Regulation of the subcellular distribution of key cellular RNA-processing factors during permissive human cytomegalovirus infection

Serine-arginine protein kinases and their targets in viral infection and their inhibition

Accumulating evidence has consolidated the interaction between viral infection and host alternative splicing. Serine-arginine (SR) proteins are a class of highly conserved splicing factors critical for the spliceosome maturation, alternative splicing and RNA metabolism. Serine-arginine protein kinases (SRPKs) are important kinases that specifically phosphorylate SR proteins to regulate their distribution and activities in the central pre-mRNA splicing and other cellular processes. In addition to the predominant SR proteins, other cytoplasmic proteins containing a serine-arginine repeat domain, including viral proteins, have been identified as substrates of SRPKs. Viral infection triggers a myriad of cellular events in the host and it is therefore not surprising that viruses explore SRPKs-mediated phosphorylation as an important regulatory node in virus-host interactions. In this review, we briefly summarize the regulation and biological function of SRPKs, highlighting their involvement in the infection process of several viruses, such as viral replication, transcription and capsid assembly. In addition, we review the structure-function relationships of currently available inhibitors of SRPKs and discuss their putative use as antivirals against well-characterized viruses or newly emerging viruses. We also highlight the viral proteins and cellular substrates targeted by SRPKs as potential antiviral therapeutic candidates.

Host protein kinases required for SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid phosphorylation and viral replication

Multiple coronaviruses have emerged independently in the past 20 years that cause lethal human diseases. Although vaccine development targeting these viruses has been accelerated substantially, there remain patients requiring treatment who cannot be vaccinated or who experience breakthrough infections. Understanding the common host factors necessary for the life cycles of coronaviruses may reveal conserved therapeutic targets. Here, we used the known substrate specificities of mammalian protein kinases to deconvolute the sequence of phosphorylation events mediated by three host protein kinase families (SRPK, GSK-3, and CK1) that coordinately phosphorylate a cluster of serine and threonine residues in the viral N protein, which is required for viral replication. We also showed that loss or inhibition of SRPK1/2, which we propose initiates the N protein phosphorylation cascade, compromised the viral replication cycle. Because these phosphorylation sites are highly conserved across coronaviruses, inhibitors of these protein kinases not only may have therapeutic potential against COVID-19 but also may be broadly useful against coronavirus-mediated diseases.

Host proviral and antiviral factors for SARS-CoV-2

Throughout the viral life cycle, interplays between cellular host factors and virus determine the infectious capacity of the virus. The pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) poses a great threat to human life and health. Extensive studies identified a number of host proviral and antiviral factors for SARS-CoV-2. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and cellular factors during virus entry and replication. Our review will highlight the future direction of study on the infection and pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2, as well as novel therapeutic strategies and effective antiviral targets for COVID-19.

Interplay Between CMGC Kinases Targeting SR Proteins and Viral Replication: Splicing and Beyond

Protein phosphorylation constitutes a major post-translational modification that critically regulates the half-life, intra-cellular distribution, and activity of proteins. Among the large number of kinases that compose the human kinome tree, those targeting RNA-binding proteins, in particular serine/arginine-rich (SR) proteins, play a major role in the regulation of gene expression by controlling constitutive and alternative splicing. In humans, these kinases belong to the CMGC [Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), Glycogen synthase kinases (GSKs), and Cdc2-like kinases (CLKs)] group and several studies indicate that they also control viral replication via direct or indirect mechanisms. The aim of this review is to describe known and emerging activities of CMGC kinases that share the common property to phosphorylate SR proteins, as well as their interplay with different families of viruses, in order to advance toward a comprehensive knowledge of their pro- or anti-viral phenotype and better assess possible translational opportunities.

