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Barbieri R, Signoli M, Chevé D, Costedoat C, Tzortzis S, Aboudharam G, Raoult D, Drancourt M. Yersinia pestis: the Natural History of Plague. Clin Microbiol Rev 2020; 34:e00044-19. [PMID: 33298527 PMCID: PMC7920731 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00044-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pestis is responsible for deadly plague, a zoonotic disease established in stable foci in the Americas, Africa, and Eurasia. Its persistence in the environment relies on the subtle balance between Y. pestis-contaminated soils, burrowing and nonburrowing mammals exhibiting variable degrees of plague susceptibility, and their associated fleas. Transmission from one host to another relies mainly on infected flea bites, inducing typical painful, enlarged lymph nodes referred to as buboes, followed by septicemic dissemination of the pathogen. In contrast, droplet inhalation after close contact with infected mammals induces primary pneumonic plague. Finally, the rarely reported consumption of contaminated raw meat causes pharyngeal and gastrointestinal plague. Point-of-care diagnosis, early antibiotic treatment, and confinement measures contribute to outbreak control despite residual mortality. Mandatory primary prevention relies on the active surveillance of established plague foci and ectoparasite control. Plague is acknowledged to have infected human populations for at least 5,000 years in Eurasia. Y. pestis genomes recovered from affected archaeological sites have suggested clonal evolution from a common ancestor shared with the closely related enteric pathogen Yersinia pseudotuberculosis and have indicated that ymt gene acquisition during the Bronze Age conferred Y. pestis with ectoparasite transmissibility while maintaining its enteric transmissibility. Three historic pandemics, starting in 541 AD and continuing until today, have been described. At present, the third pandemic has become largely quiescent, with hundreds of human cases being reported mainly in a few impoverished African countries, where zoonotic plague is mostly transmitted to people by rodent-associated flea bites.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Barbieri
- Aix-Marseille University, IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, EFS, ADES, Marseille, France
- Fondation Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - M Signoli
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, EFS, ADES, Marseille, France
| | - D Chevé
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, EFS, ADES, Marseille, France
| | - C Costedoat
- Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, EFS, ADES, Marseille, France
| | - S Tzortzis
- Ministère de la Culture, Direction Régionale des Affaires Culturelles de Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Service Régional de l'Archéologie, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - G Aboudharam
- Aix-Marseille University, IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Aix-Marseille University, Faculty of Odontology, Marseille, France
| | - D Raoult
- Aix-Marseille University, IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Fondation Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
| | - M Drancourt
- Aix-Marseille University, IRD, MEPHI, IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
- Fondation Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
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Yersinia pestis Plasminogen Activator. Biomolecules 2020; 10:biom10111554. [PMID: 33202679 PMCID: PMC7696990 DOI: 10.3390/biom10111554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The Gram-negative bacterium Yersinia pestis causes plague, a fatal flea-borne anthropozoonosis, which can progress to aerosol-transmitted pneumonia. Y. pestis overcomes the innate immunity of its host thanks to many pathogenicity factors, including plasminogen activator, Pla. This factor is a broad-spectrum outer membrane protease also acting as adhesin and invasin. Y. pestis uses Pla adhesion and proteolytic capacity to manipulate the fibrinolytic cascade and immune system to produce bacteremia necessary for pathogen transmission via fleabite or aerosols. Because of microevolution, Y. pestis invasiveness has increased significantly after a single amino-acid substitution (I259T) in Pla of one of the oldest Y. pestis phylogenetic groups. This mutation caused a better ability to activate plasminogen. In paradox with its fibrinolytic activity, Pla cleaves and inactivates the tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), a key inhibitor of the coagulation cascade. This function in the plague remains enigmatic. Pla (or pla) had been used as a specific marker of Y. pestis, but its solitary detection is no longer valid as this gene is present in other species of Enterobacteriaceae. Though recovering hosts generate anti-Pla antibodies, Pla is not a good subunit vaccine. However, its deletion increases the safety of attenuated Y. pestis strains, providing a means to generate a safe live plague vaccine.
