among MinD and MinE orthologues: oscillation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae proteins in Escherichia coli

Min proteins are involved in the correct placement of division septa in many bacterial species. In Escherichia coli (Ec) cells, these proteins oscillate from pole to pole, ostensibly to prevent unwanted polar septation. Here, we show that Min proteins from the coccus Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) also oscillate in E. coli. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to gonococcal MinD and MinE localized dynamically in different E. coli backgrounds. GFP-MinDNg moved from pole to pole in rod-shaped E. coli cells with a 70 +/- 25 s localization cycle when MinENg was expressed in cis. The oscillation time of GFP-MinDNg was reduced when wild-type MinENg was replaced with MinENg carrying a R30D mutation, but lengthened by 15 s when activated by MinEEc. Several mutations in the N-terminal domain of MinDNg, including K16Q and 4- and 19-amino acid truncations, prevented oscillation; these MinDNg mutants showed decreased or lost interaction with themselves and MinENg. Like MinEEc-GFP, MinENg-GFP formed MinE rings and oscillated in E. coli cells when MinDEc was expressed in cis. Finally, in round E. coli cells, GFP-MinDNg appeared to move in a plane parallel to completed septa. This pattern of movement is predicted to be similar in gonococcal cells, which also divide in alternating perpendicular planes.

Exploring intracellular space: function of the Min system in round-shaped Escherichia coli

The MinCDE proteins help to select cell division sites in normal cylindrical Escherichia coli by oscillating along the long axis, preventing unwanted polar divisions. To determine how the Min system might function in cells with multiple potential division planes, we investigated its role in a round-cell rodA mutant. Round cells lacking MinCDE were viable, but growth, morphology and positioning of cell division sites were abnormal relative to Min+ cells. In round cells with a long axis, such as those undergoing cell division, green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions to MinD almost always oscillated parallel to the long axis. However, perfect spheres or irregularly shaped cells exhibited MinD movement to and from multiple sites on the cell surface. A MinE-GFP fusion exhibited similar behavior. These results indicate that the Min proteins can potentially localize anywhere in the cell but tend to move a certain maximum distance from their previous assembly site, thus favoring movement along the cell's long axis. A new model for the spatial control of division planes by the Min system in round cells is proposed.

Expression of Neisseria gonorrhoeae cell division genes ftsZ, ftsE and minD is influenced by environmental conditions

The activity of the promoter regions of the cell division genes ftsZ, ftsE, minC, minD and minE from Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ng) was studied under different environmental conditions using lacZ translational fusions. The promoters of the minNg genes have not been previously determined and we identified promoter regions upstream of each gene (minCp, minDp and minEp). We determined that minDp had the strongest activity. Expression of the promoter regions of ftSZ(Ng) and ftsE(Ng), which we had previously identified, as well as minD(Ng), were then studied under conditions reflecting the environment of the genitourinary tract. These conditions included anaerobiosis, presence of isoleucine or urea (3 mM and 400 mM, respectively) and acidity of pH 6. Both beta-galactosidase expression and northern blot analysis indicated that all three genes were upregulated under anaerobiosis. The addition of isoleucine as well as media at pH 6 did not have any significant effects on the promoter activity of these genes while the presence of urea significantly decreased ftsZ(Ng) promoter activity. The expression of the minD(Ng) promoter region was analyzed during different growth phases and shown to follow the growth behavior of the culture. By contrast, the ftSZ(Ng) promoter activity continued to rise after the onset of the stationary phase. When gonococcal ftsZ promoter 1, (Pz1) was altered by site-directed mutagenesis, a significant decrease in the expression of ftsZ(Ng) was observed under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. These data infer that gonococci regulate their cell division in response to different environments.

Gonococcal MinD affects cell division in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Escherichia coli and exhibits a novel self-interaction

The Min proteins are involved in determining cell division sites in bacteria and have been studied extensively in rod-shaped bacteria. We have recently shown that the gram-negative coccus Neisseria gonorrhoeae contains a min operon, and the present study investigates the role of minD from this operon. A gonococcal minD insertional mutant, CJSD1, was constructed and exhibited both grossly abnormal cell division and morphology as well as altered cell viability. Western blot analysis verified the absence of MinD from N. gonorrhoeae (MinD(Ng)) in this mutant. Hence, MinD(Ng) is required for maintaining proper cell division and growth in N. gonorrhoeae. Immunoblotting of soluble and insoluble gonococcal cell fractions revealed that MinD(Ng) is both cytosolic and associated with the insoluble membrane fraction. The joint overexpression of MinC(Ng) and MinD(Ng) from a shuttle vector resulted in a significant enlargement of gonococcal cells, while cells transformed with plasmids encoding either MinC(Ng) or MinD(Ng) alone did not display noticeable morphological changes. These studies suggest that MinD(Ng) is involved in inhibiting gonococcal cell division, likely in conjunction with MinC(Ng). The alignment of MinD sequences from various bacteria showed that the proteins are highly conserved and share several regions of identity, including a conserved ATP-binding cassette. The overexpression of MinD(Ng) in wild-type Escherichia coli led to cell filamentation, while overexpression in an E. coli minD mutant restored a wild-type morphology to the majority of cells; therefore, gonococcal MinD is functional across species. Yeast two-hybrid studies and gel-filtration and sedimentation equilibrium analyses of purified His-tagged MinD(Ng) revealed a novel MinD(Ng) self-interaction. We have also shown by yeast two-hybrid analysis that MinD from E. coli interacts with itself and with MinD(Ng). These results indicate that MinD(Ng) is required for maintaining proper cell division and growth in N. gonorrhoeae and suggests that the self-interaction of MinD may be important for cell division site selection across species.

Bacterial cell division: a moving MinE sweeper boggles the MinD

Placement of the division site in Escherichia coli is determined in part by three Min proteins. Recent studies have shown that MinE, previously thought to form a static ring near the division site at the midcell position, actually joins MinC and MinD in their rapid oscillation between the cell poles.