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Lu J, Long Y, Sun J, Gong L. Towards a comprehensive view of the herpes B virus. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1281384. [PMID: 38035092 PMCID: PMC10687423 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1281384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Herpes B virus is a biosafety level 4 pathogen and widespread in its natural host species, macaques. Although most infected monkeys show asymptomatic or mild symptoms, human infections with this virus can cause serious neurological symptoms or fatal encephalomyelitis with a high mortality rate. Herpes B virus can be latent in the sensory ganglia of monkeys and humans, often leading to missed diagnoses. Furthermore, the herpes B virus has extensive antigen crossover with HSV, SA8, and HVP-2, causing false-positive results frequently. Timely diagnosis, along with methods with sensitivity and specificity, are urgent for research on the herpes B virus. The lack of a clear understanding of the host invasion and life cycle of the herpes B virus has led to slow progress in the development of effective vaccines and drugs. This review discusses the research progress and problems of the epidemiology of herpes B virus, detection methods and therapy, hoping to inspire further investigation into important factors associated with transmission of herpes B virus in macaques and humans, and arouse the development of effective vaccines or drugs, to promote the establishment of specific pathogen-free (SPF) monkeys and protect humans to effectively avoid herpes B virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangling Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, China
| | - Yiru Long
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhua Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, China
| | - Likun Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- Zhongshan Institute for Drug Discovery, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Zhongshan, China
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2
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Yee JL, Grant R, Haertel AJ, Allers C, Carpenter AB, Van Rompay KKA, Roberts JA. Multi-site proficiency testing for validation and standardization of assays to detect specific pathogen-free viruses, coronaviruses, and other agents in nonhuman primates. J Med Primatol 2022; 51:234-245. [PMID: 35426147 PMCID: PMC9851150 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
In efforts to increase rigor and reproducibility, the USA National Primate Research Centers (NPRCs) have focused on qualification of reagents, cross-laboratory validations, and proficiency testing for methods to detect infectious agents and accompanying immune responses in nonhuman primates. The pathogen detection working group, comprised of laboratory scientists, colony managers, and leaders from the NPRCs, has championed the effort to produce testing that is reliable and consistent across laboratories. Through multi-year efforts with shared proficiency samples, testing percent agreement has increased from as low as 67.1% for SRV testing in 2010 to 92.1% in 2019. The 2019 average agreement for the four basic SPF agents improved to >96% (86.5% BV, 98.9 SIV, 92.1 SRV, and 97.0 STLV). As new pathogens such as SARS coronavirus type 2 emerge, these steps can now be quickly replicated to develop and implement new assays that ensure rigor, reproducibly, and quality for NHP pathogen detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn L. Yee
- Primate Assay Laboratory, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Richard Grant
- Primate Pathogen Detection Services Laboratory, Washington National Primate Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Andrew J. Haertel
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health Science University, Beaverton, OR
| | - Carolina Allers
- Pathogen Detection and Quantification Core, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA
| | - Amanda B. Carpenter
- Primate Assay Laboratory, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA
| | - Koen K. A. Van Rompay
- Primate Assay Laboratory, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA,Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis , CA
| | - Jeffrey A. Roberts
- Primate Assay Laboratory, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA,Department of Medicine & Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA
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3
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Roark HK, Jenks JA, Permar SR, Schleiss MR. Animal Models of Congenital Cytomegalovirus Transmission: Implications for Vaccine Development. J Infect Dis 2020; 221:S60-S73. [PMID: 32134481 PMCID: PMC7057791 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although cytomegaloviruses (CMVs) are species-specific, the study of nonhuman CMVs in animal models can help to inform and direct research aimed at developing a human CMV (HCMV) vaccine. Because the driving force behind the development of HCMV vaccines is to prevent congenital infection, the animal model in question must be one in which vertical transmission of virus occurs to the fetus. Fortunately, two such animal models-the rhesus macaque CMV and guinea pig CMV-are characterized by congenital infection. Hence, each model can be evaluated in "proof-of-concept" studies of preconception vaccination aimed at blocking transplacental transmission. This review focuses on similarities and differences in the respective model systems, and it discusses key insights from each model germane to the study of HCMV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter K Roark
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Jennifer A Jenks
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Sallie R Permar
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Mark R Schleiss
- Center for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Translational Research, University of Minnesota Medical School, Department of Pediatrics, Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Maxwell LK, Black DH, Wright GE, Breshears MA, Eberle R. Effective Prophylactic Therapy for Exposure to Monkey B Virus ( Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1). Comp Med 2019; 70:56-66. [PMID: 31810502 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-18-000134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Zoonotic monkey B virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1; BV) infections are extremely serious and usually fatal. Drugs currently used for treatment were developed for the treatment of herpes simplex virus but are less effective against BV. Effective suppression of viral replication in the skin could prevent the virus from invading the nervous system. To test this hypothesis, the efficacy of topical administration of several drugs against lethal BV infection was evaluated in female BALB/c mice that were infected by scarification. Drugs were then applied to the site of inoculation. As 3% preparations, most drugs were only minimally effective or ineffective. In contrast, ganciclovir and cidofovir were very effective. The ED50 for cidofovir was 0.007%, compared with 1.1% for ganciclovir. At 0.5%, cidofovir protected against both death and neurologic signs, whereas 5% ganciclovir only protected against death but not neurologic involvement. All genotypes of BV were equally susceptible to cidofovir and ganciclovir. For maximal effectiveness, treatment with both cidofovir and ganciclovir had to be initiated within 8 h of infection. Cidofovir was completely protective when administered only on the day of infection, whereas a minimum of 5 d of treatment was required for maximal ganciclovir efficacy. These studies showed that topical cidofovir treatment started soon after BV exposure was very effective in preventing BV from invading the nervous system, whereas ganciclovir treatment was only partially effective. In addition, cidofovir was protective against a ganciclovir-resistant BV mutant, whereas ganciclovir was not. These studies showed that topical cidofovir treatment started soon after BV exposure is more effective than ganciclovir in preventing BV from invading the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lara K Maxwell
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma;,
| | - Darla H Black
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
| | | | - Melanie A Breshears
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
| | - Richard Eberle
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
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Hotop SK, Abd El Wahed A, Beutling U, Czerny F, Sievers C, Diederichsen U, Frank R, Stahl-Hennig C, Brönstrup M, Fritz HJ. Serological Analysis of Herpes B Virus at Individual Epitope Resolution: From Two-Dimensional Peptide Arrays to Multiplex Bead Flow Assays. Anal Chem 2019; 91:11030-11037. [PMID: 31365232 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Macacine herpesvirus or B Virus (BV) is a zoonotic agent that leads to high mortality rates in humans if transmitted and untreated. Here, BV is used as a test case to establish a two-step procedure for developing high throughput serological assays based on synthetic peptides. In step 1, peptide microarray analysis of 42 monkey sera (30 of them tested BV positive by ELISA) revealed 1148 responses against 369 different peptides. The latter could be grouped into 142 different antibody target regions (ATRs) in six different glycoproteins (gB, gC, gD, gG, gH, and gL) of BV. The high number of newly detected ATRs was made possible inter alia by a new preanalytical protocol that reduced unspecific binding of serum components to the cellulose-based matrix of the microarray. In step 2, soluble peptides corresponding to eight ATRs of particularly high antigenicity were synthesized and coupled to fluorescently labeled beads, which were subsequently employed in immunochemical bead flow assays. Their outcome mirrored the ELISA results used as reference. Hence, convenient, fast, and economical screening of arbitrarily large macaque colonies for BV infection is now possible. The study demonstrates that a technology platform switch from two-dimensional high-resolution peptide arrays used for epitope discovery to a readily available bead array platform for serology applications is feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sven-Kevin Hotop
- Department of Chemical Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , 38124 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Ahmed Abd El Wahed
- Division of Microbiology and Animal Hygiene , Georg-August-University , 37077 Göttingen , Germany