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Two Isoforms of Yersinia pestis Plasminogen Activator Pla: Intraspecies Distribution, Intrinsic Disorder Propensity, and Contribution to Virulence. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0168089. [PMID: 27936190 PMCID: PMC5148098 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been shown previously that several endemic Y. pestis isolates with limited virulence contained the I259 isoform of the outer membrane protease Pla, while the epidemic highly virulent strains possessed only the T259 Pla isoform. Our sequence analysis of the pla gene from 118 Y. pestis subsp. microtus strains revealed that the I259 isoform was present exclusively in the endemic strains providing a convictive evidence of more ancestral origin of this isoform. Analysis of the effects of the I259T polymorphism on the intrinsic disorder propensity of Pla revealed that the I259T mutation slightly increases the intrinsic disorder propensity of the C-terminal tail of Pla and makes this protein slightly more prone for disorder-based protein-protein interactions, suggesting that the T259 Pla could be functionally more active than the I259 Pla. This assumption was proven experimentally by assessing the coagulase and fibrinolytic activities of the two Pla isoforms in human plasma, as well as in a direct fluorometric assay with the Pla peptide substrate. The virulence testing of Pla-negative or expressing the I259 and T259 Pla isoforms Y. pestis subsp. microtus and subsp. pestis strains did not reveal any significant difference in LD50 values and dose-dependent survival assays between them by using a subcutaneous route of challenge of mice and guinea pigs or intradermal challenge of mice. However, a significant decrease in time-to-death was observed in animals infected with the epidemic T259 Pla-producing strains as compared to the parent Pla-negative variants. Survival curves of the endemic I259 Pla+ strains fit between them, but significant difference in mean time to death post infection between the Pla−strains and their I259 Pla+ variants could be seen only in the isogenic set of subsp. pestis strains. These findings suggest an essential role for the outer membrane protease Pla evolution in Y. pestis bubonic infection exacerbation that is necessary for intensification of epidemic process from endemic natural focality with sporadic cases in men to rapidly expanding epizootics followed by human epidemic outbreaks, local epidemics or even pandemics.
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Chauhan N, Wrobel A, Skurnik M, Leo JC. Yersinia adhesins: An arsenal for infection. Proteomics Clin Appl 2016; 10:949-963. [PMID: 27068449 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201600012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The Yersiniae are a group of Gram-negative coccobacilli inhabiting a wide range of habitats. The genus harbors three recognized human pathogens: Y. enterocolitica and Y. pseudotuberculosis, which both cause gastrointestinal disease, and Y. pestis, the causative agent of plague. These three organisms have served as models for a number of aspects of infection biology, including adhesion, immune evasion, evolution of pathogenic traits, and retracing the course of ancient pandemics. The virulence of the pathogenic Yersiniae is heavily dependent on a number of adhesin molecules. Some of these, such as the Yersinia adhesin A and invasin of the enteropathogenic species, and the pH 6 antigen of Y. pestis, have been extensively studied. However, genomic sequencing has uncovered a host of other adhesins present in these organisms, the functions of which are only starting to be investigated. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the adhesin molecules present in the Yersiniae, and their functions and putative roles in the infection process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandini Chauhan
- Evolution and Genetics, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Agnieszka Wrobel
- Evolution and Genetics, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mikael Skurnik
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Medicum, Research Programs Unit, Immunobiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Central Hospital Laboratory Diagnostics, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jack C Leo
- Evolution and Genetics, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
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Chen S, Thompson KM, Francis MS. Environmental Regulation of Yersinia Pathophysiology. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2016; 6:25. [PMID: 26973818 PMCID: PMC4773443 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallmarks of Yersinia pathogenesis include the ability to form biofilms on surfaces, the ability to establish close contact with eukaryotic target cells and the ability to hijack eukaryotic cell signaling and take over control of strategic cellular processes. Many of these virulence traits are already well-described. However, of equal importance is knowledge of both confined and global regulatory networks that collaborate together to dictate spatial and temporal control of virulence gene expression. This review has the purpose to incorporate historical observations with new discoveries to provide molecular insight into how some of these regulatory mechanisms respond rapidly to environmental flux to govern tight control of virulence gene expression by pathogenic Yersinia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Special Pathogens and Biosafety, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Wuhan, China
| | - Karl M Thompson
- Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Howard University Washington, DC, USA
| | - Matthew S Francis
- Umeå Centre for Microbial Research, Umeå UniversityUmeå, Sweden; Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå UniversityUmeå, Sweden
