Transcriptional regulation of cellobiose utilization by PRD-domain containing Sigma54-dependent transcriptional activator (CelR) and catabolite control protein A (CcpA) in Bacillus thuringiensis

Cellobiose, a β-1,4-linked glucose dimer, is a major cellodextrin resulting from the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. It is a major source of carbon for soil bacteria. In bacteria, the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP): carbohydrate phosphotransferase system (PTS), encoded by the cel operon, is responsible for the transport and utilization of cellobiose. In this study, we analyzed the transcription and regulation of the cel operon in Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The cel operon is composed of five genes forming one transcription unit. β-Galactosidase assays revealed that cel operon transcription is induced by cellobiose, controlled by Sigma54, and positively regulated by CelR. The HTH-AAA+ domain of CelR recognized and specifically bound to three possible binding sites in the celA promoter region. CelR contains two PTS regulation domains (PRD1 and PRD2), which are separated by two PTS-like domains-the mannose transporter enzyme IIA component domain (EIIAMan) and the galactitol transporter enzyme IIB component domain (EIIBGat). Mutations of His-546 on the EIIAMan domain and Cys-682 on the EIIBGat domain resulted in decreased transcription of the cel operon, and mutations of His-839 on PRD2 increased transcription of the cel operon. Glucose repressed the transcription of the cel operon and catabolite control protein A (CcpA) positively regulated this process by binding the cel promoter. In the celABCDE and celR mutants, PTS activities were decreased, and cellobiose utilization was abolished, suggesting that the cel operon is essential for cellobiose utilization. Bt has been widely used as a biological pesticide. The metabolic properties of Bt are critical for fermentation. Nutrient utilization is also essential for the environmental adaptation of Bt. Glucose is the preferred energy source for many bacteria, and the presence of the phosphotransferase system allows bacteria to utilize other sugars in addition to glucose. Cellobiose utilization pathways have been of particular interest owing to their potential for developing alternative energy sources for bacteria. The data presented in this study improve our understanding of the transcription patterns of cel gene clusters. This will further help us to better understand how cellobiose is utilized for bacterial growth.

Characterization of an operon required for growth on cellobiose in Clostridioides difficile

Cellobiose metabolism is linked to the virulence properties in numerous bacterial pathogens. Here, we characterized a putative cellobiose PTS operon of Clostridiodes difficile to investigate the role of cellobiose metabolism in C. difficile pathogenesis. Our gene knockout experiments demonstrated that the putative cellobiose operon enables uptake of cellobiose into C. difficile and allows growth when cellobiose is provided as the sole carbon source in minimal medium. Additionally, using reporter gene fusion assays and DNA pulldown experiments, we show that its transcription is regulated by CelR, a novel transcriptional repressor protein, which directly binds to the upstream region of the cellobiose operon to control its expression. We have also identified cellobiose metabolism to play a significant role in C. difficile physiology as observed by the reduction of sporulation efficiency when cellobiose uptake was compromised in the mutant strain. In corroboration to in vitro study findings, our in vivo hamster challenge experiment showed a significant reduction of pathogenicity by the cellobiose mutant strain in both the primary and the recurrent infection model - substantiating the role of cellobiose metabolism in C. difficile pathogenesis.

Molecular analysis of an enigmatic Streptococcus pneumoniae virulence factor: The raffinose-family oligosaccharide utilization system

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an opportunistic respiratory pathogen that can spread to other body sites, including the ears, brain, and blood. The ability of this bacterium to break down, import, and metabolize a wide range of glycans is key to its virulence. Intriguingly, S. pneumoniae can utilize several plant oligosaccharides for growth in vitro, including raffinose-family oligosaccharides (RFOs, which are α-(1→6)-galactosyl extensions of sucrose). An RFO utilization locus has been identified in the pneumococcal genome; however, none of the proteins encoded by this locus have been biochemically characterized. The enigmatic ability of S. pneumoniae to utilize RFOs has recently received attention because mutations in two of the RFO locus genes have been linked to the tissue tropism of clinical pneumococcal isolates. Here, we use functional studies combined with X-ray crystallography to show that although the pneumococcal RFO locus encodes for all the machinery required for uptake and degradation of RFOs, the individual pathway components are biochemically inefficient. We also demonstrate that the initiating enzyme in this pathway, the α-galactosidase Aga (a family 36 glycoside hydrolase), can cleave α-(1→3)-linked galactose units from a linear blood group antigen. We propose that the pneumococcal RFO pathway is an evolutionary relic that is not utilized in this streptococcal species and, as such, is under no selection pressure to maintain binding affinity and/or catalytic efficiency. We speculate that the apparent contribution of RFO utilization to pneumococcal tissue tropism may, in fact, be due to the essential role the ATPase RafK plays in the transport of other carbohydrates.