| | - Ulrike Beutling
- Department of Chemical Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , 38124 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Florian Czerny
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry , Georg-August-University , 37077 Göttingen , Germany
| | - Claudia Sievers
- Department for Epidemiology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research , 38124 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Ulf Diederichsen
- Institute of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry , Georg-August-University , 37077 Göttingen , Germany
| | - Ronald Frank
- AIMS Scientific Products GmbH , 13187 Berlin , Germany
| | | | - Mark Brönstrup
- Department of Chemical Biology , Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) , 38124 Braunschweig , Germany
| | - Hans-Joachim Fritz
- Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen , Theaterstr. 7 , 37073 Göttingen , Germany
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Willis EL, Stevens TL, White GL, Mcfarlane D. Characterization of Baboon Cytomegalovirus Infection in Healthy Adult Baboons ( Papio anubis). Comp Med 2019; 69:55-62. [PMID: 30704552 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-18-000050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common chronic herpesvirus found in humans and numerous other mammalian species. In people, chronic viruses like CMV can alter overall health and immunity and pose a serious risk for those with an inadequate immune system. In addition, CMV plays an important role in animal health, and could affect the health of vulnerable populations, like endangered species. Previous studies found a high rate of CMV seropositivity among adult baboons (Papio anubis), and results from our laboratory revealed that baboon CMV (BaCMV) seropositivity was correlated with altered immune cell populations. In the current study, we further characterized BaCMV infection in normal, adult baboons. Analysis of blood samples from baboons (age, 6 to 26 y) revealed a low overall prevalence of detectable of BaCMV DNA, with a higher detection rate in aged baboons (older than 15 y). Furthermore, data suggest that individual baboons maintain similar rates of recurrence and levels of BaCMV shedding in saliva over time. Finally, we evaluated multiple commercially available assays for antihuman CMV IgG and IgM for use with baboon sera. Results of this study will improve our understanding of BaCMV and may be directly relevant to other closely related species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin L Willis
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma
| | - Taylor L Stevens
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
| | - Gary L White
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Primate Consulting, Edmond, Oklahoma
| | - Dianne Mcfarlane
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma;,
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Kaur A, Itell HL, Ehlinger EP, Varner V, Gantt S, Permar SR. Natural history of postnatal rhesus cytomegalovirus shedding by dams and acquisition by infant rhesus monkeys. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206330. [PMID: 30356332 PMCID: PMC6200253 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human infants frequently acquire human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) through breastfeeding, resulting in persistent high-level viral shedding in saliva and urine and infectivity to others, including pregnant women. Thus, vaccination to interrupt postnatal HCMV transmission is an attractive strategy to prevent HCMV spread and congenital infection. Rhesus CMV (RhCMV) in nonhuman primates is a valuable model for the study of immune strategies to prevent CMV transmission. Although rhesus monkeys typically acquire RhCMV before 1 year of age, the timing and mode of natural infant RhCMV transmission remain unknown. METHODS We followed 5 RhCMV-seropositive dams and their infants from birth until weaning, approximately 6 months later. RhCMV DNA levels in plasma, breast milk, saliva, and urine were measured every 2 weeks by quantitative PCR. RhCMV-specific T cell responses in peripheral blood and breast milk were measured by interferon gamma ELISpot assays. Serum IgG antibody levels were measured by ELISA. RESULTS Four of five postpartum RhCMV-seropositive mothers had intermittent, low-level RhCMV shedding in breast milk, whereas all had high-magnitude RhCMV shedding in saliva and urine. The kinetics of maternal blood RhCMV-specific T cell responses and viral shedding in urine and saliva did not strongly associate, though dams with consistently high systemic RhCMV-specific T cell responses tended to have undetectable RhCMV shedding in breast milk. All RhCMV-exposed infants had intermittent, low-level RhCMV shedding in saliva during the lactation period, with minimal systemic RhCMV-specific T cell responses. CONCLUSIONS Despite exposure to RhCMV shedding in breast milk and other maternal fluids, postnatal mother-to-child RhCMV transmission appears to be less efficient than that of HCMV. A greater understanding of the determinants of RhCMV transmission and its usefulness as a model of HCMV mucosal acquisition may provide insight into strategies to prevent HCMV infections in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amitinder Kaur
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, Louisiana, United States of America
| | - Hannah L. Itell
- Molecular and Cellular Biology PhD Program, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - E. Peek Ehlinger
- Alaska Family Medicine Residency, Anchorage, Alaska, United States of America
| | - Valerie Varner
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Soren Gantt
- BC Children’s Hospital Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sallie R. Permar
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
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8
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Eberle R, Jones-Engel L. Questioning the Extreme Neurovirulence of Monkey B Virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1). Adv Virol 2018; 2018:5248420. [PMID: 29666644 PMCID: PMC5831965 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5248420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Monkey B virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1; BV) occurs naturally in macaques of the genus Macaca, which includes rhesus and long-tailed (cynomolgus) monkeys that are widely used in biomedical research. BV is closely related to the human herpes simplex viruses (HSV), and BV infections in its natural macaque host are quite similar to HSV infections in humans. Zoonotic BV is extremely rare, having been diagnosed in only a handful of North American facilities with the last documented case occurring in 1998. However, BV is notorious for its neurovirulence since zoonotic infections are serious, usually involving the central nervous system, and are frequently fatal. Little is known about factors underlying the extreme neurovirulence of BV in humans. Here we review what is actually known about the molecular biology of BV and viral factors affecting its neurovirulence. Based on what is known about related herpesviruses, areas for future research that may elucidate mechanisms underlying the neurovirulence of this intriguing virus are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Eberle
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, USA
| | - L. Jones-Engel
- Department of Anthropology and Center for Studies in Ecology and Demography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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Itell HL, Kaur A, Deere JD, Barry PA, Permar SR. Rhesus monkeys for a nonhuman primate model of cytomegalovirus infections. Curr Opin Virol 2017; 25:126-133. [PMID: 28888133 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the leading opportunistic viral infection in solid organ transplant patients and is the most common congenitally transmitted pathogen worldwide. Despite the significant burden of disease HCMV causes in immunosuppressed patients and infected newborns, there are no licensed preventative vaccines or effective immunotherapeutic treatments for HCMV, largely due to our incomplete understanding of the immune correlates of protection against HCMV infection and disease. Though CMV species-specificity imposes an additional challenge in defining a suitable animal model for HCMV, nonhuman primate (NHP) CMVs are the most genetically related to HCMV. In this review, we discuss the advantages and applicability of rhesus monkey models for studying HCMV infections and pathogenesis and ultimately informing vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah L Itell
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Amitinder Kaur
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Jesse D Deere
- Center for Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Peter A Barry
- Center for Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Sallie R Permar
- Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
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10
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Eberle R, Maxwell LK, Nicholson S, Black D, Jones-Engel L. Genome sequence variation among isolates of monkey B virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1) from captive macaques. Virology 2017; 508:26-35. [PMID: 28494342 PMCID: PMC5535784 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Revised: 04/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Complete genome sequences of 19 strains of monkey B virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1; BV) isolated from several macaque species were determined. A low level of sequence variation was present among BV isolates from rhesus macaques. Most variation among BV strains isolated from rhesus macaques was located in regions of repetitive or quasi-repetitive sequence. Variation in coding sequences (polypeptides and miRNAs) was minor compared to regions of non-coding sequences. Non-coding sequences in the long and short repeat regions of the genome did however exhibit islands of conserved sequence. Oral and genital isolates from a single monkey were identical in sequence and varied only in the number of iterations of repeat units in several areas of repeats. Sequence variation between BV isolates from different macaque species (different BV genotypes) was much greater and was spread across the entire genome, confirming the existence of different genotypes of BV in different macaque species.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Eberle
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA.