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Korhonen TK. Fibrinolytic and procoagulant activities of Yersinia pestis and Salmonella enterica. J Thromb Haemost 2015; 13 Suppl 1:S115-20. [PMID: 26149012 DOI: 10.1111/jth.12932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Pla of the plague bacterium Yersinia pestis and PgtE of the enteropathogen Salmonella enterica are surface-exposed, transmembrane β-barrel proteases of the omptin family that exhibit a complex array of interactions with the hemostatic systems in vitro, and both proteases are established virulence factors. Pla favors fibrinolysis by direct activation of plasminogen, inactivation of the serpins plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and α2-antiplasmin, inactivation of the thrombin-activable fibrinolysis inhibitor, and activation of single-chain urokinase. PgtE is structurally very similar but exhibits partially different functions and differ in expression control. PgtE proteolysis targets control aspects of fibrinolysis, and mimicry of matrix metalloproteinases enhances cell migration that should favor the intracellular spread of the bacterium. Enzymatic activity of both proteases is strongly influenced by the environment-induced variations in lipopolysaccharide that binds to the β-barrel. Both proteases cleave the tissue factor pathway inhibitor and thus also express procoagulant activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Korhonen
- General Microbiology, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Inhibition of outer membrane proteases of the omptin family by aprotinin. Infect Immun 2015; 83:2300-11. [PMID: 25824836 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00136-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial proteases are important virulence factors that inactivate host defense proteins and contribute to tissue destruction and bacterial dissemination. Outer membrane proteases of the omptin family, exemplified by Escherichia coli OmpT, are found in some Gram-negative bacteria. Omptins cleave a variety of substrates at the host-pathogen interface, including plasminogen and antimicrobial peptides. Multiple omptin substrates relevant to infection have been identified; nonetheless, an effective omptin inhibitor remains to be found. Here, we purified native CroP, the OmpT ortholog in the murine pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. Purified CroP was found to readily cleave both a synthetic fluorescence resonance energy transfer substrate and the murine cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide. In contrast, CroP was found to poorly activate plasminogen into active plasmin. Although classical protease inhibitors were ineffective against CroP activity, we found that the serine protease inhibitor aprotinin displays inhibitory potency in the micromolar range. Aprotinin was shown to act as a competitive inhibitor of CroP activity and to interfere with the cleavage of the murine cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide. Importantly, aprotinin was able to inhibit not only CroP but also Yersinia pestis Pla and, to a lesser extent, E. coli OmpT. We propose a structural model of the aprotinin-omptin complex in which Lys15 of aprotinin forms salt bridges with conserved negatively charged residues of the omptin active site.
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Adhesive properties of YapV and paralogous autotransporter proteins of Yersinia pestis. Infect Immun 2015; 83:1809-19. [PMID: 25690102 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00094-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Yersinia pestis is the causative agent of plague. This bacterium evolved from an ancestral enteroinvasive Yersinia pseudotuberculosis strain by gene loss and acquisition of new genes, allowing it to use fleas as transmission vectors. Infection frequently leads to a rapidly lethal outcome in humans, a variety of rodents, and cats. This study focuses on the Y. pestis KIM yapV gene and its product, recognized as an autotransporter protein by its typical sequence, outer membrane localization, and amino-terminal surface exposure. Comparison of Yersinia genomes revealed that DNA encoding YapV or each of three individual paralogous proteins (YapK, YapJ, and YapX) was present as a gene or pseudogene in a strain-specific manner and only in Y. pestis and Y. pseudotuberculosis. YapV acted as an adhesin for alveolar epithelial cells and specific extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, as shown with recombinant Escherichia coli, Y. pestis, or purified passenger domains. Like YapV, YapK and YapJ demonstrated adhesive properties, suggesting that their previously related in vivo activity is due to their capacity to modulate binding properties of Y. pestis in its hosts, in conjunction with other adhesins. A differential host-specific type of binding to ECM proteins by YapV, YapK, and YapJ suggested that these proteins participate in broadening the host range of Y. pestis. A phylogenic tree including 36 Y. pestis strains highlighted an association between the gene profile for the four paralogous proteins and the geographic location of the corresponding isolated strains, suggesting an evolutionary adaption of Y. pestis to specific local animal hosts or reservoirs.
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Production of outer membrane vesicles by the plague pathogen Yersinia pestis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107002. [PMID: 25198697 PMCID: PMC4157834 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Many Gram-negative bacteria produce outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) during cell growth and division, and some bacterial pathogens deliver virulence factors to the host via the release of OMVs during infection. Here we show that Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of the disease plague, produces and releases native OMVs under physiological conditions. These OMVs, approximately 100 nm in diameter, contain multiple virulence-associated outer membrane proteins including the adhesin Ail, the F1 outer fimbrial antigen, and the protease Pla. We found that OMVs released by Y. pestis contain catalytically active Pla that is competent for plasminogen activation and α2-antiplasmin degradation. The abundance of OMV-associated proteins released by Y. pestis is significantly elevated at 37°C compared to 26°C and is increased in response to membrane stress and mutations in RseA, Hfq, and the major Braun lipoprotein (Lpp). In addition, we show that Y. pestis OMVs are able to bind to components of the extracellular matrix such as fibronectin and laminin. These data suggest that Y. pestis may produce OMVs during mammalian infection and we propose that dispersal of Pla via OMV release may influence the outcome of infection through interactions with Pla substrates such as plasminogen and Fas ligand.
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