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Kenjar AR, Mohan Raj JR, Girisha BS, Karunasagar I. Diagnostic ability of Peptidase S8 gene in the Arthrodermataceae causing dermatophytoses: A metadata analysis. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0306829. [PMID: 38980893 PMCID: PMC11232979 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0306829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
An unambiguous identification of dermatophytes causing dermatophytoses is necessary for accurate clinical diagnosis and epidemiological implications. In the current taxonomy of the Arthrodermataceae, the etiological agents of dermatophytoses consist of seven genera and members of the genera Trichophyton are the most prevalent etiological agents at present. The genera Trichophyton consists of 16 species that are grouped as clades, but the species borderlines are not clearly delimited. The aim of the present study was to determine the discriminative power of subtilisin gene variants (SUB1-SUB12) in family Arthrodermataceae, particularly in Trichophyton. Partial and complete reads from 288 subtilisin gene sequences of 12 species were retrieved and a stringent filtering following two different approaches for analysis (probability of correct identification (PCI) and gene gap analysis) conducted to determine the uniqueness of the subtilisin gene subtypes. SUB1 with mean PCI value of 60% was the most suitable subtilisin subtype for specific detection of T.rubrum complex, however this subtype is not reported in members of T. mentagrophytes complex which is one of the most prevalent etiological agent at present. Hence, SUB7 with 40% PCI value was selected for testing its discriminative power in Trichophyton species. SUB7 specific PCR based detection of dermatophytes was tested for sensitivity and specificity. Sequences of SUB7 from 42 isolates and comparison with the ITS region showed that differences within the subtilisin gene can further be used to differentiate members of the T. mentagrophytes complex. Further, subtilisin cannot be used for the differentiation of T. benhamiae complex since all SUB subtypes show low PCI scores. Studies on the efficiency and limitations of the subtilisin gene as a diagnostic tool are currently limited. Our study provides information that will guide researchers in considering this gene for identifying dermatophytes causing dermatophytoses in human and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apoorva R. Kenjar
- Nitte (deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Juliet Roshini Mohan Raj
- Nitte (deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangaluru, Karnataka, India
| | | | - Indrani Karunasagar
- Nitte (deemed to be University), Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangaluru, Karnataka, India
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Shestakova A, Fatkulin A, Surkova D, Osmolovskiy A, Popova E. First Insight into the Degradome of Aspergillus ochraceus: Novel Secreted Peptidases and Their Inhibitors. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7121. [PMID: 39000228 PMCID: PMC11241649 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fungi constitute a pivotal element within ecosystems, serving as both contributors of biologically active compounds and harboring the potential to cause various diseases across living organisms. The organism's proteolytic enzyme complex, termed the degradome, acts as an intermediary in its dynamic interaction with the surrounding environment. Using techniques such as genome and transcriptome sequencing, alongside protein prediction methodologies, we identified putative extracellular peptidases within Aspergillus ochraceus VKM-F4104D. Following manual annotation procedures, a total of 11 aspartic, 2 cysteine, 2 glutamic, 21 serine, 1 threonine, and 21 metallopeptidases were attributed to the extracellular degradome of A. ochraceus VKM-F4104D. Among them are enzymes with promising applications in biotechnology, potential targets and agents for antifungal therapy, and microbial antagonism factors. Thus, additional functionalities of the extracellular degradome, extending beyond mere protein substrate digestion for nutritional purposes, were demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Shestakova
- Department of Microbiology, Lomonosov MSU, Moscow 119234, Russia; (A.S.); (A.O.)
| | - Artem Fatkulin
- Laboratory of Molecular Physiology, HSE University, Moscow 101000, Russia
| | - Daria Surkova
- Department of Microbiology, Lomonosov MSU, Moscow 119234, Russia; (A.S.); (A.O.)
| | | | - Elizaveta Popova
- Department of Microbiology, Lomonosov MSU, Moscow 119234, Russia; (A.S.); (A.O.)
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Chen J, Gao Y, Xiong S, Peng Z, Zhan P. Expression Profiles of Protease in Onychomycosis-Related Pathogenic Trichophyton rubrum and Tinea Capitis-Related Pathogenic Trichophyton violaceum. Mycopathologia 2024; 189:14. [PMID: 38265566 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-024-00828-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
The two fungal species Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton violaceum are common pathogens on human, infecting keratinized tissue of the outer body parts. Both species are belonging to the "Trichophyton rubrum complex" and share very high similarity in the genome. Secreted proteinases, key factors for keratin degradation, are nearly identical. Contrary, the ecological niches are differing. Trichophyton rubrum preferably infects skin and nails, whereas T. violaceum preferably infects the scalp. We postulate, that differences in the protease expression contribute to differences in ecological preferences. We analyzed the expression profiles of all 22 endoprotease genes, 12 subtilisins (S8A), 5 deuterolysins (M35) and 5 fungalysins (M36), for both species. To compare the influence of the keratin source, we designed experiments with human nail keratin, sheep wool keratin and keratin free cultivation media. Samples were taken at 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 96 h post incubation in keratin medium. The expression of the proteases is higher in wool-keratin medium compared to human nail medium, with the exception of MEP4 and SUB6. Expression in the keratin-free medium is lowest. The expression profiles of the two species are remarkable different. The expression of MEP1, MEP3, SUB5, SUB11 and SUB12 are higher in T. rubrum compared to T. violaceum. MEP2, NpIIc, NpIIe, SUB1, SUB3, SUB4, SUB7 and SUB8 are higher expressed in T. violaceum compared to T. rubrum. The differences of the protease expression in the two species may expalin the differences in the ecological niches. Further analysis are necessary to verify the hypothesis.Please check and conform the edit made in title.Here I thinke the species of strains shouldnt be capital, and the right expression should be, "Expression Profiles of Protease in Onychomycosis-Related Pathogenic Trichophyton rubrum and Tinea Capitis-Related Pathogenic Trichophyton violaceum"Author names: Please confirm if the author names are presented accurately and in the correct se-quence (given name, middle name/initial, family name). Author 1 Given name: [Jingjing] Last name [Chen], Author 2 Given name: [Yangmin] Last name [Gao], Author 3 Given name: [Shuzhen] Last name [Xiong], Author 4 Given name: [Ping] Last name [Zhan]. Also, kindly confirm the details in the metadata are correct.YesPlease check and confirm the inserted city and country are correctly identified for affiliation 3.Please change the affiliations, Affiliation 2: ²Jiangxi Provincial Clinical Research Center for Skin Diseases, Dermatology Hospital of Jiangxi Province,The Affiliated Dermatology Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330200, Jiangxi; Affiliation 3: 3Institute of Clinical Medicine, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang Medical College,Nanchang 330001, Jiangxi. Thanks a lot!
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yangmin Gao
- Jiangxi Provincial Clinical Research Center for Skin Diseases, Dermatology Hospital of Jiangxi Province, The Affiliated Dermatology Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330200, Jiangxi, China
| | | | - Zimei Peng
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, Jiangxi Provincial People's Hospital, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang Medical College, Nanchang, 330001, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ping Zhan
- Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330006, China.
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanchang, 330006, China.
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Ugalde-Trejo NX, Delgado Moreno KP, Alfaro-Sánchez A, Tirado-Sánchez A, Bonifaz Trujillo JA. Two Feet-One Hand Syndrome: Tinea Pedis and Tinea Manuum. CURRENT FUNGAL INFECTION REPORTS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12281-022-00447-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Wang Z, Wang R, He L, Gu C, Zhao M, Yang Q, He M, Han J, Yu Z, Xiao W. Comprehensive analysis of long non-coding RNA expression profiles in Trichophyton mentagrophytes-infected keratinocytes. Microb Pathog 2022; 167:105565. [PMID: 35523366 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhangxu Wang
- Nucleic Acid Medicine of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Ran Wang
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Lvqin He
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Congwei Gu
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Mingde Zhao
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Qian Yang
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Manli He
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Jianhong Han
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China
| | - Zehui Yu
- Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
| | - Wudian Xiao
- Nucleic Acid Medicine of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China; Model Animal and Human Disease Research of Luzhou Key Laboratory, Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, 646000, China.