| | - L K Maxwell
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - S Nicholson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - D Black
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA
| | - L Jones-Engel
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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11
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Pöhlmann S, Suntz M, Akimkin V, Bleyer M, Kaul A. Herpes B virus replication and viral lesions in the liver of a cynomolgus macaque which died from severe disease with rapid onset. J Med Primatol 2017; 46:256-259. [PMID: 28439900 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Herpes B virus (BV, Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1) infects macaques asymptomatically, with rare exceptions, but can cause fatal encephalitis in humans. Here, we report disseminated BV infection in a cynomolgus macaque that had died within 12 hour after the onset of unspecific symptoms. Multifocal lesions surrounded by viral antigen were detected in liver while other organs remained inconspicuous, indicating that the liver is a major target. Moreover, high copy numbers of viral DNA were found in feces, underlining the excrements are a potential source of transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Pöhlmann
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Michael Suntz
- Chemical and Veterinary Investigations Office Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Valerij Akimkin
- Chemical and Veterinary Investigations Office Stuttgart, Fellbach, Germany
| | - Martina Bleyer
- Pathology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Artur Kaul
- Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany
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12
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Abstract
Viruses related to the herpes simplex viruses of humans are present in all nonhuman primate (NHP) species tested and cross species transmission has been documented. The herpesvirus present in macaques, Herpes B virus (BV) rarely causes disease in its natural macaque host. However, when transmitted to a nonnative host, BV has occasionally caused severe and even fatal disease if not treated immediately. Here we present a comprehensive review of the taxonomy, molecular biology, physiology, epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of BV. We also summarizes what is known about related herpesviruses of other NHP species and the zoonotic potential of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Eberle
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma, USA
| | - L Jones-Engel
- Department of Anthropology and Center for Studies in Demography and Ecology, University of Washington, Washington, USA
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13
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Exploitation of Interleukin-10 (IL-10) Signaling Pathways: Alternate Roles of Viral and Cellular IL-10 in Rhesus Cytomegalovirus Infection. J Virol 2016; 90:9920-9930. [PMID: 27558431 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00635-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There is accumulating evidence that the viral interleukin-10 (vIL-10) ortholog of both human and rhesus cytomegalovirus (HCMV and RhCMV, respectively) suppresses the functionality of cell types that are critical to contain virus dissemination and help shape long-term immunity during the earliest virus-host interactions. In particular, exposure of macrophages, peripheral blood mononuclear cells, monocyte-derived dendritic cells, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells to vIL-10 suppresses multiple effector functions including, notably, those that link innate and adaptive immune responses. Further, vaccination of RhCMV-uninfected rhesus macaques with nonfunctional forms of RhCMV vIL-10 greatly restricted parameters of RhCMV infection following RhCMV challenge of the vaccinees. Vaccinees exhibited significantly reduced shedding of RhCMV in saliva and urine following RhCMV challenge compared to shedding in unvaccinated controls. Based on the evidence that vIL-10 is critical during acute infection, the role of vIL-10 during persistent infection was analyzed in rhesus macaques infected long term with RhCMV to determine whether postinfection vaccination against vIL-10 could change the virus-host balance. RhCMV-seropositive macaques, which shed RhCMV in saliva, were vaccinated with nonfunctional RhCMV vIL-10, and shedding levels of RhCMV in saliva were evaluated. Following robust increases in vIL-10-binding and vIL-10-neutralizing antibodies, shedding levels of RhCMV modestly declined, consistent with the interpretation that vIL-10 may play a functional role during persistent infection. However, a more significant association was observed between the levels of cellular IL-10 secreted in peripheral blood mononuclear cells exposed to RhCMV antigens and shedding of RhCMV in saliva. This result implies that RhCMV persistence is associated with the induction of cellular IL-10 receptor-mediated signaling pathways. IMPORTANCE Human health is adversely impacted by viruses that establish lifelong infections that are often accompanied with increased morbidity and mortality (e.g., infections with HIV, hepatitis C virus, or human cytomegalovirus). A longstanding but unfulfilled goal has been to develop postinfection vaccine strategies that could "reboot" the immune system of an infected individual in ways that would enable the infected host to develop immune responses that clear reservoirs of persistent virus infection, effectively curing the host of infection. This concept was evaluated in rhesus macaques infected long term with rhesus cytomegalovirus by repeatedly immunizing infected animals with nonfunctional versions of the rhesus cytomegalovirus-encoded viral interleukin-10 immune-modulating protein. Following vaccine-mediated boosting of antibody titers to viral interleukin-10, there was modest evidence for increased immunological control of the virus following vaccination. More significantly, data were also obtained that indicated that rhesus cytomegalovirus is able to persist due to upregulation of the cellular interleukin-10 signaling pathway.