Streptococcal phosphotransferase system imports unsaturated hyaluronan disaccharide derived from host extracellular matrices

Certain bacterial species target the polysaccharide glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) of animal extracellular matrices for colonization and/or infection. GAGs such as hyaluronan and chondroitin sulfate consist of repeating disaccharide units of uronate and amino sugar residues, and are depolymerized to unsaturated disaccharides by bacterial extracellular or cell-surface polysaccharide lyase. The disaccharides are degraded and metabolized by cytoplasmic enzymes such as unsaturated glucuronyl hydrolase, isomerase, and reductase. The genes encoding these enzymes are assembled to form a GAG genetic cluster. Here, we demonstrate the Streptococcus agalactiae phosphotransferase system (PTS) for import of unsaturated hyaluronan disaccharide. S. agalactiae NEM316 was found to depolymerize and assimilate hyaluronan, whereas its mutant with a disruption in the PTS genes included in the GAG cluster was unable to grow on hyaluronan, while retaining the ability to depolymerize hyaluronan. Using toluene-treated wild-type cells, the PTS activity for import of unsaturated hyaluronan disaccharide was significantly higher than that observed in the absence of the substrate. In contrast, the PTS mutant was unable to import unsaturated hyaluronan disaccharide, indicating that the corresponding PTS is the only importer of fragmented hyaluronan, which is suitable for PTS to phosphorylate the substrate at the C-6 position. This is distinct from Streptobacillus moniliformis ATP-binding cassette transporter for import of sulfated and non-sulfated fragmented GAGs without substrate modification. The three-dimensional structure of streptococcal EIIA, one of the PTS components, was found to contain a Rossman-fold motif by X-ray crystallization. Docking of EIIA with another component EIIB by modeling provided structural insights into the phosphate transfer mechanism. This study is the first to identify the substrate (unsaturated hyaluronan disaccharide) recognized and imported by the streptococcal PTS. The PTS and ABC transporter for import of GAGs shed light on bacterial clever colonization/infection system targeting various animal polysaccharides.

Characterization of the gen locus involved in β-1,6-oligosaccharide utilization by Enterococcus faecalis

The bicistronic genBA operon (formerly named celBA) of the opportunistic pathogen Enterococcus faecalis, encodes a 6-phospho-β-glucosidase (GenA) and a phosphotransferase system permease EIIC (GenB). It resembles the cel operon of Streptococcus pyogenes, which is implicated in the metabolism of cellobiose. However, genBA mutants grew normally on cellobiose, but not (genA) or only slowly (genB) on gentiobiose and amygdalin. The two glucosides were also found to be the main inducers of the operon, confirming that the encoded proteins are involved in the utilization of β-1,6- rather than β-1,4-linked oligosaccharides. Expression of the genBA operon is regulated by the transcriptional activator GenR, which is encoded by the gene upstream from genB. Thermal shift analysis showed that it binds gentiobiose-6'-P with a Kd of 0.04 mM and with lower affinity also other phospho-sugars. The GenR/gentiobiose-6'-P complex binds to the promoter region upstream from genB. The genBA promoter region contains a cre box and gel-shift experiments demonstrated that the operon is under negative control of the global carbon catabolite regulator CcpA. We also show that the orphan EIIC (GenB) protein needs the EIIA component of the putative OG1RF_10750-OG1RF_10755 operon situated elsewhere on the chromosome to form a functional PTS transporter.

Pneumococcal Metabolic Adaptation and Colonization Are Regulated by the Two-Component Regulatory System 08

Streptococcus pneumoniae interplays with its environment by using 13 two-component regulatory systems and one orphan response regulator. These systems are involved in the sensing of environmental signals, thereby modulating pneumococcal pathophysiology. This study aimed to understand the functional role of genes subject to control by the TCS08. The identified genes play a role in transport of compounds such as sugars or amino acids. In addition, the intermediary metabolism and colonization factors are modulated by TCS08. Thus, TCS08 regulates genes involved in maintaining pneumococcal physiology, transport capacity, and adhesive factors to enable optimal colonization, which represents a prerequisite for invasive pneumococcal disease.