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Comprehensive Assessment of the Virulence Factors sub 3, sub 6 and mcpA in the Zoonotic Dermatophyte Trichophyton benhamiae Using FISH and qPCR. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 8:jof8010024. [PMID: 35049964 PMCID: PMC8778074 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin infections by keratinophilic fungi are commonly referred to as dermatophytosis and represent a major health burden worldwide. Although patient numbers are on the rise, data on virulence factors, their function and kinetics are scarce. We employed an ex vivo infection model based on guinea pig skin explants (GPSE) for the zoonotic dermatophyte Trichophyton (T.) benhamiae to investigate kinetics of the virulence factors subtilisin (sub) 3, sub 6, metallocarboxypeptidase A (mcpA) and isocitrate lyase (isol) at gene level for ten days. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) were used to detect and quantify the transcripts, respectively. Kingdom-spanning, species-specific and virulence factor-specific probes were successfully applied to isolated fungal elements showing inhomogeneous fluorescence signals along hyphae. Staining results for inoculated GPSE remained inconsistent despite thorough optimization. qPCR revealed a significant increase of sub 3- and mcpA-transcripts toward the end of culture, sub 6 and isol remained at a low level throughout the entire culture period. Sub 3 is tightly connected to the de novo formation of conidia during culture. Since sub 6 is considered an in vivo disease marker. However, the presented findings urgently call for further research on the role of certain virulence factors during infection and disease.
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Burchacka E, Pięta P, Łupicka-Słowik A. Recent advances in fungal serine protease inhibitors. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 146:112523. [PMID: 34902742 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Four types of antifungal drugs are available that include inhibitors of ergosterol synthesis, of fungal RNA biosynthesis, and of cell wall biosynthesis as well as physiochemical regulators of fungal membrane sterols. Increasing resistance to antifungal drugs can severely limit treatment options of fungal nail infections, vaginal candidiasis, ringworm, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, and Candida infections of the mouth, throat, and esophagus, among other infections. Development of strategies focused on new fungicides can effectively help tackle troublesome fungal diseases. The virulence and optimal growth of fungi depend on various extracellular secreted factors, among which proteases, such as serine proteases, are of particular interest. A specific extracellular proteolytic system enables fungi to survive and penetrate the tissues. Given the role of fungal proteases in infection, any molecule capable of selectively and specifically inhibiting their activity can lead to the development of potential drugs. Owing to their specific mode of action, fungal protease inhibitors can avoid fungal resistance observed with currently available treatments. Although fungal secreted proteases have been extensively studied as potential virulence factors, our understanding of the substrate specificity of such proteases remains poor. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the design and development of specific serine protease inhibitors and provide a brief history of the compounds that inhibit fungal serine protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Burchacka
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - P Pięta
- Department of Bionic and Medical Experimental Biology, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Parkowa 2 St, 60-775 Poznań, Poland
| | - A Łupicka-Słowik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
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Espersen R, Huang Y, Falco FC, Hägglund P, Gernaey KV, Lange L, Svensson B. Exceptionally rich keratinolytic enzyme profile found in the rare actinomycetes Amycolatopsis keratiniphila D2 T. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 105:8129-8138. [PMID: 34605969 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11579-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The non-spore forming Gram-positive actinomycetes Amycolatopsis keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T (DSM 44,409) has a high potential for keratin valorization as demonstrated by a novel biotechnological microbial conversion process consisting of a bacterial growth phase and a keratinolytic phase, respectively. Compared to the most gifted keratinolytic Bacillus species, a very large number of 621 putative proteases are encoded by the genome of Amycolatopsis keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T, as predicted by using Peptide Pattern Recognition (PPR) analysis. Proteome analysis by using LC-MS/MS on aliquots of the supernatant of A. keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T culture on slaughterhouse pig bristle meal, removed at 24, 48, 96 and 120 h of growth, identified 43 proteases. This was supplemented by proteome analysis of specific fractions after enrichment of the supernatant by anion exchange chromatography leading to identification of 50 proteases. Overall 57 different proteases were identified corresponding to 30% of the 186 proteins identified from the culture supernatant and distributed as 17 metalloproteases from 11 families, including an M36 protease, 38 serine proteases from 4 families, and 13 proteolytic enzymes from other families. Notably, M36 keratinolytic proteases are prominent in fungi, but seem not to have been discovered in bacteria previously. Two S01 family peptidases, named T- and C-like proteases, prominent in the culture supernatant, were purified and shown to possess a high azo-keratin/azo-casein hydrolytic activity ratio. The C-like protease revealed excellent thermostability, giving promise for successful applications in biorefinery processes. Notably, the bacterium seems not to secrete enzymes for cleavage of disulfides in the keratinous substrates. KEY POINTS: • A. keratiniphila subsp. keratiniphila D2T is predicted to encode 621 proteases. • This actinomycete efficiently converts bristle meal to a protein hydrolysate. • Proteome analysis identified 57 proteases in its secretome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roall Espersen
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Center for Vaccine Research, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5 Building 81, DK 2300, Copenhagen S, Denmark
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ionic Liquids Clean Process, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Multiphase Complex Systems, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100190, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Francesco C Falco
- Process and Systems Engineering Center, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 228 A, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Per Hägglund
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - Krist V Gernaey
- Process and Systems Engineering Center, Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 228 A, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lene Lange
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 227, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark
- Bioeconomy, Research & Advisory, Karensgade 5, DK 2500, Valby, Denmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- Enzyme and Protein Chemistry, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Søltofts Plads Building 224, DK 2800 Kgs., Lyngby, Denmark.
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Abstract
The human skin is our outermost layer and serves as a protective barrier against external insults. Advances in next generation sequencing have enabled the discoveries of a rich and diverse community of microbes - bacteria, fungi and viruses that are residents of this surface. The genomes of these microbes also revealed the presence of many secretory enzymes. In particular, proteases which are hydrolytic enzymes capable of protein cleavage and degradation are of special interest in the skin environment which is enriched in proteins and lipids. In this minireview, we will focus on the roles of these skin-relevant microbial secreted proteases, both in terms of their widely studied roles as pathogenic agents in tissue invasion and host immune inactivation, and their recently discovered roles in inter-microbial interactions and modulation of virulence factors. From these studies, it has become apparent that while microbial proteases are capable of a wide range of functions, their expression is tightly regulated and highly responsive to the environments the microbes are in. With the introduction of new biochemical and bioinformatics tools to study protease functions, it will be important to understand the roles played by skin microbial secretory proteases in cutaneous health, especially the less studied commensal microbes with an emphasis on contextual relevance.
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Mathew J, Anuthara R, Midhun S. An in vitro and in silico study of anti-dermatophytic activity of gossypol from fruits of Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2021. [DOI: 10.4103/2221-1691.331270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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Łagowski D, Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Osińska M. Assessment of the subtilisin gene profile in Trichophyton verrucosum isolated from human and animal dermatophytoses in two-stage multiplex PCR. J Appl Microbiol 2020; 131:300-306. [PMID: 33245823 DOI: 10.1111/jam.14942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Keratin is a fibrous and recalcitrant structural protein and the third most abundant polymer in nature after cellulose and chitin. Subtilisin-like proteases (SUB) are a group of serine endoproteases, coded by seven genes (SUB1-7), which decompose keratin structures and have been isolated from dermatophytes. Herein, we identified the SUB genes in 30 clinical isolates of Trichophyton verrucosum obtained from human and animal dermatophytosis as well as asymptomatic animal carriers. METHODS AND RESULTS We designed and proposed a two-stage multiplex PCR technique to detect all seven genes encoding serine proteases in dermatophytes. The analysis revealed the presence SUB1 and SUB2 amplicons in all strains regardless of the host. In the group of isolates obtained from humans, all seven subtilisin genes were shown in 40% of the strains. In T. verrucosum from asymptomatic animals, none of the isolates showed the presence of all seven subtilisin genes, and only 30% had six genes. In turn, 10% of the isolates from symptomatic animals demonstrated all seven subtilisins amplicons. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, the severity of infection and ability of T. verrucosum to cause dermatophytosis in humans may not be related to specific genes but their accumulation and synergistic effects of their products. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Dermatophytes are pathogenic filamentous fungi with capacity to attack keratinized structures such as skin, hair and nails, causing cutaneous superficial infections. Indeed, a biological characteristic of dermatophytes is their ability to invade keratin-rich tissues by producing enzymes. Various degrees of inflammatory responses can be induced exactly by the enzymes. Subtilisin-like proteases are endoproteases, which decompose keratin structures. Our study identifies SUB genes in clinical isolates of T. verrucosum obtained from human and animal dermatophytosis as well as asymptomatic animal carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Łagowski
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - S Gnat
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - A Nowakiewicz
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - M Osińska
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Preclinical Veterinary Sciences, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
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Ellagic Acid Inhibits Trichophyton rubrum Growth via Affecting Ergosterol Biosynthesis and Apoptotic Induction. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2020; 2020:7305818. [PMID: 33193798 PMCID: PMC7641703 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7305818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background Trichophyton rubrum, among other dermatophytes, is a major causative agent for superficial dermatomycoses like onychomycosis and tinea pedis, especially among pediatric and geriatric populations. Ellagic acid (EA) and shikonin (SK) have been reported to have many bioactivities, including antifungal activity. However, the mechanism of EA and SK on Trichophyton rubrum has not yet been reported. Objectives The purposes of this study were to evaluate the antifungal activities of EA and SK against Trichophyton rubrum and to illuminate the underlying action mechanisms. Methods The effect of EA (64, 128, and 256 μg/mL) and SK (8, 4, and 2 μg/mL) on Trichophyton rubrum was investigated with different doses via detecting cell viability, ultrastructure with using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), cell apoptosis and necrosis by using the flow cytometry instrument technique (FCIT), and the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway-related fungal cell membrane key gene expressions in vitro. Results SEM detection revealed that the T. rubrum cell surface was shrivelled, folded, and showed deformation and expansion, visible surface peeling, and broken hyphae, and cell contents overflowed after being treated with EA and SK; the cell apoptosis rate was significantly increased in dose-dependent manner after T. rubrum was treated with EA and SK; the qPCR results showed that mRNA expression of MEP4 and SUB1 was downregulated in EA- and SK-treated groups. Conclusions Overall, our results revealed the underlying antifungal mechanism of EA and SK, which may be related to the destruction of the fungal cell membrane and inhibition of C14 demethylase and the catalytic rate of squalene cyclooxidase in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway via downregulation of MEP4 and SUB1, suggesting that EA and SK have the potential to be developed further as a natural antifungal agent for clinical use.