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Smiley Evans T, Gilardi KVK, Barry PA, Ssebide BJ, Kinani JF, Nizeyimana F, Noheri JB, Byarugaba DK, Mudakikwa A, Cranfield MR, Mazet JAK, Johnson CK. Detection of viruses using discarded plants from wild mountain gorillas and golden monkeys. Am J Primatol 2016; 78:1222-1234. [PMID: 27331804 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases pose one of the most significant threats to the survival of great apes in the wild. The critically endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) is at high risk for contracting human pathogens because approximately 60% of the population is habituated to humans to support a thriving ecotourism program. Disease surveillance for human and non-human primate pathogens is important for population health and management of protected primate species. Here, we evaluate discarded plants from mountain gorillas and sympatric golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti), as a novel biological sample to detect viruses that are shed orally. Discarded plant samples were tested for the presence of mammalian-specific genetic material and two ubiquitous DNA and RNA primate viruses, herpesviruses, and simian foamy virus. We collected discarded plant samples from 383 wild human-habituated mountain gorillas and from 18 habituated golden monkeys. Mammalian-specific genetic material was recovered from all plant species and portions of plant bitten or chewed by gorillas and golden monkeys. Gorilla herpesviral DNA was most consistently recovered from plants in which leafy portions were eaten by gorillas. Simian foamy virus nucleic acid was recovered from plants discarded by golden monkeys, indicating that it is also possible to detect RNA viruses from bitten or chewed plants. Our findings show that discarded plants are a useful non-invasive sampling method for detection of viruses that are shed orally in mountain gorillas, sympatric golden monkeys, and potentially other species. This method of collecting specimens from discarded plants is a new non-invasive sampling protocol that can be combined with collection of feces and urine to evaluate the most common routes of viral shedding in wild primates. Am. J. Primatol. 78:1222-1234, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tierra Smiley Evans
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.
| | - Kirsten V K Gilardi
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Peter A Barry
- California National Primate Research Center, Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | | | | | - Fred Nizeyimana
- Gorilla Doctors, Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, Inc., Davis, California
| | - Jean Bosco Noheri
- Gorilla Doctors, Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, Inc., Davis, California
| | | | | | - Michael R Cranfield
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Jonna A K Mazet
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Christine K Johnson
- Gorilla Doctors, Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
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15
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Lee MH, Rostal MK, Hughes T, Sitam F, Lee CY, Japning J, Harden ME, Griffiths A, Basir M, Wolfe ND, Epstein JH, Daszak P. Macacine Herpesvirus 1 in Long-Tailed Macaques, Malaysia, 2009-2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 21:1107-13. [PMID: 26080081 PMCID: PMC4480374 DOI: 10.3201/eid2107.140162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus shedding by 39% of wild-caught macaques creates potential occupational risk for humans. Macacine herpesvirus 1 (MaHV1; B virus) naturally infects macaques (Macaca spp.) and can cause fatal encephalitis in humans. In Peninsular Malaysia, wild macaques are abundant, and translocation is used to mitigate human–macaque conflict. Most adult macaques are infected with MaHV1, although the risk for transmission to persons who handle them during capture and translocation is unknown. We investigated MaHV1 shedding among 392 long-tailed macaques (M. fascicularis) after capture and translocation by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Peninsular Malaysia, during 2009–2011. For detection of MaHV1 DNA, PCR was performed on urogenital and oropharyngeal swab samples. Overall, 39% of macaques were shedding MaHV1 DNA; rates of DNA detection did not differ between sample types. This study demonstrates that MaHV1 was shed by a substantial proportion of macaques after capture and transport and suggests that persons handling macaques under these circumstances might be at risk for exposure to MaHV1.
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16
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Yee JL, Vanderford TH, Didier ES, Gray S, Lewis A, Roberts J, Taylor K, Bohm RP. Specific pathogen free macaque colonies: a review of principles and recent advances for viral testing and colony management. J Med Primatol 2016; 45:55-78. [PMID: 26932456 DOI: 10.1111/jmp.12209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Specific pathogen free (SPF) macaques provide valuable animal models for biomedical research. In 1989, the National Center for Research Resources [now Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP)] of the National Institutes of Health initiated experimental research contracts to establish and maintain SPF colonies. The derivation and maintenance of SPF macaque colonies is a complex undertaking requiring knowledge of the biology of the agents for exclusion and normal physiology and behavior of macaques, application of the latest diagnostic technology, facilitiy management, and animal husbandry. This review provides information on the biology of the four viral agents targeted for exclusion in ORIP SPF macaque colonies, describes current state-of-the-art viral diagnostic algorithms, presents data from proficiency testing of diagnostic assays between laboratories at institutions participating in the ORIP SPF program, and outlines management strategies for maintaining the integrity of SPF colonies using results of diagnostic testing as a guide to decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- JoAnn L Yee
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | | | - Elizabeth S Didier
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, USA
| | - Stanton Gray
- Michael E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX, USA
| | - Anne Lewis
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Jeffrey Roberts
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Kerry Taylor
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Rudolf P Bohm
- Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, Covington, LA, USA
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17
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Smiley Evans T, Barry PA, Gilardi KV, Goldstein T, Deere JD, Fike J, Yee J, Ssebide BJ, Karmacharya D, Cranfield MR, Wolking D, Smith B, Mazet JAK, Johnson CK. Optimization of a Novel Non-invasive Oral Sampling Technique for Zoonotic Pathogen Surveillance in Nonhuman Primates. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003813. [PMID: 26046911 PMCID: PMC4457869 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-ranging nonhuman primates are frequent sources of zoonotic pathogens due to their physiologic similarity and in many tropical regions, close contact with humans. Many high-risk disease transmission interfaces have not been monitored for zoonotic pathogens due to difficulties inherent to invasive sampling of free-ranging wildlife. Non-invasive surveillance of nonhuman primates for pathogens with high potential for spillover into humans is therefore critical for understanding disease ecology of existing zoonotic pathogen burdens and identifying communities where zoonotic diseases are likely to emerge in the future. We developed a non-invasive oral sampling technique using ropes distributed to nonhuman primates to target viruses shed in the oral cavity, which through bite wounds and discarded food, could be transmitted to people. Optimization was performed by testing paired rope and oral swabs from laboratory colony rhesus macaques for rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) and simian foamy virus (SFV) and implementing the technique with free-ranging terrestrial and arboreal nonhuman primate species in Uganda and Nepal. Both ubiquitous DNA and RNA viruses, RhCMV and SFV, were detected in oral samples collected from ropes distributed to laboratory colony macaques and SFV was detected in free-ranging macaques and olive baboons. Our study describes a technique that can be used for disease surveillance in free-ranging nonhuman primates and, potentially, other wildlife species when invasive sampling techniques may not be feasible. Wild nonhuman primates are frequent sources of pathogens that could be transmitted to humans because they are closely genetically related and have intimate contact with humans in many parts of the world. Sampling primates to screen for zoonotic pathogens is logistically challenging because standard invasive sampling techniques, such as the collection of a blood sample or an oral swab, requires field anesthesia. This research describes a non-invasive oral sampling technique that involves distributing a rope for primates to chew on that can be retrieved and screened for pathogens. Oral samples were successfully collected from multiple wild primate species in remote field settings and viruses were detected in those samples. This non-invasive sampling method has the potential for future applications in disease studies examining primates as sources of diseases that could affect humans in remote tropical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tierra Smiley Evans
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Peter A. Barry
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Kirsten V. Gilardi
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Tracey Goldstein
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jesse D. Deere
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Joseph Fike
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - JoAnn Yee
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | | | | | - Michael R. Cranfield
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - David Wolking