Streptococcus pneumoniae two-component regulatory systems (TCS) enable adaptation and ensure its maintenance in host environments. This study deciphers the impact of TCS08 on pneumococcal gene expression and its role in metabolic and pathophysiological processes. Transcriptome analysis and real-time PCR demonstrated a regulatory effect of TCS08 on genes involved mainly in environmental information processing, intermediary metabolism, and colonization by S. pneumoniae D39 and TIGR4. Striking examples are genes for fatty acid biosynthesis, genes of the arginine deiminase system, and the psa operon encoding the manganese ABC transport system. In silico analysis confirmed that TCS08 is homologous to Staphylococcus aureus SaeRS, and a SaeR-like binding motif is displayed in the promoter region of pavB, the upstream gene of the tcs08 operon encoding a surface-exposed adhesin. Indeed, PavB is regulated by TCS08 as confirmed by immunoblotting and surface abundance assays. Similarly, pilus-1 of TIGR4 is regulated by TCS08. Finally, in vivo infections using the acute pneumonia and sepsis models showed a strain-dependent effect. Loss of function of HK08 or TCS08 attenuated D39 virulence in lung infections. The RR08 deficiency attenuated TIGR4 in pneumonia, while there was no effect on sepsis. In contrast, lack of HK08 procured a highly virulent TIGR4 phenotype in both pneumonia and sepsis infections. Taken together, these data indicate the importance of TCS08 in pneumococcal fitness to adapt to the milieu of the respiratory tract during colonization.

IMPORTANCEStreptococcus pneumoniae interplays with its environment by using 13 two-component regulatory systems and one orphan response regulator. These systems are involved in the sensing of environmental signals, thereby modulating pneumococcal pathophysiology. This study aimed to understand the functional role of genes subject to control by the TCS08. The identified genes play a role in transport of compounds such as sugars or amino acids. In addition, the intermediary metabolism and colonization factors are modulated by TCS08. Thus, TCS08 regulates genes involved in maintaining pneumococcal physiology, transport capacity, and adhesive factors to enable optimal colonization, which represents a prerequisite for invasive pneumococcal disease.

Glycan-metabolizing enzymes in microbe-host interactions: the Streptococcus pneumoniae paradigm

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a frequent colonizer of the upper airways; however, it is also an accomplished pathogen capable of causing life-threatening diseases. To colonize and cause invasive disease, this bacterium relies on a complex array of factors to mediate the host-bacterium interaction. The respiratory tract is rich in functionally important glycoconjugates that display a vast range of glycans, and, thus, a key component of the pneumococcus-host interaction involves an arsenal of bacterial carbohydrate-active enzymes to depolymerize these glycans and carbohydrate transporters to import the products. Through the destruction of host glycans, the glycan-specific metabolic machinery deployed by S. pneumoniae plays a variety of roles in the host-pathogen interaction. Here, we review the processing and metabolism of the major host-derived glycans, including N- and O-linked glycans, Lewis and blood group antigens, proteoglycans, and glycogen, as well as some dietary glycans. We discuss the role of these metabolic pathways in the S. pneumoniae-host interaction, speculate on the potential of key enzymes within these pathways as therapeutic targets, and relate S. pneumoniae as a model system to glycan processing in other microbial pathogens.

Sophisticated Regulation of Transcriptional Factors by the Bacterial Phosphoenolpyruvate: Sugar Phosphotransferase System

The phosphoenolpyruvate:sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS) is a carbohydrate transport and phosphorylation system present in bacteria of all different phyla and in archaea. It is usually composed of three proteins or protein complexes, enzyme I, HPr, and enzyme II, which are phosphorylated at histidine or cysteine residues. However, in many bacteria, HPr can also be phosphorylated at a serine residue. The PTS not only functions as a carbohydrate transporter but also regulates numerous cellular processes either by phosphorylating its target proteins or by interacting with them in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. The target proteins can be catabolic enzymes, transporters, and signal transduction proteins but are most frequently transcriptional regulators. In this review, we will describe how PTS components interact with or phosphorylate proteins to regulate directly or indirectly the activity of transcriptional repressors, activators, or antiterminators. We will briefly summarize the well-studied mechanism of carbon catabolite repression in firmicutes, where the transcriptional regulator catabolite control protein A needs to interact with seryl-phosphorylated HPr in order to be functional. We will present new results related to transcriptional activators and antiterminators containing specific PTS regulation domains, which are the phosphorylation targets for three different types of PTS components. Moreover, we will discuss how the phosphorylation level of the PTS components precisely regulates the activity of target transcriptional regulators or antiterminators, with or without PTS regulation domain, and how the availability of PTS substrates and thus the metabolic status of the cell are connected with various cellular processes, such as biofilm formation or virulence of certain pathogens.