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Trichophyton rubrum Azole Resistance Mediated by a New ABC Transporter, TruMDR3. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00863-19. [PMID: 31501141 PMCID: PMC6811443 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00863-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of terbinafine resistance in a set of clinical isolates of Trichophyton rubrum have been studied recently. Of these isolates, TIMM20092 also showed reduced sensitivity to azoles. The azole resistance of TIMM20092 could be inhibited by milbemycin oxime, prompting us to examine the potential of T. rubrum to develop resistance through multidrug efflux transporters. The mechanisms of terbinafine resistance in a set of clinical isolates of Trichophyton rubrum have been studied recently. Of these isolates, TIMM20092 also showed reduced sensitivity to azoles. The azole resistance of TIMM20092 could be inhibited by milbemycin oxime, prompting us to examine the potential of T. rubrum to develop resistance through multidrug efflux transporters. The introduction of a T. rubrum cDNA library into Saccharomyces cerevisiae allowed the isolation of one transporter of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) conferring resistance to azoles (TruMFS1). To identify more azole efflux pumps among 39 ABC and 170 MFS transporters present within the T. rubrum genome, we performed a BLASTp analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Candida glabrata on transporters that were previously shown to confer azole resistance. The identified candidates were further tested by heterologous gene expression in S. cerevisiae. Four ABC transporters (TruMDR1, TruMDR2, TruMDR3, and TruMDR5) and a second MFS transporter (TruMFS2) proved to be able to operate as azole efflux pumps. Milbemycin oxime inhibited only TruMDR3. Expression analysis showed that both TruMDR3 and TruMDR2 were significantly upregulated in TIMM20092. TruMDR3 transports voriconazole (VRC) and itraconazole (ITC), while TruMDR2 transports only ITC. Disruption of TruMDR3 in TIMM20092 abolished its resistance to VRC and reduced its resistance to ITC. Our study highlights TruMDR3, a newly identified transporter of the ABC family in T. rubrum, which can confer azole resistance if overexpressed. Finally, inhibition of TruMDR3 by milbemycin suggests that milbemycin analogs could be interesting compounds to treat dermatophyte infections in cases of azole resistance.
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Kaplan E, Gonca S, Kandemir H, Döğen A, Hilmioğlu-Polat S, Ilkit M, Tanaka R, Yaguchi T, Uhrlaβ S, Nenoff P. Genes Encoding Proteolytic Enzymes Fungalysin and Subtilisin in Dermatophytes of Human and Animal Origin: A Comparative Study. Mycopathologia 2019; 185:137-144. [PMID: 31376040 DOI: 10.1007/s11046-019-00367-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are among the most successful fungal pathogens in humans, but their virulence mechanisms have not yet been fully characterized. Dermatophytic fungi secrete proteases in vivo, which are responsible for fungal colonization and degradation of the keratinized tissue during infection. In the present study, we used PCR to investigate the presence of genes encoding fungalysins (MEP) and subtilisins (SUB) in three dermatophyte species whose incidence is increasing in Europe: the anthropophilic Trichophyton rubrum (n = 58), zoophilic Microsporum canis (n = 33), and Trichophyton benhamiae (n = 6). MEP2 and SUB4 genes were significantly correlated with T. rubrum; MEP3 and SUB1 were mostly frequently harbored by M. canis; and MEP1, 2, and 4 and SUB3-7 were most frequently harbored by T. benhamiae isolates (p < 0.05). Furthermore, MEP1-5 and SUB1-3 genes were significantly more prevalent among human clinical isolates of M. canis (n = 17) than among asymptomatic cat isolates of M. canis (n = 16; p < 0.05). Unidentified MEP and/or SUB genes in some isolates in the current study may suggest that other gene repertoires may be involved in the degradation of keratin. The presented analysis of the incidence of MEP and SUB virulence genes in three dermatophyte species of diverse origins provides an insight into the host-fungus interaction and dermatophyte pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Engin Kaplan
- Advanced Technology Education, Research, and Application Center, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey.,Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit, Zonguldak, Turkey
| | - Serpil Gonca
- Advanced Technology Education, Research, and Application Center, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Hazal Kandemir
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey.,Centre of Expertise in Mycology, Radboud University Medical Centre/Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Aylin Döğen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Mersin, Mersin, Turkey.
| | | | - Macit Ilkit
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey
| | - Reiko Tanaka
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Takashi Yaguchi
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, 1-8-1 Inohana, Chuo-ku, Chiba, 260-8673, Japan
| | - Silke Uhrlaβ
- Laboratory for Medical Microbiology, Mölbis, Germany
| | - Pietro Nenoff
- Laboratory for Medical Microbiology, Mölbis, Germany
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15
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Mercer DK, Stewart CS. Keratin hydrolysis by dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2019; 57:13-22. [PMID: 29361043 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are the most common cause of superficial fungal infections (tinea infections) and are a specialized group of filamentous fungi capable of infecting and degrading keratinised tissues, including skin, hair, and nail. Essential to their pathogenicity and virulence is the production of a broad spectrum of proteolytic enzymes and other key proteins involved in keratin biodegradation and utilization of its breakdown products. The initial stage of biodegradation of native keratin is considered to be sulfitolysis, in which the extensive disulfide bridges present in keratin are hydrolyzed, although some secreted subtilisins can degrade dye-impregnated keratin azure without prior reduction (Sub3 and Sub4). Sulfitolysis facilitates the extracellular biodegradation of keratin by the dermatophytes' extensive array of endo- and exoproteases. The importance of dermatophyte proteases in infection is widely recognized, and these enzymes have also been identified as important virulence determinants and allergens. Finally, the short peptide and amino acid breakdown products are taken up by the dermatophytes, using as yet poorly characterised transporters, and utilized for metabolism. In this review, we describe the process of keratin biodegradation by dermatophytes, with an especial focus on recent developments in cutting edge molecular biology and '-omic' studies that are helping to dissect the complex process of keratin breakdown and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derry K Mercer
- NovaBiotics Ltd, Cruickshank Building, Craibstone, Aberdeen, AB21 9TR, United Kingdom
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16
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Real-time PCR: A rapid and sensitive method for diagnosis of dermatophyte induced onychomycosis, a comparative study. ALEXANDRIA JOURNAL OF MEDICINE 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajme.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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17
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Gräser Y, Monod M, Bouchara JP, Dukik K, Nenoff P, Kargl A, Kupsch C, Zhan P, Packeu A, Chaturvedi V, de Hoog S. New insights in dermatophyte research. Med Mycol 2018. [PMID: 29538740 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophyte research has renewed interest because of changing human floras with changing socioeconomic conditions, and because of severe chronic infections in patients with congenital immune disorders. Main taxonomic traits at the generic level have changed considerably, and now fine-tuning at the species level with state-of-the-art technology has become urgent. Research on virulence factors focuses on secreted proteases now has support in genome data. It is speculated that most protease families are used for degrading hard keratin during nitrogen recycling in the environment, while others, such as Sub6 may have emerged as a result of ancestral gene duplication, and are likely to have specific roles during infection. Virulence may differ between mating partners of the same species and concepts of zoo- and anthropophily may require revision in some recently redefined species. Many of these questions benefit from international cooperation and exchange of materials. The aim of the ISHAM Working Group Dermatophytes aims to stimulate and coordinate international networking on these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Gräser
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Karolina Dukik
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pietro Nenoff
- Labor für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Mölbis, Germany
| | | | - Christiane Kupsch
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ping Zhan
- Jiangxi Dermatology Hospital and Jiangxi Dermatology Institute, Nanchang, China
| | - Ann Packeu
- Mycologie & Aerobiologie Scientific Institute of Public Health, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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18
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Insight into the draft whole-genome sequence of the dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15127. [PMID: 30310114 PMCID: PMC6181936 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33505-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Next-generation technologies have prompted efforts towards generating a large repertoire of whole-genome sequences. The dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii has been considered as a good model in which to conduct molecular biological studies on this fungal group. Despite the considerable repertoire of molecular tools developed for this fungus, the lack of genomic data has represented a major limitation, preventing effective implementation of those tools. Herein, the authors report the first draft whole-genome sequence of this dermatophytic species. The size of the draft genome was 23 Mb, exhibiting a GC content of 48.1%. Given the significance of secreted proteases in tissue invasion, a comparative analysis of genes encoding extracellular proteases was performed between A. vanbreuseghemii and other dermatophytes. Furthermore, genes that might be involved in DNA repair also were compared among dermatophytes. Moreover, the complete mitochondrial genome of A. vanbreuseghemii was obtained and shown to consist of 24,287 bp with a GC content of 24%. In conclusion, the availability of genomic data for A. vanbreuseghemii is expected to facilitate the implementation of the molecular tools established for this fungus, enhancing our understanding of the biology of dermatophytes.