The FDA-approved drug Alectinib compromises SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid phosphorylation and inhibits viral infection in vitro

While vaccines are vital for preventing COVID-19 infections, it is critical to develop new therapies to treat patients who become infected. Pharmacological targeting of a host factor required for viral replication can suppress viral spread with a low probability of viral mutation leading to resistance. In particular, host kinases are highly druggable targets and a number of conserved coronavirus proteins, notably the nucleoprotein (N), require phosphorylation for full functionality. In order to understand how targeting kinases could be used to compromise viral replication, we used a combination of phosphoproteomics and bioinformatics as well as genetic and pharmacological kinase inhibition to define the enzymes important for SARS-CoV-2 N protein phosphorylation and viral replication. From these data, we propose a model whereby SRPK1/2 initiates phosphorylation of the N protein, which primes for further phosphorylation by GSK-3a/b and CK1 to achieve extensive phosphorylation of the N protein SR-rich domain. Importantly, we were able to leverage our data to identify an FDA-approved kinase inhibitor, Alectinib, that suppresses N phosphorylation by SRPK1/2 and limits SARS-CoV-2 replication. Together, these data suggest that repurposing or developing novel host-kinase directed therapies may be an efficacious strategy to prevent or treat COVID-19 and other coronavirus-mediated diseases.

The structural basis of CstF-77 modulation of cleavage and polyadenylation through stimulation of CstF-64 activity

Cleavage and polyadenylation (C/P) of mRNA is an important cellular process that promotes increased diversity of mRNA isoforms and could change their stability in different cell types. The cleavage stimulation factor (CstF) complex, part of the C/P machinery, binds to U- and GU-rich sequences located downstream from the cleavage site through its RNA-binding subunit, CstF-64. Less is known about the function of the other two subunits of CstF, CstF-77 and CstF-50. Here, we show that the carboxy-terminus of CstF-77 plays a previously unrecognized role in enhancing C/P by altering how the RNA recognition motif (RRM) of CstF-64 binds RNA. In support of this finding, we also show that CstF-64 relies on CstF-77 to be transported to the nucleus; excess CstF-64 localizes to the cytoplasm, possibly via interaction with cytoplasmic RNAs. Reverse genetics and nuclear magnetic resonance studies of recombinant CstF-64 (RRM-Hinge) and CstF-77 (monkeytail-carboxy-terminal domain) indicate that the last 30 amino acids of CstF-77 increases the stability of the RRM, thus altering the affinity of the complex for RNA. These results provide new insights into the mechanism by which CstF regulates the location of the RNA cleavage site during C/P.

Two Polypyrimidine Tracts in Intron 4 of the Major Immediate Early Gene Are Critical for Gene Expression Switching from IE1 to IE2 and for Replication of Human Cytomegalovirus

The human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) major immediate early (MIE) gene is essential for viral replication. The most abundant products encoded by the MIE gene include IE1 and IE2. Genes of IE1 and IE2 share the MIE promoter (MIEP), the first 3 exons, and the first 2 introns. IE1 is expressed earlier than IE2 after CMV infection or MIE gene transfection. In this study, we identified 2 polypyrimidine (Py) tracts in intron 4 (between exons 4 and 5) that are responsible for transcriptional switching from IE1 to IE2. The first Py is important and the second one is essential for the splicing and expression of IE2. In searching for the mechanisms of MIE gene switching from IE1 to IE2, we found that the second Py was required for the IE2's fourth intron to bind to a splicing factor such as U2AF65, as determined by an RNA electrophoretic mobility shift assay and a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay, while the first Py enhanced the binding of U2AF65 with the intron. An HCMV BACmid with the second Py mutated failed to produce any virus, while the HCMV with the first Py mutated replicated with a defective phenotype. Furthermore, we designed a small RNA (scRNAPy) that is complementary to the intron RNA covering the two Pys. The scRNAPy interfered with the interaction of U2AF65 with the intron and repressed the IE2 expression. Therefore, our studies implied that IE2 gene splicing might be an anti-CMV target.