N-acetylglucosamine-Mediated Expression of nagA and nagB in Streptococcus pneumoniae

In this study, we have explored the transcriptomic response of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 to N-acetylglucosamine (NAG). Transcriptome comparison of S. pneumoniae D39 wild-type grown in chemically defined medium (CDM) in the presence of 0.5% NAG to that grown in the presence of 0.5% glucose revealed elevated expression of many genes/operons, including nagA, nagB, manLMN, and nanP. We have further confirmed the NAG-dependent expression of nagA, nagB, manLMN, and nanP by β-galactosidase assays. nagA, nagB and glmS are putatively regulated by a transcriptional regulator NagR. We predicted the operator site of NagR (dre site) in PnagA, PnagB, and PglmS, which was further confirmed by mutating the predicted dre site in the respective promoters (nagA, nagB, and glmS). Growth comparison of ΔnagA, ΔnagB, and ΔglmS with the D39 wild-type demonstrates that nagA and nagB are essential for S. pneumoniae D39 to grow in the presence of NAG as a sole carbon source. Furthermore, deletion of ccpA shows that CcpA has no effect on the expression of nagA, nagB, and glmS in the presence of NAG in S. pneumoniae.

N-acetylgalatosamine-Mediated Regulation of the aga Operon by AgaR in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Here, we analyze the transcriptomic response of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 to N-acetylgalactosamine (NAGa). Transcriptome comparison of S. pneumoniae D39 grown in NAGaM17 (0.5% NAGa + M17) to that grown in GM17 (0.5% Glucose + M17) revealed the elevated expression of various carbon metabolic genes/operons, including a PTS operon (denoted here as the aga operon), which is putatively involved in NAGa transport and utilization, in the presence of NAGa. We further studied the role of a GntR-family transcriptional regulator (denoted here as AgaR) in the regulation of aga operon. Our transcriptome and RT-PCR data suggest the role of AgaR as a transcriptional repressor of the aga operon. We predicted a 20-bp operator site of AagR (5′-ATAATTAATATAACAACAAA-3′) in the promoter region of the aga operon (PbgaC), which was further verified by mutating the AgaR operator site in the respective promoter. The role of CcpA in the additional regulation of the aga operon was elucidated by further transcriptome analyses and confirmed by quantitative RT-PCR.

GalR Acts as a Transcriptional Activator of galKT in the Presence of Galactose in Streptococcus pneumoniae

We explored the regulatory mechanism of Leloir pathway genes in Streptococcus pneumoniae D39. Here, we demonstrate that the expression of galKT is galactose dependent. By microarray analysis and quantitative RT-PCR, we further show the role of the transcriptional regulator GalR, present upstream of galKT, as a transcriptional activator of galKT in the presence of galactose. Moreover, we predict a 19-bp regulatory site (5'-GATAGTTTAGTAAAATTTT-3') for the transcriptional regulator GalR in the promoter region of galK, which is also highly conserved in other streptococci. Growth comparison of D39 ΔgalK with the D39 wild type grown in the presence of galactose shows that galK is required for the proper growth of S. pneumoniae on galactose.

Pneumococcal 6-Phospho-β-Glucosidase (BglA3) Is Involved in Virulence and Nutrient Metabolism

For the generation of energy, the important human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae relies on host-derived sugars, including β-glucoside analogs. The catabolism of these nutrients involves the action of 6-phospho-β-glucosidase to convert them into usable monosaccharaides. In this study, we characterized a 6-phospho-β-glucosidase (BglA3) encoded by SPD_0247. We found that this enzyme has a cell membrane localization and is active only against a phosphorylated substrate. A mutated pneumococcal ΔSPD0247 strain had reduced 6-phospho-glucosidase activity and was attenuated in growth on cellobiose and hyaluronic acid compared to the growth of wild-type D39. ΔSPD0247-infected mice survived significantly longer than the wild-type-infected cohort, and the colony counts of the mutant were lower than those of the wild type in the lungs. The expression of SPD_0247 in S. pneumoniae harvested from infected tissues was significantly increased relative to its expression in vitro on glucose. Additionally, ΔSPD0247 is severely impaired in its attachment to an abiotic surface. These results indicate the importance of β-glucoside metabolism in pneumococcal survival and virulence.

Fucose-Mediated Transcriptional Activation of the Operon by FcsR in

In this study, we explore the impact of fucose on the transcriptome of <i>S. pneumoniae</i> D39. The expression of various genes and operons, including the fucose uptake PTS and utilization operon (<i>fcs</i> operon) was altered in the presence of fucose. By means of quantitative RT-PCR and β-galactosidase analysis, we demonstrate the role of the transcriptional regulator FcsR, present upstream of the <i>fcs</i> operon, as a transcriptional activator of the <i>fcs</i> operon. We also predict a 19-bp putative FcsR regulatory site (5′-ATTTGAACATTATTCAAGT-3′) in the promoter region of the <i>fcs</i> operon. The functionality of this predicted FcsR regulatory site was further confirmed by promoter-truncation experiments, where deletion of half of the FscR regulatory site or full deletion led to the abolition of expression of the <i>fcs</i> operon.