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19
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Abstract
Humans are exceptional among vertebrates in that their living tissue is directly exposed to the outside world. In the absence of protective scales, feathers, or fur, the skin has to be highly effective in defending the organism against the gamut of opportunistic fungi surrounding us. Most (sub)cutaneous infections enter the body by implantation through the skin barrier. On intact skin, two types of fungal expansion are noted: (A) colonization by commensals, i.e., growth enabled by conditions prevailing on the skin surface without degradation of tissue, and (B) infection by superficial pathogens that assimilate epidermal keratin and interact with the cellular immune system. In a response-damage framework, all fungi are potentially able to cause disease, as a balance between their natural predilection and the immune status of the host. For this reason, we will not attribute a fixed ecological term to each species, but rather describe them as growing in a commensal state (A) or in a pathogenic state (B).
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20
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Xiao W, He H, Tong Y, Cai M, Shi Y, Liu B, Wang J, Qin Y, Lai S. Transcriptome analysis of Trichophyton mentagrophytes–induced rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) dermatophytosis. Microb Pathog 2018; 114:350-356. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2017.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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21
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Farrer RA, Martel A, Verbrugghe E, Abouelleil A, Ducatelle R, Longcore JE, James TY, Pasmans F, Fisher MC, Cuomo CA. Genomic innovations linked to infection strategies across emerging pathogenic chytrid fungi. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14742. [PMID: 28322291 PMCID: PMC5364385 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the evolutionary pathways that lead to emerging infections of vertebrates, here we explore the genomic innovations that allow free-living chytrid fungi to adapt to and colonize amphibian hosts. Sequencing and comparing the genomes of two pathogenic species of Batrachochytrium to those of close saprophytic relatives reveals that pathogenicity is associated with remarkable expansions of protease and cell wall gene families, while divergent infection strategies are linked to radiations of lineage-specific gene families. By comparing the host–pathogen response to infection for both pathogens, we illuminate the traits that underpin a strikingly different immune response within a shared host species. Our results show that, despite commonalities that promote infection, specific gene-family radiations contribute to distinct infection strategies. The breadth and evolutionary novelty of candidate virulence factors that we discover underscores the urgent need to halt the advance of pathogenic chytrids and prevent incipient loss of biodiversity. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans are both important pathogens of amphibians, but they differ in their host ranges, infection strategies, and host immune responses. Here, Farrer and colleagues compare their genomes and transcriptomes to identify the genetic basis of these differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys A Farrer
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA.,Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Elin Verbrugghe
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Amr Abouelleil
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
| | - Richard Ducatelle
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Joyce E Longcore
- School of Biology and Ecology, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA
| | - Timothy Y James
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Matthew C Fisher
- Department of Infectious Disease Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK
| | - Christina A Cuomo
- Genome Sequencing and Analysis Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, USA
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22
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Sanz-Martín JM, Pacheco-Arjona JR, Bello-Rico V, Vargas WA, Monod M, Díaz-Mínguez JM, Thon MR, Sukno SA. A highly conserved metalloprotease effector enhances virulence in the maize anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum graminicola. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2016; 17:1048-62. [PMID: 26619206 PMCID: PMC6638349 DOI: 10.1111/mpp.12347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/23/2015] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Colletotrichum graminicola causes maize anthracnose, an agronomically important disease with a worldwide distribution. We have identified a fungalysin metalloprotease (Cgfl) with a role in virulence. Transcriptional profiling experiments and live cell imaging show that Cgfl is specifically expressed during the biotrophic stage of infection. To determine whether Cgfl has a role in virulence, we obtained null mutants lacking Cgfl and performed pathogenicity and live microscopy assays. The appressorium morphology of the null mutants is normal, but they exhibit delayed development during the infection process on maize leaves and roots, showing that Cgfl has a role in virulence. In vitro chitinase activity assays of leaves infected with wild-type and null mutant strains show that, in the absence of Cgfl, maize leaves exhibit increased chitinase activity. Phylogenetic analyses show that Cgfl is highly conserved in fungi. Similarity searches, phylogenetic analysis and transcriptional profiling show that C. graminicola encodes two LysM domain-containing homologues of Ecp6, suggesting that this fungus employs both Cgfl-mediated and LysM protein-mediated strategies to control chitin signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- José M Sanz-Martín
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - José Ramón Pacheco-Arjona
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Víctor Bello-Rico
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Walter A Vargas
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michel Monod
- Laboratoire de Mycologie, Service de Dermatologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - José M Díaz-Mínguez
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michael R Thon
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
| | - Serenella A Sukno
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185, Villamayor, Spain
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23
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RNA Sequencing-Based Genome Reannotation of the Dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae and Characterization of Its Secretome and Whole Gene Expression Profile during Infection. mSystems 2016; 1:mSystems00036-16. [PMID: 27822542 PMCID: PMC5069957 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00036-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytoses (ringworm, jock itch, athlete’s foot, and nail infections) are the most common fungal infections, but their virulence mechanisms are poorly understood. Combining transcriptomic data obtained from growth under various culture conditions with data obtained during infection led to a significantly improved genome annotation. About 65% of the protein-encoding genes predicted with our protocol did not match the existing annotation for A. benhamiae. Comparing gene expression during infection on guinea pigs with keratin degradation in vitro, which is supposed to mimic the host environment, revealed the critical importance of using real in vivo conditions for investigating virulence mechanisms. The analysis of genes expressed in vivo, encoding cell surface and secreted proteins, particularly proteases, led to the identification of new allergen and virulence factor candidates. Dermatophytes are the most common agents of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. The aim of the present investigation was to systematically identify the extracellular, possibly secreted, proteins that are putative virulence factors and antigenic molecules of dermatophytes. A complete gene expression profile of Arthroderma benhamiae was obtained during infection of its natural host (guinea pig) using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. This profile was completed with those of the fungus cultivated in vitro in two media containing either keratin or soy meal protein as the sole source of nitrogen and in Sabouraud medium. More than 60% of transcripts deduced from RNA-seq data differ from those previously deposited for A. benhamiae. Using these RNA-seq data along with an automatic gene annotation procedure, followed by manual curation, we produced a new annotation of the A. benhamiae genome. This annotation comprised 7,405 coding sequences (CDSs), among which only 2,662 were identical to the currently available annotation, 383 were newly identified, and 15 secreted proteins were manually corrected. The expression profile of genes encoding proteins with a signal peptide in infected guinea pigs was found to be very different from that during in vitro growth when using keratin as the substrate. Especially, the sets of the 12 most highly expressed genes encoding proteases with a signal sequence had only the putative vacuolar aspartic protease gene PEP2 in common, during infection and in keratin medium. The most upregulated gene encoding a secreted protease during infection was that encoding subtilisin SUB6, which is a known major allergen in the related dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. IMPORTANCE Dermatophytoses (ringworm, jock itch, athlete’s foot, and nail infections) are the most common fungal infections, but their virulence mechanisms are poorly understood. Combining transcriptomic data obtained from growth under various culture conditions with data obtained during infection led to a significantly improved genome annotation. About 65% of the protein-encoding genes predicted with our protocol did not match the existing annotation for A. benhamiae. Comparing gene expression during infection on guinea pigs with keratin degradation in vitro, which is supposed to mimic the host environment, revealed the critical importance of using real in vivo conditions for investigating virulence mechanisms. The analysis of genes expressed in vivo, encoding cell surface and secreted proteins, particularly proteases, led to the identification of new allergen and virulence factor candidates.