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Brett Smith
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Jonna A. K. Mazet
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Christine K. Johnson
- One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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Oxford KL, Dela Pena-Ponce MGA, Jensen K, Eberhardt MK, Spinner A, Van Rompay KK, Rigdon J, Mollan KR, Krishnan VV, Hudgens MG, Barry PA, De Paris K. The interplay between immune maturation, age, chronic viral infection and environment. IMMUNITY & AGEING 2015; 12:3. [PMID: 25991918 PMCID: PMC4436863 DOI: 10.1186/s12979-015-0030-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The worldwide increase in life expectancy has been associated with an increase in age-related morbidities. The underlying mechanisms resulting in immunosenescence are only incompletely understood. Chronic viral infections, in particular infection with human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), have been suggested as a main driver in immunosenescence. Here, we propose that rhesus macaques could serve as a relevant model to define the impact of chronic viral infections on host immunity in the aging host. We evaluated whether chronic rhesus CMV (RhCMV) infection, similar to HCMV infection in humans, would modulate normal immunological changes in the aging individual by taking advantage of the unique resource of rhesus macaques that were bred and raised to be Specific Pathogen Free (SPF-2) for distinct viruses. RESULTS Our results demonstrate that normal age-related immunological changes in frequencies, activation, maturation, and function of peripheral blood cell lymphocytes in humans occur in a similar manner over the lifespan of rhesus macaques. The comparative analysis of age-matched SPF-2 and non-SPF macaques that were housed under identical conditions revealed distinct differences in certain immune parameters suggesting that chronic pathogen exposure modulated host immune responses. All non-SPF macaques were infected with RhCMV, suggesting that chronic RhCMV infection was a major contributor to altered immune function in non-SPF macaques, although a causative relationship was not established and outside the scope of these studies. Further, we showed that immunological differences between SPF-2 and non-SPF macaques were already apparent in adolescent macaques, potentially predisposing RhCMV-infected animals to age-related pathologies. CONCLUSIONS Our data validate rhesus macaques as a relevant animal model to study how chronic viral infections modulate host immunity and impact immunosenescence. Comparative studies in SPF-2 and non-SPF macaques could identify important mechanisms associated with inflammaging and thereby lead to new therapies promoting healthy aging in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie L Oxford
- Center of Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Myra Grace A Dela Pena-Ponce
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Burnett-Womack Bldg, 160 Dental Circle, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7292 USA
| | - Kara Jensen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Burnett-Womack Bldg, 160 Dental Circle, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7292 USA
| | - Meghan K Eberhardt
- Center of Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Abigail Spinner
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Koen Ka Van Rompay
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Joseph Rigdon
- Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA
| | - Katie R Mollan
- Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA.,Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA
| | - V V Krishnan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Michael G Hudgens
- Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA.,Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA
| | - Peter A Barry
- Center of Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California USA.,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California USA
| | - Kristina De Paris
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Burnett-Womack Bldg, 160 Dental Circle, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7292 USA.,Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina USA
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19
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Antoine P, Varner V, Carville A, Connole M, Marchant A, Kaur A. Postnatal acquisition of primary rhesus cytomegalovirus infection is associated with prolonged virus shedding and impaired CD4+ T lymphocyte function. J Infect Dis 2014; 210:1090-9. [PMID: 24719473 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although virus-specific CD4(+) T lymphocytes emerge rapidly during primary cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection in humans, they exhibit a state of prolonged functional exhaustion of unknown etiology. To investigate the suitability of rhesus macaques as a model of primary human CMV infection, we examined the virologic and immunologic features of naturally acquired primary CMV infection in rhesus macaques. METHODS CMV-specific CD4(+) T lymphocytes and CMV load in blood, saliva, and urine were evaluated in a cohort of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)-negative rhesus macaques stratified by age into infant, juvenile, and adult groups. RESULTS CMV infection was detected in juvenile and adult monkeys but not in infant monkeys. CMV loads and shedding frequency in urine and saliva were significantly higher in the 2-3-year old juvenile monkeys, compared with the adult monkeys. The increased CMV load in juvenile monkeys was associated with lower polyfunctionality, impaired proliferation, and increased expression of the inhibitory receptor PD-1 in CMV-specific CD4(+) T lymphocytes. The proliferative defect was partially reversible by exogenous PD-1 blockade or addition of interleukin 2. CONCLUSIONS Postnatal acquisition of primary CMV infection in rhesus macaques results in prolonged virus excretion and impaired CMV-specific CD4(+) T-lymphocyte function, findings that recapitulate key features of primary CMV infection in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Antoine
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
| | | | - Angela Carville
- Primate Medicine, New England Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Southborough, Massachusetts
| | | | - Arnaud Marchant
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Belgium
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20
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Deere JD, Barry PA. Using the nonhuman primate model of HCMV to guide vaccine development. Viruses 2014; 6:1483-501. [PMID: 24681748 PMCID: PMC4014706 DOI: 10.3390/v6041483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The natural history of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is inextricably associated with mucosal surfaces. The vast preponderance of primary infections occur following mucosal exposure to infectious virions, and the high seroprevalence of HCMV throughout the world is due to long-term excretion of HCMV in bodily fluids from multiple mucosal sites. Accumulating evidence presents a model where the earliest virus-host interactions following infection dictate the long-term pattern of infection, alter innate immune responses that skew adaptive responses to enable persistence within an immune host, and are essential for reinfection of a host with prior immunity. HCMV has evolved a complex repertoire of viral functions fine-tuned to manipulate the immune environment both locally at the sites of infection and systemically within an infected host. Collectively, viral immune modulation represents a significant impediment for an HCMV vaccine. As HCMV can disseminate beyond mucosal surfaces to reinfect immune hosts, it may not matter whether prior immunity results from prior infection or immunization. A better understanding of the earliest virus-hosts interactions at mucosal surfaces may identify elements of the viral proteome that are especially susceptible to vaccine-mediated disruption and prevent challenge virus from disseminating to distal sites, particularly the maternal-fetal interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse D Deere
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
| | - Peter A Barry
- Center for Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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21
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Retrospective serology study of respiratory virus infections in captive great apes. Viruses 2014; 6:1442-53. [PMID: 24662675 PMCID: PMC3970160 DOI: 10.3390/v6031442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2013] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Great apes are extremely sensitive to infections with human respiratory viruses. In this study, we retrospectively analyzed sera from captive chimpanzees, gorillas and orang-utans. More than 1000 sera (403 chimpanzee, 77 gorilla, and 535 orang-utan sera) were analyzed for antibodies to the human respiratory viruses RSV (respiratory syncytial virus, hMPV (human metapneumovirus), H1N1 and H3N2 influenza A viruses, and influenza B virus. In all ape species high seroprevalences were found for RSV, hMPV, and influenza B virus. A high percentage of captive chimpanzees also showed evidence of influenza A H1N1 infections, and had low levels of H3N2 antibodies, while in sera from gorillas and orang-utans antibody levels to influenza A and B viruses were much lower or practically absent. Transmission of respiratory viruses was examined in longitudinal sera of young chimpanzees, and in chimpanzee sera taken during health checks. In young animals isolated cases of influenza infections were monitored, but evidence was found for single introductions followed by a rapid dissemination of RSV and hMPV within the group. Implementation of strict guidelines for handling and housing of nonhuman primates was shown to be an efficient method to reduce the introduction of respiratory infections in colonies of captive animals. RSV seroprevalence rates of chimpanzees remained high, probably due to circulating virus in the chimpanzee colony.