Maltose-Dependent Transcriptional Regulation of the mal Regulon by MalR in Streptococcus pneumoniae

The maltose regulon (mal regulon) has previously been shown to consist of the mal gene cluster (malMP, malXCD and malAR operons) in Streptococcus pneumoniae. In this study, we have further elucidated the complete mal regulon in S. pneumoniae D39 using microarray analyses and β-galactosidase assays. In addition to the mal gene cluster, the complete mal regulon of S. pneumoniae D39 consists of a pullulanase (PulA), a glucosidase (DexB), a glucokinase (RokB), a PTS component (PtsG) and an amylase (AmyA2). Our microarray studies and β-galactosidase assays further showed that the LacI-family transcriptional regulator MalR represses the expression of the mal regulon in the absence of maltose. Furthermore, the role of the pleiotropic transcriptional regulator CcpA in the regulation of the mal regulon in the presence of maltose was explored. Our microarray analysis with a ΔccpA strain showed that CcpA only represses the expression of the malXCD operon and the pulA gene in the presence of maltose. Hence, we extend the mal regulon now consisting of pulA, dexB, rokB, ptsG and amyA2 in addition to malMP, malXCD and malAR operons.

Transcriptional profiling of UlaR-regulated genes in Streptococcus pneumoniae

The transcriptional regulator UlaR belongs to the family of PRD-containing transcriptional regulators, which are mostly involved in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism. The role of the transcriptional regulator UlaR in Streptococcus pneumoniae has recently been described [1]. Here, we report detailed genome-wide transcriptional profiling of UlaR-regulated genes in S. pneumoniae D39 and its ∆ulaR derivative, either in the presence of 10 mM ascorbic acid in M17 medium using microarray analysis. 10 mM concentration of ascorbic acid was supplemented to the M17 medium because our lacZ-fusion studies indicated that UlaR acts as a transcriptional activator of its targets in the presence of ascorbic acid and the expression of the ula operon was maximal at a 10 mM ascorbic acid concentration [1]. All transcriptional profiling data of UlaR-regulated genes was deposited to Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database under accession number GSE61649.

Sialic acid-mediated gene expression in Streptococcus pneumoniae and role of NanR as a transcriptional activator of the nan gene cluster

In this study, we investigated the transcriptomic response of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39 to sialic acid (N-acetylneuraminic acid [Neu5Ac]). Transcriptome comparison of wild-type D39 grown in M17 medium with and without sialic acid revealed the elevated expression of various genes and operons, including the nan gene cluster (nan operon I and nanA gene). Our microarray analysis and promoter-lacZ fusion studies showed that the transcriptional regulator NanR acts as a transcriptional activator of nan operon I and the nanA gene in the presence of sialic acid. The putative regulatory site of NanR in the promoter region of nan operon I is predicted and confirmed by promoter truncation experiments. Furthermore, the role of CcpA in the regulation of the nan gene cluster is demonstrated through microarray analysis and promoter-lacZ fusion studies, suggesting that in the presence of sialic acid and glucose, CcpA represses the expression of nan operon I while the expression of the nanA gene is CcpA independent.

Ascorbic acid-dependent gene expression in Streptococcus pneumoniae and the activator function of the transcriptional regulator UlaR2

In this study, we have explored the impact of ascorbic acid on the transcriptome of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39. The expression of several genes and operons, including the ula operon (which has been previously shown to be involved in ascorbic acid utilization), the AdcR regulon (which has been previously shown to be involved in zinc transport and virulence) and a PTS operon (which we denote here as ula2 operon) were altered in the presence of ascorbic acid. The ula2 operon consists of five genes, including the transcriptional activator ulaR2. Our β-galactosidase assay data and transcriptome comparison of the ulaR2 mutant with the wild-type demonstrated that the transcriptional activator UlaR2 in the presence of ascorbic acid activates the expression of the ula2 operon. We further predict a 16-bp regulatory site (5′-ATATTGTGCTCAAATA-3′) for UlaR2 in the Pula2. Furthermore, we have explored the effect of ascorbic acid on the expression of the AdcR regulon. Our ICP-MS analysis showed that addition of ascorbic acid to the medium causes zinc starvation in the cell which leads to the activation of the AdcR regulon.