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24
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Lange L, Huang Y, Busk PK. Microbial decomposition of keratin in nature-a new hypothesis of industrial relevance. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:2083-96. [PMID: 26754820 PMCID: PMC4756042 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-7262-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Discovery of keratin-degrading enzymes from fungi and bacteria has primarily focused on finding one protease with efficient keratinase activity. Recently, an investigation was conducted of all keratinases secreted from a fungus known to grow on keratinaceous materials, such as feather, horn, and hooves. The study demonstrated that a minimum of three keratinases is needed to break down keratin, an endo-acting, an exo-acting, and an oligopeptide-acting keratinase. Further, several studies have documented that disruption of sulfur bridges of the keratin structure acts synergistically with the keratinases to loosen the molecular structure, thus giving the enzymes access to their substrate, the protein structure. With such complexity, it is relevant to compare microbial keratin decomposition with the microbial decomposition of well-studied polymers such as cellulose and chitin. Interestingly, it was recently shown that the specialized enzymes, lytic polysaccharide monoxygenases (LPMOs), shown to be important for breaking the recalcitrance of cellulose and chitin, are also found in keratin-degrading fungi. A holistic view of the complex molecular self-assembling structure of keratin and knowledge about enzymatic and boosting factors needed for keratin breakdown have been used to formulate a hypothesis for mode of action of the LPMOs in keratin decomposition and for a model for degradation of keratin in nature. Testing such hypotheses and models still needs to be done. Even now, the hypothesis can serve as an inspiration for designing industrial processes for keratin decomposition for conversion of unexploited waste streams, chicken feather, and pig bristles into bioaccessible animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Lange
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Kamp Busk
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark
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25
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Yew SM, Chan CL, Kuan CS, Toh YF, Ngeow YF, Na SL, Lee KW, Hoh CC, Yee WY, Ng KP. The genome of newly classified Ochroconis mirabilis: Insights into fungal adaptation to different living conditions. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:91. [PMID: 26842951 PMCID: PMC4738786 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2409-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ochroconis mirabilis, a recently introduced water-borne dematiaceous fungus, is occasionally isolated from human skin lesions and nails. We identified an isolate of O. mirabilis from a skin scraping with morphological and molecular studies. Its genome was then sequenced and analysed for genetic features related to classification and biological characteristics. RESULTS UM 578 was identified as O. mirabilis based on morphology and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-based phylogeny. The 34.61 Mb assembled genome with 13,435 predicted genes showed less efficiency of this isolate in plant cell wall degradation. Results from the peptidase comparison analysis with reported keratin-degrading peptidases from dermatophytes suggest that UM 578 is very unlikely to be utilising these peptidases to survive in the host. Nevertheless, we have identified peptidases from M10A, M12A and S33 families that may allow UM 578 to invade its host via extracellular matrix and collagen degradation. Furthermore, the lipases in UM 578 may have a role in supporting the fungus in host invasion. This fungus has the potential ability to synthesise melanin via the 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN)-melanin pathway and to produce mycotoxins. The mating ability of this fungus was also inspected in this study and a mating type gene containing alpha domain was identified. This fungus is likely to produce taurine that is required in osmoregulation. The expanded gene family encoding the taurine catabolism dioxygenase TauD/TdfA domain suggests the utilisation of taurine under sulfate starvation. The expanded glutathione-S-transferase domains and RTA1-like protein families indicate the selection of genes in UM 578 towards adaptation in hostile environments. CONCLUSIONS The genomic analysis of O. mirabilis UM 578 provides a better understanding of fungal survival tactics in different habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Mei Yew
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Chai Ling Chan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Chee Sian Kuan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Yue Fen Toh
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Yun Fong Ngeow
- Department of Pre-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Bandar Sungai Long, 43000, Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Shiang Ling Na
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Kok Wei Lee
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Chee-Choong Hoh
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Wai-Yan Yee
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Kee Peng Ng
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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26
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Shi Y, Niu Q, Yu X, Jia X, Wang J, Lin D, Jin Y. Assessment of the function ofSUB6in the pathogenic dermatophyteTrichophyton mentagrophytes. Med Mycol 2015; 54:59-71. [DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myv071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
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27
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Huang Y, Busk PK, Herbst FA, Lange L. Genome and secretome analyses provide insights into keratin decomposition by novel proteases from the non-pathogenic fungus Onygena corvina. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:9635-49. [PMID: 26177915 PMCID: PMC4628079 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6805-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Poultry processing plants and slaughterhouses produce huge quantities of feathers and hair/bristle waste annually. These keratinaceous wastes are highly resistant to degradation. Onygena corvina, a non-pathogenic fungus, grows specifically on feathers, hooves, horn, and hair in nature. Hence, the proteases secreted by O. corvina are interesting in view of their potential relevance for industrial decomposition of keratinaceous wastes. We sequenced and assembled the genome of O. corvina and used a method called peptide pattern recognition to identify 73 different proteases. Comparative genome analysis of proteases in keratin-degrading and non-keratin-degrading fungi indicated that 18 putative secreted proteases from four protease families (M36, M35, M43, and S8) may be responsible for keratin decomposition. Twelve of the 18 predicted protease genes could be amplified from O. corvina grown on keratinaceous materials and were transformed into Pichia pastoris. One of the recombinant proteases belonging to the S8 family showed high keratin-degrading activity. Furthermore, 29 different proteases were identified by mass spectrometry in the culture broth of O. corvina grown on feathers and bristle. The culture broth was fractionated by ion exchange chromatography to isolate active fractions with five novel proteases belonging to three protease families (S8, M28, and M3). Enzyme blends composed of three of these five proteases, one from each family, showed high degree of degradation of keratin in vitro. A blend of novel proteases, such as those we discovered, could possibly find a use for degrading keratinaceous wastes and provide proteins, peptides, and amino acids as valuable ingredients for animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Kamp Busk
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Florian-Alexander Herbst
- Center for Microbial Communities, Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7H, 9220, Aalborg East, Denmark
| | - Lene Lange
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University Copenhagen, 2450, Copenhagen, SV, Denmark.
