Marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) as a non-human primate model for evaluation of candidate dengue vaccines: induction and maintenance of specific protective immunity against challenges with clinical isolates

Progress and challenges in development of animal models for dengue virus infection

ABSTRACTThe severity of the dengue epidemic is on the rise, with its geographic range had expanded to southern Europe by 2024. In this August, the WHO updated the pathogens that could spark the next pandemic, dengue virus was on the list. Vaccines and drugs serve as powerful tools for both preventing dengue infections and treating patients. Animal models play a pivotal role in vaccine development and drug screening. Available potential susceptible animals, including non-human primates, rodents, pigs, and tree shrews, have been extensively explored to establish animal models of dengue disease. Despite significant advancements, there are still notable limitations. Different animal models exhibit distinct constraining factors such as viraemia, host susceptibility, immune function of the host, clinical symptoms, ADE (antibody-dependent enhancement) phenomena, cytokine storm response to various serotypes and strain variations. Furthermore, despite extensive research on the dengue virus receptor in recent years, genetically modified animal models immunocompetent harbouring dengue virus susceptibility receptors have not yet been available. This work reviewed the research progress of dengue virus receptors and dengue animal models, suggesting that the development of genetically modified murine models expressing dengue virus functional receptors may hold a promise for future dengue disease research, especially for its vaccine development.

Marmosets as models of infectious diseases

Animal models of infectious disease often serve a crucial purpose in obtaining licensure of therapeutics and medical countermeasures, particularly in situations where human trials are not feasible, i.e., for those diseases that occur infrequently in the human population. The common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus), a Neotropical new-world (platyrrhines) non-human primate, has gained increasing attention as an animal model for a number of diseases given its small size, availability and evolutionary proximity to humans. This review aims to (i) discuss the pros and cons of the common marmoset as an animal model by providing a brief snapshot of how marmosets are currently utilized in biomedical research, (ii) summarize and evaluate relevant aspects of the marmoset immune system to the study of infectious diseases, (iii) provide a historical backdrop, outlining the significance of infectious diseases and the importance of developing reliable animal models to test novel therapeutics, and (iv) provide a summary of infectious diseases for which a marmoset model exists, followed by an in-depth discussion of the marmoset models of two studied bacterial infectious diseases (tularemia and melioidosis) and one viral infectious disease (viral hepatitis C).

Common Marmoset Cell Lines and Their Applications in Biomedical Research

Common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus; CMs) are small New World primates widely used in biomedical research. Early stages of such research often include in vitro experiments which require standardized and well-characterized CM cell cultures derived from different tissues. Despite the long history of laboratory work with CMs and high translational potential of such studies, the number of available standardized, well-defined, stable, and validated CM cell lines is still small. While primary cells and immortalized cell lines are mostly used for the studies of infectious diseases, biochemical research, and targeted gene therapy, the main current applications of CM embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells are regenerative medicine, stem cell research, generation of transgenic CMs, transplantology, cell therapy, reproductive physiology, oncology, and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review we summarize the data on the main advantages, drawbacks and research applications of CM cell lines published to date including primary cells, immortalized cell lines, lymphoblastoid cell lines, embryonic stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells.

Genotype-Dependent Immunogenicity of Dengue Virus Type 2 Asian I and Asian/American Genotypes in Common Marmoset (Callithrix jacchus): Discrepancy in Neutralizing and Infection-Enhancing Antibody Levels between Genotypes

Owing to genotype-specific neutralizing antibodies, analyzing differences in the immunogenic variation among dengue virus (DENV) genotypes is central to effective vaccine development. Herein, we characterized the viral kinetics and antibody response induced by DENV type 2 Asian I (AI) and Asian/American (AA) genotypes using marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) as models. Two groups of marmosets were inoculated with AI and AA genotypes, and serial plasma samples were collected. Viremia levels were determined using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, plaque assays, and antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Anti-DENV immunoglobulin M and G antibodies, neutralizing antibody titer, and antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) activity were determined using ELISA, plaque reduction neutralization test, and ADE assay, respectively. The AI genotype induced viremia for a longer duration, but the AA genotype induced higher levels of viremia. After four months, the neutralizing antibody titer induced by the AA genotype remained high, but that induced by the AI genotype waned. ADE activity toward Cosmopolitan genotypes was detected in marmosets inoculated with the AI genotype. These findings indicate discrepancies between heterologous genotypes that influence neutralizing antibodies and viremia in marmosets, a critical issue in vaccine development.

Non-Human Primate Models of Dengue Virus Infection: A Comparison of Viremia Levels and Antibody Responses during Primary and Secondary Infection among Old World and New World Monkeys

Due to the global burden of dengue disease, a vaccine is urgently needed. One of the key points in vaccine development is the development of a robust and reliable animal model of dengue virus infection. Characteristics including the ability to sustain viral replication, demonstration of clinical signs, and immune response that resemble those of human dengue virus infection are vital in animal models. Preclinical studies in vaccine development usually include parameters such as safety evaluation, induction of viremia and antigenemia, immunogenicity, and vaccine effectiveness. Although mice have been used as a model, non-human primates have an advantage over mice because of their relative similarity to humans in their genetic composition and immune responses. This review compares the viremia kinetics and antibody responses of cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fasicularis), common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), and tamarins (Saguinus midas and Saguinus labitus) and summarize the perspectives and the usefulness along with challenges in dengue vaccine development.