UlaR activates expression of the ula operon in Streptococcus pneumoniae in the presence of ascorbic acid

In this study, the regulatory mechanism of the ula (utilization of l-ascorbic acid) operon, putatively responsible for transport and utilization of ascorbic acid in Streptococcus pneumoniae strain D39, is studied. β-Galactosidase assay data demonstrate that expression of the ula operon is increased in the presence of ascorbic acid as compared with the effects of other sugar sources including glucose. The ula operon consists of nine genes, including a transcriptional regulator UlaR, and is transcribed as a single transcriptional unit. We demonstrate the role of the transcriptional regulator UlaR as a transcriptional activator of the ula operon in the presence of ascorbic acid and show that activation of the ula operon genes by UlaR is CcpA-independent. Furthermore, we predict a 16 bp regulatory site (5'-AACAGTCCGCTGTGTA-3') for UlaR in the promoter region of ulaA. Deletion of the half or full UlaR regulatory site in PulaA confirmed that the UlaR regulatory site present in PulaA is functional.

LacR is a repressor of lacABCD and LacT is an activator of lacTFEG, constituting the lac gene cluster in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Comparison of the transcriptome of Streptococcus pneumoniae strain D39 grown in the presence of either lactose or galactose with that of the strain grown in the presence of glucose revealed the elevated expression of various genes and operons, including the lac gene cluster, which is organized into two operons, i.e., lac operon I (lacABCD) and lac operon II (lacTFEG). Deletion of the DeoR family transcriptional regulator lacR that is present downstream of the lac gene cluster revealed elevated expression of lac operon I even in the absence of lactose. This suggests a function of LacR as a transcriptional repressor of lac operon I, which encodes enzymes involved in the phosphorylated tagatose pathway in the absence of lactose or galactose. Deletion of lacR did not affect the expression of lac operon II, which encodes a lactose-specific phosphotransferase. This finding was further confirmed by β-galactosidase assays with PlacA-lacZ and PlacT-lacZ in the presence of either lactose or glucose as the sole carbon source in the medium. This suggests the involvement of another transcriptional regulator in the regulation of lac operon II, which is the BglG-family transcriptional antiterminator LacT. We demonstrate the role of LacT as a transcriptional activator of lac operon II in the presence of lactose and CcpA-independent regulation of the lac gene cluster in S. pneumoniae.

Cellobiose-mediated gene expression in Streptococcus pneumoniae: a repressor function of the novel GntR-type regulator BguR

The human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae has the ability to use the carbon- and energy source cellobiose due to the presence of a cellobiose-utilizing gene cluster (cel locus) in its genome. This system is regulated by the cellobiose-dependent transcriptional activator CelR, which has been previously shown to contribute to pneumococcal virulence. To get a broader understanding of the response of S. pneumoniae to cellobiose, we compared the pneumococcal transcriptome during growth on glucose as the main carbon source to that with cellobiose as the main carbon source. The expression of various carbon metabolic genes was altered, including a PTS operon (which we here denote as the bgu operon) that has high similarity with the cel locus. In contrast to the cel locus, the bgu operon is conserved in all sequenced strains of S. pneumoniae, indicating an important physiological function in the lifestyle of pneumococci. We next characterized the transcriptional regulation of the bgu operon in more detail. Its expression was increased in the presence of cellobiose, and decreased in the presence of glucose. A novel GntR-type transcriptional regulator (which we here denote as BguR) was shown to act as a transcriptional repressor of the bgu operon and its repressive effect was relieved in the presence of cellobiose. BguR-dependent repression was demonstrated to be mediated by a 20-bp DNA operator site (5′-AAAAATGTCTAGACAAATTT-3′) present in PbguA, as verified by promoter truncation experiments. In conclusion, we have identified a new cellobiose-responsive PTS operon, together with its transcriptional regulator in S. pneumoniae.

Genomic reconstruction of transcriptional regulatory networks in lactic acid bacteria

Background

Genome scale annotation of regulatory interactions and reconstruction of regulatory networks are the crucial problems in bacterial genomics. The Lactobacillales order of bacteria collates various microorganisms having a large economic impact, including both human and animal pathogens and strains used in the food industry. Nonetheless, no systematic genome-wide analysis of transcriptional regulation has been previously made for this taxonomic group.