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Building 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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Zhang X, Wang Y, Chi W, Shi Y, Chen S, Lin D, Jin Y. Metalloprotease genes of Trichophyton mentagrophytes are important for pathogenicity. Med Mycol 2014; 52:36-45. [PMID: 23859078 DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2013.811552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metalloproteases (Mep) of the M36 family are important virulence factors for the host invasion by the dermatophyte Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Dermatophytes secrete keratinase to degrade human and animal keratin and invade the skin. In previous studies, primers designed from the MEP gene sequences of Aspergillus fumigatus and A. oryzae were used to amplify the MEP genes from T. mentagrophytes, and the five MEP genes (MEP1-MEP5) were expressed. Differences in the expression of these five MEP genes in different dermatophytes were observed in an in vitro protein induction study, indicating their different functions and proteolytic abilities. However, specific pathogenic functions and mechanisms of each of the metalloproteases, as well as differences in their proteolytic activities, remain uncertain. In the current study, Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) was used to successfully transform five MEP genes, resulting in five MEP mutant strains. MEP3 showed strongest proteolytic activity, hair biodegradation ability, and animal pathogenicity among the mutant strains. The MEP4 and MEP5 mutants were the least pathogenic through the above tests. Therefore, we hypothesize that the MEP4 and MEP5 genes are most likely to significantly affect the pathogenicity of T. mentagrophytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinke Zhang
- Clinical Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
Owing to their small size and paucity of phenotypic characters, progress in the evolutionary biology of microbes in general, and human pathogenic fungi in particular, has been linked to a series of advances in DNA sequencing over the past quarter century. Phylogenetics was the first area to benefit, with the achievement of a basic understanding of fungal phylogeny. Population genetics was the next advance, finding cryptic species everywhere, and recombination in species previously thought to be asexual. Comparative genomics saw the next advance, in which variation in gene content and changes in gene family size were found to be important sources of variation. Fungal population genomics is showing that gene flow among closely related populations and species provides yet another source of adaptive, genetic variation. Now, two means to associate genetic variation with phenotypic variation, "reverse ecology" for adaptive phenotypes, and genome-wide association of any phenotype, are letting evolutionary biology make a profound contribution to molecular developmental biology of pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Taylor
- University of California, Berkeley, California 94720-3102
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Yamada Y, Maeda M, Alshahni MM, Monod M, Staib P, Yamada T. Flippase (FLP) recombinase-mediated marker recycling in the dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2014; 160:2122-2135. [PMID: 24996827 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.076562-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biological processes can be elucidated by investigating complex networks of relevant factors and genes. However, this is not possible in species for which dominant selectable markers for genetic studies are unavailable. To overcome the limitation in selectable markers for the dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii (anamorph: Trichophyton mentagrophytes), we adapted the flippase (FLP) recombinase-recombination target (FRT) site-specific recombination system from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a selectable marker recycling system for this fungus. Taking into account practical applicability, we designed FLP/FRT modules carrying two FRT sequences as well as the flp gene adapted to the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans (caflp) or a synthetic codon-optimized flp (avflp) gene with neomycin resistance (nptII) cassette for one-step marker excision. Both flp genes were under control of the Trichophyton rubrum copper-repressible promoter (PCTR4). Molecular analyses of resultant transformants showed that only the avflp-harbouring module was functional in A. vanbreuseghemii. Applying this system, we successfully produced the Ku80 recessive mutant strain devoid of any selectable markers. This strain was subsequently used as the recipient for sequential multiple disruptions of secreted metalloprotease (fungalysin) (MEP) or serine protease (SUB) genes, producing mutant strains with double MEP or triple SUB gene deletions. These results confirmed the feasibility of this system for broad-scale genetic manipulation of dermatophytes, advancing our understanding of functions and networks of individual genes in these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohko Yamada
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women's University, 2-8-1, Mejirodai, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-8681, Japan
| | - Mari Maeda
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, 359 Otsuka, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0395, Japan
| | - Mohamed Mahdi Alshahni
- Laboratory of Space and Environmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Teikyo University, 2-11-1, Kaga, Itabashi, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter Staib
- Research and Development, Kneipp GmbH, Winterhäuser Str. 85, 97084 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Tsuyoshi Yamada
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, 359 Otsuka, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0395, Japan
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Fernández D, Russi S, Vendrell J, Monod M, Pallarès I. A functional and structural study of the major metalloprotease secreted by the pathogenic fungusAspergillus fumigatus. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D: BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2013; 69:1946-57. [DOI: 10.1107/s0907444913017642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Fungalysins are secreted fungal peptidases with the ability to degrade the extracellular matrix proteins elastin and collagen and are thought to act as virulence factors in diseases caused by fungi. Fungalysins constitute a unique family among zinc-dependent peptidases that bears low sequence similarity to known bacterial peptidases of the thermolysin family. The crystal structure of the archetype of the fungalysin family,Aspergillus fumigatusmetalloprotease (AfuMep), has been obtained for the first time. The 1.8 Å resolution structure of AfuMep corresponds to that of an autoproteolyzed proenzyme with separate polypeptide chains corresponding to the N-terminal prodomain in a binary complex with the C-terminal zinc-bound catalytic domain. The prodomain consists of a tandem of cystatin-like folds whose C-terminal end is buried into the active-site cleft of the catalytic domain. The catalytic domain harbouring the key catalytic zinc ion and its ligands, two histidines and one glutamic acid, undergoes a conspicuous rearrangement of its N-terminal end during maturation. One key positively charged amino-acid residue and the C-terminal disulfide bridge appear to contribute to its structural–functional properties. Thus, structural, biophysical and biochemical analysis were combined to provide a deeper comprehension of the underlying properties ofA. fumigatusfungalysin, serving as a framework for the as yet poorly known metallopeptidases from pathogenic fungi.
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Purification and characterization of a keratinolytic serine protease from Purpureocillium lilacinum LPS # 876. Process Biochem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2013.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ueda M, Yamamoto N, Kusuda M, Nakazawa M, Takenaka S, Miyatake K, Ouchi K, Sakaguchi M, Inouye K. Purification and characterization of a new fungalysin-like metallopeptidase from the culture filtrate of a plant worm, Nomuraea atypicola. Process Biochem 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Băguţ ET, Baldo A, Mathy A, Cambier L, Antoine N, Cozma V, Mignon B. Subtilisin Sub3 is involved in adherence of Microsporum canis to human and animal epidermis. Vet Microbiol 2012; 160:413-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rosenblum EB, Poorten TJ, Joneson S, Settles M. Substrate-specific gene expression in Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, the chytrid pathogen of amphibians. PLoS One 2012. [PMID: 23185485 PMCID: PMC3502224 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Determining the mechanisms of host-pathogen interaction is critical for understanding and mitigating infectious disease. Mechanisms of fungal pathogenicity are of particular interest given the recent outbreaks of fungal diseases in wildlife populations. Our study focuses on Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the chytrid pathogen responsible for amphibian declines around the world. Previous studies have hypothesized a role for several specific families of secreted proteases as pathogenicity factors in Bd, but the expression of these genes has only been evaluated in laboratory growth conditions. Here we conduct a genome-wide study of Bd gene expression under two different nutrient conditions. We compare Bd gene expression profiles in standard laboratory growth media and in pulverized host tissue (i.e., frog skin). A large proportion of genes in the Bd genome show increased expression when grown in host tissue, indicating the importance of studying pathogens on host substrate. A number of gene classes show particularly high levels of expression in host tissue, including three families of secreted proteases (metallo-, serine- and aspartyl-proteases), adhesion genes, lipase-3 encoding genes, and a group of phylogenetically unusual crinkler-like effectors. We discuss the roles of these different genes as putative pathogenicity factors and discuss what they can teach us about Bd’s metabolic targets, host invasion, and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Environmental Science Policy and Management, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America.
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36
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Woodhams DC, Bell SC, Kenyon N, Alford RA, Rollins-Smith LA. Immune evasion or avoidance: fungal skin infection linked to reduced defence peptides in Australian green-eyed treefrogs, Litoria serrata. Fungal Biol 2012; 116:1203-11. [PMID: 23245614 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2012.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Revised: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/29/2012] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Many parasites and pathogens suppress host immunity to maintain infection or initiate disease. On the skin of many amphibians, defensive peptides are active against the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), the causative agent of the emerging infectious disease chytridiomycosis. We tested the hypothesis that infection with the fungus may be linked to lower levels of defensive peptides. We sampled both ambient (or constitutive) skin peptides on the ventral surface immediately upon capture, and stored skin peptides induced from granular glands by norepinephrine administration of Australian green-eyed treefrogs, Litoria serrata. Upon capture, uninfected frogs expressed an array of antimicrobial peptides on their ventral surface, whereas infected frogs had reduced skin peptide expression. Expression of ambient skin peptides differed with infection status, and antimicrobial peptides maculatin 1.1 and 2.1 were on average three times lower on infected frogs. However, the repertoire of skin peptides stored in granular glands did not differ with infection status; on average equal quantities were recovered from infected and from uninfected frogs. Our results could have at least two causes: (1) frogs with reduced peptide expression are more likely to become infected; (2) Bd infection interferes with defence peptides by inhibiting release or causing selective degradation of peptides on the skin surface. Immune evasion therefore may contribute to the pathogenesis of chytridiomycosis and a mechanistic understanding of this fungal strategy may lead to improved methods of disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas C Woodhams
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, N122 Ramaley, 334 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-0334, USA.