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22
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Eberhardt MK, Barry PA. Pathogen manipulation of cIL-10 signaling pathways: opportunities for vaccine development? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2014; 380:93-128. [PMID: 25004815 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-662-43492-5_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Interleukin-10 (IL-10) is a tightly regulated, pleiotropic cytokine that has profound effects on all facets of the immune system, eliciting cell-type-specific responses within cells expressing the IL-10 receptor (IL-10R). It is considered a master immune regulator, and imbalances in IL-10 expression, resulting from either inherent or infectious etiologies, have far reaching clinical ramifications. Regarding infectious diseases, there has been accumulating recognition that many pathogens, particularly those that establish lifelong persistence, share a commonality of their natural histories: manipulation of IL-10-mediated signaling pathways. Multiple viral, bacterial, protozoal, and fungal pathogens appear to have evolved mechanisms to co-opt normal immune functions, including those involving IL-10R-mediated signaling, and immune effector pathways away from immune-mediated protection toward environments of immune evasion, suppression, and tolerance. As a result, pathogens can persist for the life of the infected host, many of whom possess otherwise competent immune systems. Because of pathogenic avoidance of immune clearance, persistent infections can exact incalculable physical and financial costs, and represent some of the most vexing challenges for improvements in human health. Enormous benefits could be gained by the development of efficient prevention and/or therapeutic strategies that block primary infection, or clear the infection. There are now precedents that indicate that modalities focusing on pathogen-mediated manipulation of IL-10 signaling may have clinical benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meghan K Eberhardt
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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23
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Vaccination against a virus-encoded cytokine significantly restricts viral challenge. J Virol 2013; 87:11323-31. [PMID: 23946461 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01925-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Identification of immune correlates of protection for viral vaccines is complicated by multiple factors, but there is general consensus on the importance of antibodies that neutralize viral attachment to susceptible cells. Development of new viral vaccines has mostly followed this neutralizing antibody paradigm, but as a recent clinical trial of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) vaccination demonstrated, this singular approach can yield limited protective efficacy. Since HCMV devotes >50% of its coding capacity to proteins that modulate host immunity, it is hypothesized that expansion of vaccine targets to include this part of the viral proteome will disrupt viral natural history. HCMV and rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) each encode an ortholog to the cellular interleukin-10 (cIL-10) cytokine: cmvIL-10 and rhcmvIL10, respectively. Despite extensive sequence divergence from their host's cIL-10, each viral IL-10 retains nearly identical functionality to cIL-10. Uninfected rhesus macaques were immunized with engineered, nonfunctional rhcmvIL-10 variants, which were constructed by site-directed mutagenesis to abolish binding to the cIL-10 receptor. Vaccinees developed antibodies that neutralized rhcmvIL-10 function with no cross-neutralization of cIL-10. Following subcutaneous RhCMV challenge, the vaccinees exhibited both reduced RhCMV replication locally at the inoculation site and systemically and significantly reduced RhCMV shedding in bodily fluids compared to controls. Attenuation of RhCMV infection by rhcmvIL-10 vaccination argues that neutralization of viral immunomodulation may be a new vaccine paradigm for HCMV by expanding potential vaccine targets.
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24
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A vaccine based on the rhesus cytomegalovirus UL128 complex induces broadly neutralizing antibodies in rhesus macaques. J Virol 2012; 87:1322-32. [PMID: 23152525 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01669-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies (NAb) are important for interfering with horizontal transmission of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) leading to primary and congenital HCMV infection. Recent findings have shown that a pentameric virion complex formed by the glycoproteins gH/gL, UL128, UL130, and UL131A (UL128C) is required for HCMV entry into epithelial/endothelial cells (Epi/EC) and is the target of potent NAb in HCMV-seropositive individuals. Using bacterial artificial chromosome technology, we have generated a modified vaccinia Ankara virus (MVA) that stably coexpresses all 5 rhesus CMV (RhCMV) proteins homologous to HCMV UL128C, termed MVA-RhUL128C. Coimmunoprecipitation confirmed the interaction of RhgH with the other 4 RhCMV subunits of the pentameric complex. All 8 RhCMV-naïve rhesus macaques (RM) vaccinated with MVA-RhUL128C developed NAb that blocked infection of monkey kidney epithelial cells (MKE) and rhesus fibroblasts. NAb titers induced by MVA-RhUL128C measured on both cell types at 2 to 6 weeks postvaccination were comparable to levels observed in naturally infected RM. In contrast, MVA expressing a subset of RhUL128C proteins or RhgB glycoprotein only minimally stimulated NAb that inhibited infection of MKE. In addition, following subcutaneous RhCMV challenge at 8 weeks postvaccination, animals vaccinated with MVA-RhUL128C showed reduced plasma viral loads. These results indicate that MVA expressing the RhUL128C induces NAb inhibiting RhCMV entry into both Epi/EC and fibroblasts and limits RhCMV replication in RM. This novel approach is the first step in developing a prophylactic HCMV vaccine designed to interfere with virus entry into major cell types permissive for viral replication, a required property of an effective vaccine.