Igh locus structure and evolution in Platyrrhines: new insights from a genomic perspective

Non-human primates have been used as animal models because of their phylogenetic closeness to humans. However, the genetic differences between humans and non-human primates must be considered to select the appropriate animal models. Recently, New World monkeys (Platyrrhines) have generated a higher interest in biomedical research, especially in assessing vaccine safety and immunogenicity. Given the continued and renewed interest in Platyrrhines as biomedical models, it is a necessary to have a better and more complete understanding of their immune system and its implications for research. Immunoglobulins (Ig) are the main proteins that mediate humoral immunity. These proteins have evolved as part of an adaptive immune response system derived from ancient vertebrates. There are at least four Ig classes in Prosimians, whereas five have been reported in Catarrhines. Information on the structure and evolution of the loci containing immunoglobulin heavy chain constant genes (Igh) in Platyrrhines, however, is limited. Here, Igh loci were characterized in 10 Platyrrhines using the available whole genome sequences. Human and Macaca Igh loci were also assessed to compare them with their Platyrrhines counterparts. Differences in Igh locus structure were observed between Platyrrhines and Catarrhines. Noteworthy changes occur in the γ gene, which encodes a key Ig involved in organism defense that would favor protection after vaccination. The remarkable differences between the immunoglobulin proteins of Platyrrhines and Catarrhines warrant a cautionary message to biomedical researchers.

Complete genome amplification and sequencing of DENV-2 Pakistani isolates: analysis reveals molecular evolution of DENV-2

Aim: This study was aimed to amplify, characterize and analyze complete genomes of dengue virus serotype-2 (DENV-2) Pakistani isolates. Patients & methods: Complete genomes of DENV-2 (n = 4) in nine overlapping fragments from two dengue outbreaks (2011 and 2013) were sequenced; deposited in GenBank (Punjab Isolates: KM217157 and KM217156; Swat Isolates: KM217158 and KJ701507) and characterized using specific primers, we designed. Results: Analysis clustered Pakistani isolates with the cosmopolitan genotypes and further indicated that codons 65 of C, 155 of PrM, 203 of E and 254 of NS1 genes were under negative selection pressure. A substitution of alanine with proline in NS5 gene at nucleotide position 885 in Swat isolates was observed. Conclusion: DENV-2 is spreading to other parts of Pakistan with the possible adaptability of the virus molecularly.

Genotype-specific and cross-reactive neutralizing antibodies induced by dengue virus infection: detection of antibodies with different levels of neutralizing activities against homologous and heterologous genotypes of dengue virus type 2 in common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

BACKGROUND

A vaccine against all four dengue virus (DENV) serotypes includes the formulation of one genotype of each serotype. Although genetic similarities among genotypes within a serotype are higher as compared to those among serotypes, differences in the immunogenicity of the included genotypes would be a critical issue in maximizing successful dengue vaccine development. Thus, we determined the neutralizing antibody responses against three genotypes of dengue virus serotype 2 (DENV-2), namely Cosmopolitan, Asian I, and Asian/American, after primary and secondary inoculation with DENV-2 in a dengue animal model, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus).

METHODS

A total of fifty-four plasma samples were obtained from thirty-four marmosets that were inoculated with clinically-isolated DENV strains or DENV candidate vaccines, were used in this study. Plasma samples were obtained from marmosets after primary inoculation with DENV-2 infection, secondary inoculation with homologous or heterologous genotypes, and tertiary inoculation with heterologous DENV. Neutralizing antibody titers against DENV-2 (Cosmopolitan, Asian I, and Asian/American genotypes) and DENV-1 were determined using a conventional plaque reduction neutralization assay.

RESULTS

In marmosets that were inoculated with the Cosmopolitan genotype in primary infection, neutralizing antibody neutralized 3 genotypes, and the titers to Asian I genotype were significantly higher than those to homologous Cosmopolitan genotype. After secondary DENV-2 infection with heterologous genotype (Asian I in primary and Asian/American in secondary), neutralizing antibody titers to Asian/American genotype was significantly higher than those against Cosmopolitan and Asian I genotypes. Following tertiary infection with DENV-1 following DENV-2 Asian I and Cosmopolitan genotypes, neutralizing antibody titers to Asian/American were also significantly higher than those against Cosmopolitan and Asian I genotypes.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrated that different levels of neutralizing antibodies were induced against variable DENV-2 genotypes after primary, secondary and tertiary infections, and that neutralizing antibody titers to some heterologous genotypes were higher than those to homologous genotypes within a serotype. The results indicate that heterogeneity and homogeneity of infecting genotypes influence the levels and cross-reactivity of neutralizing antibodies induced in following infections. The results also suggest that certain genotypes may possess advantage in terms of breakthrough infections against vaccination.