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Baldo A, Chevigné A, Dumez ME, Mathy A, Power P, Tabart J, Cambier L, Galleni M, Mignon B. Inhibition of the keratinolytic subtilisin protease Sub3 from Microsporum canis by its propeptide (proSub3) and evaluation of the capacity of proSub3 to inhibit fungal adherence to feline epidermis. Vet Microbiol 2012; 159:479-84. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2012] [Revised: 04/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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38
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Comparative genome analysis of Trichophyton rubrum and related dermatophytes reveals candidate genes involved in infection. mBio 2012; 3:e00259-12. [PMID: 22951933 PMCID: PMC3445971 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00259-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The major cause of athlete's foot is Trichophyton rubrum, a dermatophyte or fungal pathogen of human skin. To facilitate molecular analyses of the dermatophytes, we sequenced T. rubrum and four related species, Trichophyton tonsurans, Trichophyton equinum, Microsporum canis, and Microsporum gypseum. These species differ in host range, mating, and disease progression. The dermatophyte genomes are highly colinear yet contain gene family expansions not found in other human-associated fungi. Dermatophyte genomes are enriched for gene families containing the LysM domain, which binds chitin and potentially related carbohydrates. These LysM domains differ in sequence from those in other species in regions of the peptide that could affect substrate binding. The dermatophytes also encode novel sets of fungus-specific kinases with unknown specificity, including nonfunctional pseudokinases, which may inhibit phosphorylation by competing for kinase sites within substrates, acting as allosteric effectors, or acting as scaffolds for signaling. The dermatophytes are also enriched for a large number of enzymes that synthesize secondary metabolites, including dermatophyte-specific genes that could synthesize novel compounds. Finally, dermatophytes are enriched in several classes of proteases that are necessary for fungal growth and nutrient acquisition on keratinized tissues. Despite differences in mating ability, genes involved in mating and meiosis are conserved across species, suggesting the possibility of cryptic mating in species where it has not been previously detected. These genome analyses identify gene families that are important to our understanding of how dermatophytes cause chronic infections, how they interact with epithelial cells, and how they respond to the host immune response.
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Vargas WA, Martín JMS, Rech GE, Rivera LP, Benito EP, Díaz-Mínguez JM, Thon MR, Sukno SA. Plant defense mechanisms are activated during biotrophic and necrotrophic development of Colletotricum graminicola in maize. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2012; 158:1342-58. [PMID: 22247271 PMCID: PMC3291271 DOI: 10.1104/pp.111.190397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/11/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Hemibiotrophic plant pathogens first establish a biotrophic interaction with the host plant and later switch to a destructive necrotrophic lifestyle. Studies of biotrophic pathogens have shown that they actively suppress plant defenses after an initial microbe-associated molecular pattern-triggered activation. In contrast, studies of the hemibiotrophs suggest that they do not suppress plant defenses during the biotrophic phase, indicating that while there are similarities between the biotrophic phase of hemibiotrophs and biotrophic pathogens, the two lifestyles are not analogous. We performed transcriptomic, histological, and biochemical studies of the early events during the infection of maize (Zea mays) with Colletotrichum graminicola, a model pathosystem for the study of hemibiotrophy. Time-course experiments revealed that mRNAs of several defense-related genes, reactive oxygen species, and antimicrobial compounds all begin to accumulate early in the infection process and continue to accumulate during the biotrophic stage. We also discovered the production of maize-derived vesicular bodies containing hydrogen peroxide targeting the fungal hyphae. We describe the fungal respiratory burst during host infection, paralleled by superoxide ion production in specific fungal cells during the transition from biotrophy to a necrotrophic lifestyle. We also identified several novel putative fungal effectors and studied their expression during anthracnose development in maize. Our results demonstrate a strong induction of defense mechanisms occurring in maize cells during C. graminicola infection, even during the biotrophic development of the pathogen. We hypothesize that the switch to necrotrophic growth enables the fungus to evade the effects of the plant immune system and allows for full fungal pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter A. Vargas
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - José M. Sanz Martín
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Gabriel E. Rech
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Lina P. Rivera
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Ernesto P. Benito
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - José M. Díaz-Mínguez
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Michael R. Thon
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
| | - Serenella A. Sukno
- Centro Hispanoluso de Investigaciones Agrarias, Department of Microbiology and Genetics, University of Salamanca, 37185 Villamayor, Spain
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Moallaei H, Zaini F, Rezaei S, Bouchara JP, Larcher G. Purification and characterization of a 33 kDa extracellular proteinase from Microsporum cookei. J Mycol Med 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2011.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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41
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Joneson S, Stajich JE, Shiu SH, Rosenblum EB. Genomic transition to pathogenicity in chytrid fungi. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7:e1002338. [PMID: 22072962 PMCID: PMC3207900 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the molecular mechanisms of pathogen emergence is central to mitigating the impacts of novel infectious disease agents. The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is an emerging pathogen of amphibians that has been implicated in amphibian declines worldwide. Bd is the only member of its clade known to attack vertebrates. However, little is known about the molecular determinants of - or evolutionary transition to - pathogenicity in Bd. Here we sequence the genome of Bd's closest known relative - a non-pathogenic chytrid Homolaphlyctis polyrhiza (Hp). We first describe the genome of Hp, which is comparable to other chytrid genomes in size and number of predicted proteins. We then compare the genomes of Hp, Bd, and 19 additional fungal genomes to identify unique or recent evolutionary elements in the Bd genome. We identified 1,974 Bd-specific genes, a gene set that is enriched for protease, lipase, and microbial effector Gene Ontology terms. We describe significant lineage-specific expansions in three Bd protease families (metallo-, serine-type, and aspartyl proteases). We show that these protease gene family expansions occurred after the divergence of Bd and Hp from their common ancestor and thus are localized to the Bd branch. Finally, we demonstrate that the timing of the protease gene family expansions predates the emergence of Bd as a globally important amphibian pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Joneson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, United States of America
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Shin-Han Shiu
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, United States of America
| | - Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, United States of America
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Sriranganadane D, Waridel P, Salamin K, Feuermann M, Mignon B, Staib P, Neuhaus JM, Quadroni M, Monod M. Identification of novel secreted proteases during extracellular proteolysis by dermatophytes at acidic pH. Proteomics 2011; 11:4422-33. [PMID: 21919205 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201100234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The dermatophytes are a group of closely related fungi which are responsible for the great majority of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. Among various potential virulence factors, their secreted proteolytic activity attracts a lot of attention. Most dermatophyte-secreted proteases which have so far been isolated in vitro are neutral or alkaline enzymes. However, inspection of the recently decoded dermatophyte genomes revealed many other hypothetical secreted proteases, in particular acidic proteases similar to those characterized in Aspergillus spp. The validation of such genome predictions instigated the present study on two dermatophyte species, Microsporum canis and Arthroderma benhamiae. Both fungi were found to grow well in a protein medium at acidic pH, accompanied by extracellular proteolysis. Shotgun MS analysis of secreted protein revealed fundamentally different protease profiles during fungal growth in acidic versus neutral pH conditions. Most notably, novel dermatophyte-secreted proteases were identified at acidic pH such as pepsins, sedolisins and acidic carboxypeptidases. Therefore, our results not only support genome predictions, but demonstrate for the first time the secretion of acidic proteases by dermatophytes. Our findings also suggest the existence of different pathways of protein degradation into amino acids and short peptides in these highly specialized pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Sriranganadane
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Dermatomycosis: Conditions that contribute to the disease development. ZBORNIK MATICE SRPSKE ZA PRIRODNE NAUKE 2011. [DOI: 10.2298/zmspn1120231s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Skin lesions caused by dermatophytes are classified depending on the infected
skin structure: surface layer of cutis, fur layer, clutches or nails. Surface
mycoses are caused by dermatophytes: Epidermophyton, Microsporum and
Trichophyton species (also important are Malassezia spp., Candida spp., and
Trichosporon). Skin is the target tissue for fungal infections if the
epithelial layer is damaged and immune system cannot cope with the infection,
or if the conditions are favorable for dermatophytes, which spread in the
cutis due to the enzyme activities. Dermatophytes can be found on skin
surface if they contaminate or colonize epidermis or hair follicles. However,
clinical symptoms of lesion on the skin are sometimes absent. According to
the literature data 6-9% of skin lesions are caused by dermatophyte in human
medicine. Similar situation is in veterinary medicine. Fungus that cause
dermatomycosis are widespread in the nature and could be divided into:
zoophilic, geophilic and anthrophilic. The goal of this paper is to present
the latest knowledge in pathogenesis on dermatomycosis, predisposing factors
important for the outcome of the disease, and immunological reaction of
organism to the fungal infection. Our intention is to summarize the subject
and present the facts related to specific problems in dermatomycosis.