Results

A comparative genomics approach was used for reconstruction of transcriptional regulatory networks in 30 selected genomes of lactic acid bacteria. The inferred networks comprise regulons for 102 orthologous transcription factors (TFs), including 47 novel regulons for previously uncharacterized TFs. Numerous differences between regulatory networks of the Streptococcaceae and Lactobacillaceae groups were described on several levels. The two groups are characterized by substantially different sets of TFs encoded in their genomes. Content of the inferred regulons and structure of their cognate TF binding motifs differ for many orthologous TFs between the two groups. Multiple cases of non-orthologous displacements of TFs that control specific metabolic pathways were reported.

Conclusions

The reconstructed regulatory networks substantially expand the existing knowledge of transcriptional regulation in lactic acid bacteria. In each of 30 studied genomes the obtained regulatory network contains on average 36 TFs and 250 target genes that are mostly involved in carbohydrate metabolism, stress response, metal homeostasis and amino acids biosynthesis. The inferred networks can be used for genetic experiments, functional annotations of genes, metabolic reconstruction and evolutionary analysis. All reconstructed regulons are captured within the Streptococcaceae and Lactobacillaceae collections in the RegPrecise database (http://regprecise.lbl.gov).

Could DNA uptake be a side effect of bacterial adhesion and twitching motility?

DNA acquisition promotes the spread of resistance to antibiotics and virulence among bacteria. It is also linked to several natural phenomena including recombination, genome dynamics, adaptation and speciation. Horizontal DNA transfer between bacteria occurs via conjugation, transduction or competence for natural transformation by DNA uptake. Among these, competence is the only mechanism of transformation initiated and entirely controlled by the chromosome of the recipient bacteria. While the molecular mechanisms allowing the uptake of extracellular DNA are increasingly characterized, the function of competence for natural transformation by DNA uptake, the selective advantage maintaining it and the reasons why bacteria take up DNA in the first place are still debated. In this synthesis, I review some of the literature and discuss the four hypotheses on how and why do bacteria take up DNA. I argue that DNA uptake by bacteria is an accidental by-product of bacterial adhesion and twitching motility. Adhesion and motility are generally increased in stressful conditions, which may explain why bacteria increase DNA uptake in these conditions. In addition to its fundamental scientific relevance, the new hypothesis suggested here has significant clinical implications and finds further support from the fact that antibiotics sometimes fail to eliminate the targeted bacterium while inevitably causing stress to others. The widespread misuse of antibiotics may thus not only be selecting for resistant strains, but may also be causing bacteria to take up more DNA with the consequent increase in the chances of acquiring drug resistance and virulence-a scenario in full concordance with the previously reported induction of competence genes by antibiotics in Streptococcus pneumoniae and Legionella pneumophila.

The ABC transporter encoded at the pneumococcal fructooligosaccharide utilization locus determines the ability to utilize long- and short-chain fructooligosaccharides

Streptococcus pneumoniae is an important human pathogen that requires carbohydrates for growth. The significance of carbohydrate acquisition is highlighted by the genome encoding more than 27 predicted carbohydrate transporters. It has long been known that about 60% of pneumococci could utilize the fructooligosaccharide inulin as a carbohydrate source, but the mechanism of utilization was unknown. Here we demonstrate that a predicted sucrose utilization locus is actually a fructooligosaccharide utilization locus and imparts the ability of pneumococci to utilize inulin. Genes in strain TIGR4 predicted to encode an ABC transporter (SP_1796-8) and a β-fructosidase (SP_1795) are required for utilization of several fructooligosaccharides longer than kestose, which consists of two β(2-1)-linked fructose molecules with a terminal α(1-2)-linked glucose molecule. Similar to other characterized pneumococcal carbohydrate utilization transporter family 1 transporters, growth is dependent on the gene encoding the ATPase MsmK. While the majority of pneumococcal strains encode SP_1796-8 at this genomic location, 19% encode an alternative transporter. Although strains encoding either transporter can utilize short-chain fructooligosaccharides for growth, only strains encoding SP_1796-8 can utilize inulin. Exchange of genes encoding the SP_1796-8 transporter for those encoding the alternative transporter resulted in a TIGR4 strain that could utilize short-chain fructooligosaccharide but not inulin. These data demonstrate that the transporter encoded at this locus determines the ability of the bacteria to utilize long-chain fructooligosaccharides and explains the variation in inulin utilization between pneumococcal strains.