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25
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dela Pena MG, Strelow L, Barry PA, Abel K. Use of specific-pathogen-free (SPF) rhesus macaques to better model oral pediatric cytomegalovirus infection. J Med Primatol 2012; 41:225-9. [PMID: 22620273 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2012.00541.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection can result in lifelong neurological deficits. Seronegative pregnant woman often acquire primary HCMV from clinically asymptomatic, but HCMV-shedding children. METHODS Potential age-related differences in viral and immune parameters of primary RhCMV infection were examined in an oral rhesus CMV infection model in specific pathogen free macaques. RhCMV shedding was measured by real time PCR in plasma, saliva and urine. Immune parameters, including neutralizing and binding antibodies and RhCMV-specific T cell responses, were assessed in longitudinally collected blood samples. RESULTS The oral RhCMV infection model in infant SPF rhesus macaques demonstrated that (i) the susceptibility to oral RhCMV infection declines with age, and (ii) infant macaques shed RhCMV more persistently and at higher titers compared to adult macaques. (iii) CONCLUSIONS The oral infant RhCMV infection model appears to reflect viral pathogenesis in human HCMV-infected children. Larger studies are needed to define immune parameters associated with better control of RhCMV in adult compared to young animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myra G dela Pena
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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26
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Zhu L, Han JB, Zhang XH, Ma JP, Lv LB, Zhang GH, Zheng YT. [Epidemiological survey of a captive Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony in Yunnan for SRV, STLV and BV]. DONG WU XUE YAN JIU = ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2012; 33:49-54. [PMID: 22345008 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1141.2012.01049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Nonhuman primates are critical resources for biomedical research. Rhesus macaque is a popularly used laboratory nonhuman primate that share many characteristics with humans. However, rhesus macaques are the natural host of two exogenous retroviruses, SRV (simian type D retrovirus) and STLV (simian T lymphotropic virus). SRV and STLV may introduce potentially significant confounding factors into the study of AIDS model. Moreover, B virus (ceropithecine herpesvirus 1) is likely to harm not only rhesus macaque but also humans in experiments involving rhesus macaque. Yunnan province has large-scale breeding colonies of Chinese rhesus macaque. Therefore there is an urgent need for SPF Chinese rhesus macaque colonies. Here we investigated SRV, STLV and BV infections in 411 Chinese rhesus macaque by PCR technique. The results showed that the prevalence of SRV, STLV and BV among Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony was 19.71% (81/411), 13.38% (55/411) and 23.11% (95/411), respectively. Comparison of viruses infection in different age-groups and male/female of Chinese rhesus macaque was also analyzed. This study will contribute to establishment of SPF Chinese rhesus macaque breeding colony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Zhu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China
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Abstract
Herpes B virus (BV) naturally infects macaque monkeys and is genetically similar to herpes simplex virus (HSV). Zoonotic infection of humans can cause encephalitis and if untreated has a fatality rate of ∼80%. The frequent use of macaques in biomedical research emphasizes the need to understand the molecular basis of BV pathogenesis with a view toward improving safety for those working with macaques. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that regulate the expression of mRNAs bearing complementary target sequences and are employed by viruses to control viral and host gene expression. Using deep sequencing and validation by expression in transfected cells, we identified 12 novel BV-encoded miRNAs expressed in lytically infected cells and 4 in latently infected trigeminal ganglia (TG). Using quantitative reverse transcription-PCR (RT-qPCR), we found that most of the miRNAs exhibited a high level of abundance throughout infection. Further analyses showed that some miRNAs could be generated from multiple transcripts with different kinetic classes, possibly explaining detection throughout infection. Interestingly, miRNAs were detected at early times in the absence of viral gene expression and were present in purified virions. In TG, despite similar amounts of viral DNA per ganglion, it was notable that the relative amount of each miRNA varied between ganglia. The majority of the miRNAs are encoded by the regions that exhibit the most sequence differences between BV and HSV. Additionally, there is no sequence conservation between BV- and HSV-encoded miRNAs, which may be important for the differences in the human diseases caused by BV and HSV.
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Open reading frames carried on UL/b' are implicated in shedding and horizontal transmission of rhesus cytomegalovirus in rhesus monkeys. J Virol 2011; 85:5105-14. [PMID: 21389128 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02631-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Implicit with the use of animal models to test human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) vaccines is the assumption that the viral challenge of vaccinated animals reflects the anticipated virus-host interactions following exposure of vaccinated humans to HCMV. Variables of animal vaccine studies include the route of exposure to and the titer of challenge virus, as well as the genomic coding content of the challenge virus. This study was initiated to provide a better context for conducting vaccine trials with nonhuman primates by determining whether the in vivo phenotype of culture-passaged strains of rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) is comparable to that of wild-type RhCMV (RhCMV-WT), particularly in relation to the shedding of virus into bodily fluids and the potential for horizontal transmission. Results of this study demonstrate that two strains containing a full-length UL/b' region of the RhCMV genome, which encodes proteins involved in epithelial tropism and immune evasion, were persistently shed in large amounts in bodily fluids and horizontally transmitted, whereas a strain lacking a complete UL/b' region was not shed or transmitted to cagemates. Shedding patterns exhibited by strains encoding a complete UL/b' region were consistent with patterns observed in naturally infected monkeys, the majority of whom persistently shed high levels of virus in saliva for extended periods of time after seroconversion. Frequent viral shedding contributed to a high rate of infection, with RhCMV-infected monkeys transmitting virus to one naïve animal every 7 weeks after introduction of RhCMV-WT into an uninfected cohort. These results demonstrate that the RhCMV model can be designed to rigorously reflect the challenges facing HCMV vaccine trials, particularly those related to horizontal transmission.
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Vaccine-induced control of viral shedding following rhesus cytomegalovirus challenge in rhesus macaques. J Virol 2010; 85:2878-90. [PMID: 21191005 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00883-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The use of animal models of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection is critical to refine HCMV vaccine candidates. Previous reports have demonstrated that immunization of rhesus monkeys against rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) can reduce both local and systemic replication of RhCMV following experimental RhCMV challenge. These studies used prime/boost combinations of DNA expression plasmids alone or DNA priming and boosting with either inactivated virion particles or modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) expressing the same antigens. Viral outcomes included reduced RhCMV replication at the site of subcutaneous inoculation and RhCMV viremia following intravenous inoculation. Since shedding of cytomegalovirus from mucosal surfaces is critical for horizontal transmission of the virus, DNA priming/MVA boosting was evaluated for the ability to reduce oral shedding of RhCMV following subcutaneous challenge. Of six rhesus monkeys vaccinated exclusively against RhCMV glycoprotein B (gB), phosphoprotein 65 (pp65), and immediate-early 1 (IE1), half showed viral loads in saliva that were lower than those of control monkeys by 1 to 3 orders of magnitude. Further, there was a strong association of memory pp65 T cell responses postchallenge in animals exhibiting the greatest reduction in oral shedding. These results highlight the fact that a DNA/MVA vaccination regimen can achieve a notable reduction in a critical parameter of viral replication postchallenge. The recently completed clinical trial of a gB subunit vaccine in which the rate of HCMV infection was reduced by 50% in the individuals receiving the vaccine is consistent with the results of this study suggesting that additional immunogens are likely essential for maximum protection in an outbred human population.