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Sriranganadane D, Waridel P, Salamin K, Reichard U, Grouzmann E, Neuhaus JM, Quadroni M, Monod M. Aspergillus protein degradation pathways with different secreted protease sets at neutral and acidic pH. J Proteome Res 2010; 9:3511-9. [PMID: 20486678 DOI: 10.1021/pr901202z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus grows well at neutral and acidic pH in a medium containing protein as the sole nitrogen source by secreting two different sets of proteases. Neutral pH favors the secretion of neutral and alkaline endoproteases, leucine aminopeptidases (Laps) which are nonspecific monoaminopeptidases, and an X-prolyl dipeptidase (DppIV). Acidic pH environment promotes the secretion of an aspartic endoprotease of pepsin family (Pep1) and tripeptidyl-peptidases of the sedolisin family (SedB and SedD). A novel prolyl peptidase, AfuS28, was found to be secreted in both alkaline and acidic conditions. In previous studies, Laps were shown to degrade peptides from their N-terminus until an X-Pro sequence acts as a stop signal. X-Pro sequences can be then removed by DppIV, which allows Laps access to the following residues. We have shown that at acidic pH Seds degrade large peptides from their N-terminus into tripeptides until Pro in P1 or P'1 position acts as a stop for these exopeptidases. However, X-X-Pro and X-X-X-Pro sequences can be removed by AfuS28 thus allowing Seds further sequential proteolysis. In conclusion, both alkaline and acidic sets of proteases contain exoprotease activity capable of cleaving after proline residues that cannot be removed during sequential digestion by nonspecific exopeptidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Sriranganadane
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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45
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Preuett BL, Schuenemann E, Brown JT, Kovac ME, Krishnan SK, Abdel-Rahman SM. Comparative analysis of secreted enzymes between the anthropophilic-zoophilic sister species Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton equinum. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:429-37. [PMID: 20943153 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton tonsurans (TT) and Trichophyton equinum (TE) are two closely related dermatophytes with very different host preferences. This study was designed to examine the genetic and transcript level variations of secreted enzymes between TT and TE. Thirty-one genes representing 10 gene families were selected for comparison and complete genomic and cDNA sequences were elucidated. Sequence analyses of the selected genes identified 104 polymorphisms between the two dermatophytes, 37 of which are expected to encode changes in their polypeptide sequence. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to examine the differences in levels of transcript between TT and TE grown over 14d in aqueous keratin medium. Differences in transcript expression between TT and TE were gene specific and ranged from 1.1-fold to 33-fold. Intra-specific variability across all genes ranged from 41% to 250%. Despite their overall genetic similarity, TT and TE exhibit a moderate degree of variability in the genomic make-up of their secreted enzymes and the extent to which they are transcribed when grown in an aqueous keratin medium. Such differences may contribute to how these genetically similar organisms have adapted to infect divergent host organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry L Preuett
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical Toxicology, The Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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46
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Leng W, Liu T, Wang J, Li R, Jin Q. Expression dynamics of secreted protease genes in Trichophyton rubrum induced by key host's proteinaceous components. Med Mycol 2010; 47:759-65. [PMID: 19888809 DOI: 10.3109/13693780802524522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common agent of dermatophytosis, a disease that affects millions of individuals worldwide. Its molecular pathogenicity mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. It has been widely recognized that proteases secreted by T. rubrum are the key virulence factors during host infection. However, our knowledge about the expression of its secreted proteases in host infection is still obscure. This investigation provides the expression patterns and dynamics of secreted protease genes belonging to the subtilisins (SUB) and metalloproteases (MEP) gene families in T. rubrum. The data was obtained under simulated host infection conditions through relative quantification of real time PCR. Keratin, collagen, and elastin induced the expression of similar protease genes, and the expression patterns and dynamics of these protease genes in media containing human skin sections were different from those in media containing individual protein substrates. According to the expression dynamics of these protease genes, we conclude that Sub3, Sub4, and Mep4 may be the dominant proteases secreted by T. rubrum during host infection, and that these proteases could be good targets for new antifungal chemotherapy and molecular diagnostic markers. This work presents useful molecular details to further our understanding of the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchuan Leng
- State Key Laboratory for Molecular Virology and Genetic Engineering, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing, PR China
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47
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Abstract
Metalloproteases comprise a heterogeneous group of proteolytic enzymes whose main characteristic is the utilization of a metal ion to polarize a water molecule and perform hydrolytic reactions. These enzymes represent the most densely populated catalytic class of proteases in many organisms and play essential roles in multiple biological processes. In this chapter, we will first present a general description of the complexity of metalloproteases in the context of the degradome, which is defined as the complete set of protease genes encoded by the genome of a certain organism. We will also discuss the functional relevance of these enzymes in a large variety of biological and pathological conditions. Finally, we will analyze in more detail three families of metalloproteases: ADAMs (a disintegrin and metalloproteinase), ADAMTSs (ADAMs with thrombospondin domains), and MMPs (matrix metalloproteinases) which have a growing relevance in a number of human pathologies including cancer, arthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro P Ugalde
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
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48
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Chen J, Yi J, Liu L, Yin S, Chen R, Li M, Ye C, Zhang YQ, Lai W. Substrate adaptation of Trichophyton rubrum secreted endoproteases. Microb Pathog 2009; 48:57-61. [PMID: 20005286 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common pathogen caused the dermatophytosis of nail and skin in human. The secreted proteases were considered to be the most important virulence factors. However, the substrates adaptation of T. rubrum secreted proteases is largely unknown. For the first time, we use the keratins from human nail and skin stratum corneum as the growth medium to investigate the different expression patterns of T. rubrum secreted endoproteases genes. During grow in both keratin-containing media SUB7 and MEP2 were the highest expressed gene in each family. These results indicated that SUB7 and MEP2 may be the dominant endoproteases secreted by T. rubrum during host infection and the other proteases may play a supplementary role. The direct comparison of T. rubrum grown on skin and nail medium showed different substrate favorite of secreted endoproteases. The genes MEP2, SUB5, SUB2 and SUB3 were more active during growth in skin medium, possibly these proteases have a higher affinity for skin original keratins. While the structures of SUB1, SUB4, and MEP4 maybe more suitable for the degradation of nail original keratins. This work presents useful molecular details for further understanding the pathogenesis of secreted proteases and the wide adaptation of T. rubrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 600 TianHe Road, TianHe District, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.
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49
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Baldo A, Mathy A, Tabart J, Camponova P, Vermout S, Massart L, Maréchal F, Galleni M, Mignon B. Secreted subtilisin Sub3 from Microsporum canis
is required for adherence to but not for invasion of the epidermis. Br J Dermatol 2009; 162:990-7. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2009.09608.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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50
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Staib P, Zaugg C, Mignon B, Weber J, Grumbt M, Pradervand S, Harshman K, Monod M. Differential gene expression in the pathogenic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae in vitro versus during infection. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 156:884-895. [PMID: 19942661 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.033464-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although dermatophytes are the most common agents of superficial mycoses in humans and animals, the molecular basis of the pathogenicity of these fungi is largely unknown. In vitro digestion of keratin by dermatophytes is associated with the secretion of multiple proteases, which are assumed to be responsible for their particular specialization to colonize and degrade keratinized host structures during infection. To investigate the role of individual secreted proteases in dermatophytosis, a guinea pig infection model was established for the zoophilic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae, which causes highly inflammatory cutaneous infections in humans and rodents. By use of a cDNA microarray covering approximately 20-25 % of the A. benhamiae genome and containing sequences of at least 23 protease genes, we revealed a distinct in vivo protease gene expression profile in the fungal cells, which was surprisingly different from the pattern elicited during in vitro growth on keratin. Instead of the major in vitro -expressed proteases, others were activated specifically during infection. These enzymes are therefore suggested to fulfil important functions that are not exclusively associated with the degradation of keratin. Most notably, the gene encoding the serine protease subtilisin 6, which is a known major allergen in the related dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum and putatively linked to host inflammation, was found to be the most strongly upregulated gene during infection. In addition, our approach identified other candidate pathogenicity-related factors in A. benhamiae, such as genes encoding key enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle and an opsin-related protein. Our work provides what we believe to be the first broad-scale gene expression profile in human pathogenic dermatophytes during infection, and points to putative virulence-associated mechanisms that make these micro-organisms the most successful aetiological agents of superficial mycoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Staib
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Junior Research Group Fundamental Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Beutenbergstr. 11a, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christophe Zaugg
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard Mignon
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-43 Sart-Tilman, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Johann Weber
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maria Grumbt
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Junior Research Group Fundamental Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Beutenbergstr. 11a, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sylvain Pradervand
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Keith Harshman
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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