A non-linear deterministic model for regulation of diauxic lag on cellobiose by the pneumococcal multidomain transcriptional regulator CelR

When grown on glucose and beta-glucosides, S. pneumoniae shows sequential use of sugars resulting in diauxic growth with variable time extent of the lag phase separating the biphasic growth curve. The pneumococcal beta-glucoside uptake locus containing the PTS transporter spr0276-82, is regulated by a multi-domain transcriptional regulator CelR. In this work, we address the contribution of phosphorylation of the phosphorylable cysteine in the EIIB domain of CelR to diauxic lag. Utilising site-directed mutagenesis of the phosphorylable amino acids in the EIIB and EIIA domains of CelR, we show that the EIIB domain activation is linked to the duration of the lag phase. Analysis of mutants for other PTS systems indicates that a second beta-glucoside PTS (spr0505), not able to support growth on cellobiose, is responsible for the lag during diauxic growth. A mathematical model of the process is devised together with a nonlinear identification procedure which provides model parameter estimates characterizing the single phases of bacterial growth. Parameter identification performed on data recorded in appropriate experiments on mutants allows for establishing a relationship between a specific model parameter, the EIIB domain and the time extent of the diauxic lag. The experimental results and the related insights provided by the mathematical model provide evidence that the conflicting activation of the CelR regulator is at the origin of the lag phase during sequential growth on glucose and cellobiose. This data is the first description of diauxic lag regulation involving two PTS and a multidomain regulator and could serve as a promising approach for studying the S. pneumoniae growth process on complex carbon sources as possibly encountered in the human host.

Characterization of the ROK-family transcriptional regulator RokA of Streptococcus pneumoniae D39

The Gram-positive human pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae possesses an unusually high number of gene clusters specific for carbohydrate utilization. This provides it with the ability to use a wide array of sugars, which may aid during infection and survival in different environmental conditions present in the host. In this study, the regulatory mechanism of transcription of a gene cluster, SPD0424-8, putatively encoding a cellobiose/lactose-specific phosphotransferase system is investigated. We demonstrate that this gene cluster is transcribed as one transcriptional unit directed by the promoter of the SPD0424 gene. Upstream of SPD0424, a gene was identified encoding a ROK-family transcriptional regulator (RokA: SPD0423). DNA microarray and transcriptional reporter analyses with a rokA mutant revealed that RokA acts as a transcriptional repressor of the SPD0424-8 operon. Furthermore, we identified a 25 bp AT-rich DNA operator site (5'-TATATTTAATTTATAAAAAATAAAA-3') in the promoter region of SPD0424, which was validated by promoter truncation studies, DNase I footprinting and electrophoretic mobility-shift assays. We tested a large range of different sugars for their effect on the expression of the SPD0424-8 operon, but only moderate variation in expression was observed in the conditions applied. Therefore, a co-factor for RokA-mediated transcriptional control could not be identified.

Pneumococcal carbohydrate transport: food for thought

Streptococcus pneumoniae relies exclusively on carbohydrates as a carbon source and devotes 30% of all transport mechanisms to carbohydrate import. Pneumococci utilize at least 32 carbohydrates in vitro. However, some proposed substrates are not human-derived, so it is unclear where they are encountered in the host niche, and other substrates remain unidentified. The majority of transporter loci are conserved, arguing against redundancy and instead for distinct roles during pathogenesis. Despite this, expression and regulation of carbohydrate transporters in vivo remain ill defined. Recent work has also demonstrated that multiple ABC transporters share an ATPase; whether this evolved for genome minimization or for transporter regulation remains unknown. Continued efforts to understand carbohydrate import may reveal novel vaccine and therapeutic targets and increase our understanding of pneumococcal pathogenesis.

Contribution of a genomic accessory region encoding a putative cellobiose phosphotransferase system to virulence of Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus) is a formidable human pathogen, responsible for massive global morbidity and mortality. The ability to utilize carbohydrates in a variety of host niches appears to be integral to pneumococcal pathogenesis. In this study we investigated a genomic island, which includes a ROK family protein, a putative cellobiose phosphotransferase system (PTS) and a putative sulfatase. This accessory region is widespread in the pneumococcus in strains of various serotypes and levels of virulence. We have performed simple bioinformatic analysis of the region and investigated its role in vivo in 2 strains with markedly different virulence profiles (WCH206 of serotype 3, ST180; Menzies5 of serotype 11A, ST662). Deleting and replacing the entire island with an antibiotic resistance cassette caused the virulent serotype 3 strain to become attenuated in a murine pneumonia/sepsis model. Further mutants were constructed and used to show that various components of the island contribute significantly to the fitness of WCH206 in a variety of niches of this model, including the nasopharynx, ears and blood, but especially in the lungs. In addition, the island conferred a competitive advantage in nasopharyngeal colonization for the serotype 11A strain, which was essentially avirulent in the pneumonia/sepsis model. The contribution of this island to both pathogenesis and colonization may explain why this accessory region is widespread in the pneumococcus.