IMPORTANCE

CMV is a ubiquitous herpesvirus and a significant cause of disease and death in the immunocompromised and elderly. Insights into its gene regulation will provide clues in designing anti-CMV strategies. The MIE gene is one of the earliest genes of CMV and is essential for CMV replication. It is known that the MIE gene needs to be spliced to produce more than two proteins; however, how MIE gene splicing is regulated remains elusive. In the present studies, we identified two Pys in intron 4 and found that the first Py is important and the second is required for the splicing and expression of IE2. We further investigated the mechanisms of gene switching from IE1 to IE2 and found that the two Pys are responsible for U2AF65's binding with intron 4. Therefore, the Pys in intron 4 are the cis elements that determine the fate of IE2 splicing. Furthermore, we found that a small RNA that is complementary to intron 4 repressed IE2 expression. Hence, we provide the first piece of evidence for a unique mechanism of MIE gene regulation at the splicing level.

Viral and cellular subnuclear structures in human cytomegalovirus-infected cells

In human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-infected cells, a dramatic remodelling of the nuclear architecture is linked to the creation, utilization and manipulation of subnuclear structures. This review outlines the involvement of several viral and cellular subnuclear structures in areas of HCMV replication and virus-host interaction that include viral transcription, viral DNA synthesis and the production of DNA-filled viral capsids. The structures discussed include those that promote or impede HCMV replication (such as viral replication compartments and promyelocytic leukaemia nuclear bodies, respectively) and those whose role in the infected cell is unclear (for example, nucleoli and nuclear speckles). Viral and cellular proteins associated with subnuclear structures are also discussed. The data reviewed here highlight advances in our understanding of HCMV biology and emphasize the complexity of HCMV replication and virus-host interactions in the nucleus.

Polypyrimidine tract-binding protein homologues from Arabidopsis underlie regulatory circuits based on alternative splicing and downstream control

Alternative splicing (AS) of precursor mRNAs is a widespread phenomenon in plants; however, many questions, especially regarding its regulation and functional implications, remain to be elucidated. In vertebrates, polypyrimidine tract-binding proteins (PTBs) have been identified as key splicing factors influencing splice site selection and orchestrating coordinated splicing programmes during developmental processes. Here, we analysed three PTB homologues from Arabidopsis thaliana and provide evidence for their gene regulatory potential based on AS and a splicing-independent mechanism. Our data reveal that Arabidopsis PTB homologues are subject to extensive auto- and cross-regulation via AS-coupled nonsense-mediated decay, thereby establishing a basis for interlinking their expression. Furthermore, the multiple modes of action of Arabidopsis PTB homologues are reflected in their subcellular localization in the nucleus, cytosol and processing bodies. This work provides insight into the regulation of AS in plants and highlights the regulatory potential of the multifunctional plant PTB homologues, which might have important implications in diverse biological processes.

Stress-inducible alternative translation initiation of human cytomegalovirus latency protein pUL138

We have previously characterized a 21-kDa protein encoded by UL138 (pUL138) as a viral factor inherent to low-passage strains of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) that is required for latent infection in vitro. pUL138 is encoded on 3.6-, 2.7-, and 1.4-kb 3' coterminal transcripts that are produced during productive and latent infections. pUL138 is encoded at the 3' end of each transcript and is preceded by an extensive 5' sequence (approximately 0.5 to 2.5 kb) containing several putative open reading frames (ORFs). We determined that three putative ORFs upstream of UL138 (UL133, UL135, and UL136) encode proteins. The UL138 transcripts are polycistronic, such that each transcript expresses pUL138 in addition to the most-5' ORF. The upstream coding sequences (CDS) present a significant challenge for the translation of pUL138 in mammalian cells. We hypothesized that sequences 5' of UL138 mediate translation initiation of pUL138 by alternative strategies. Accordingly, a 663-nucloetide (nt) sequence overlapping the UL136 CDS supported expression of a downstream cistron in a bicistronic reporter system. We did not detect cryptic promoter activity or RNA splicing events that could account for downstream cistron expression. These data are consistent with the sequence element functioning as an internal ribosome entry site (IRES). Interestingly, pUL138 expression from the 3.6- and 2.7-kb transcripts was induced by serum stress, which concomitantly inhibited normal cap-dependent translation. Our work suggests that an alternative and stress-inducible strategy of translation initiation ensures expression of pUL138 under a variety of cellular contexts. The UL138 polycistronic transcripts serve to coordinate the expression of multiple proteins, including a viral determinant of HCMV latency.