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Han D, Berman DM, Willman M, Buchwald P, Rothen D, Kenyon NM, Kenyon NS. Choice of Immunosuppression Influences Cytomegalovirus DNAemia in Cynomolgus Monkey (Macaca fascicularis) Islet Allograft Recipients. Cell Transplant 2010; 19:1547-61. [DOI: 10.3727/096368910x513973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This retrospective study reviews the results of our experience with the occurrence of CMV DNAemia in islet cell transplanted cynomolgus monkeys subjected to different immunosuppressive protocols, including induction treatment with thymoglobulin (TMG), with a combination of thymoglobulin and fludarabine (FLUD), with cyclophosphamide, or with daclizumab. CMV DNA in the peripheral blood (CMV DNAemia) of 47 monkeys was quantified by real-time PCR on a weekly to biweekly basis. As compared to other immunosuppressive regimens, and in association with greater decreases in WBC, lymphocyte, CD3+CD4+, and CD3+CD8+ lymphocyte counts, frequent CMV DNAemia occurred earlier (within the first month posttransplant), and was of greater severity and duration in recipients of TMG ± FLUD. Treatment of recipients with alternative induction agents that resulted in less dramatic reductions in WBC and lymphocyte counts, however, resulted in occurrence of CMV DNAemia after postoperative day 60. The frequency, average intensity, duration, and area under the curve (AUC) for CMV DNAemia in animals receiving TMG ± FLUD were 75–100%, 4.02 ± 1.75 copies/ng DNA, 23.0 ± 5.3 days, and 367.0 ± 121.1 days x copies/ng DNA, respectively; corresponding values in animals receiving other treatments (0–44%, 0.19 ± 0.10 copies/ng DNA, 0.5 ± 0.3 days, and 75.4 ± 40.2 days x copies/ng DNA, respectively) were significantly different. The value of WBC, T and B cells at the nadir of cell depletion greatly affects the occurrence of CMV DNAemia. No animals developed CMV DNAemia within the next 3 weeks when the lowest value of WBC, lymphocyte, CD3+, CD3+CD4+, CD3+CD8+, or CD20+ cells was above 4500, 1800, 300, 200, 150, or 300 cells/μl, respectively. Oral valganciclovir prophylaxis did not completely prevent the appearance of CMV DNAemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongmei Han
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Dora M. Berman
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Melissa Willman
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Peter Buchwald
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Daniel Rothen
- Division of Veterinary Resources, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Norman M. Kenyon
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Norma S. Kenyon
- Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
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Simian herpesviruses and their risk to humans. Vaccine 2010; 28 Suppl 2:B78-84. [PMID: 20510749 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Revised: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 11/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A high level of genetic and physiological homology with humans has rendered non-human primates (NHP) an essential animal model for biomedical research. As such NHP offer a unique opportunity to study host-pathogen interactions in a species that closely mimics human biology but can yet be maintained under tight laboratory conditions. Indeed, studies using NHP have been critical to our understanding of pathogenesis as well as the development of vaccines and therapeutics. This further facilitated by the fact that NHPs are susceptible to a variety of pathogens that bear significant homology to human pathogens. Unfortunately, these same viruses pose a potential health issue to humans. In this review we discuss the simian herpesviruses and their potential to cause disease in researchers that come into close contact with them.
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Kanthaswamy S, Kou A, Satkoski J, Penedo MCT, Ward T, Ng J, Gill L, Lerche NW, Erickson BJA, Smith DG. Genetic characterization of specific pathogen-free rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) populations at the California National Primate Research Center (CNPRC). Am J Primatol 2010; 72:587-99. [PMID: 20162538 PMCID: PMC2941796 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A study based on 14 STRs was conducted to understand intergenerational genetic changes that have occurred within the California National Primate Research Center's (CNPRC) regular specific pathogen-free (SPF) and super-SPF captive rhesus macaque populations relative to their conventional founders. Intergenerational genetic drift has caused age cohorts of each study population, especially within the conventional population, to become increasingly differentiated from each other and from their founders. Although there is still only minimal stratification between the conventional population and either of the two SPF populations, separate derivation of the regular and super-SPF animals from their conventional founders has caused the two SPF populations to remain marginally different from each other. The regular SPF and, especially, the super-SPF populations have been influenced by the effects of differential ancestry, sampling, and lost rare alleles, causing a substantial degree of genetic divergence between these subpopulations. The country of origin of founders is the principal determinant of the MHC haplotype composition of the SPF stocks at the CNPRC. Selection of SPF colony breeders bearing desired genotypes of Mamu-A*01 or -B*01 has not affected the overall genetic heterogeneity of the conventional and the SPF research stocks.Because misclassifying the ancestry of research stocks can undermine experimental outcomes by excluding animals with regional-specific genotypes or phenotypes of importance, understanding founder/descendent genetic relationships is crucial for investigating candidate genes with distinct geographic origins. Together with demographic management, population genetic assessments of SPF colonies can curtail excessive phenotypic variation among the study stocks and facilitate successful production goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sree Kanthaswamy
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California-Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Sparger EE, Gardner MB, Barry PA. Exploiting the natural history of cytomegalovirus to vaccinate against HIV. Expert Rev Vaccines 2009; 8:993-7. [PMID: 19627183 DOI: 10.1586/erv.09.70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ellen E Sparger
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Yue Y, Barry PA. Rhesus cytomegalovirus a nonhuman primate model for the study of human cytomegalovirus. Adv Virus Res 2009; 72:207-26. [PMID: 19081492 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-3527(08)00405-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), a member of an ancient family of viruses (Herpesviridae), has acquired the capacity to maintain a lifelong persistent infection within an immunocompetent host. Since both primary and recurrent infections are generally subclinical, host antiviral immune responses are effective at limiting the pathogenic potential of HCMV. However, the fact that HCMV can persist in the presence of those protective immune responses indicates that host immunity is unable to prevent or eliminate long-term reservoirs of virus. The ability of HCMV to persist has important clinical implications, a fact reflected by the spectrum of pathogenic outcomes observed in those without a fully functional immune system. Recurrence of viral replication or transmission of HCMV from an infected individual to those most susceptible to primary infection during immune suppression, deficiency, or immaturity can lead to multiorgan disease and, sometimes, death. The clinical need for a protective HCMV vaccine has been recognized for decades, but due to a conspiracy of factors, there is no approved vaccine despite intensive investigations to develop one. Animal models of HCMV have been used as systems of discovery and translation to understand viral mechanisms of persistence and pathogenesis, and to test concepts and modalities for the generation of immune responses that protect from primary infection and sequelae. This review summarizes studies in a nonhuman primate model of HCMV involving infection of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) with rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV). The RhCMV model serves as an important complement to those in other animals, particularly small animals, and the lessons learned from RhCMV should have direct clinical relevance to HCMV and the design of protective vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujuan Yue
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Efficient replication of rhesus cytomegalovirus variants in multiple rhesus and human cell types. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:19950-5. [PMID: 19064925 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0811063106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Rhesus cytomegalovirus infection of rhesus macaques has emerged as a model for human cytomegalovirus pathogenesis. The UL128-UL131 locus of the human virus is a primary determinant for viral entry into epithelial cells, an important cell type during cytomegalovirus infection. Rhesus cytomegalovirus strain 68-1 spreads slowly when grown in cultured rhesus epithelial cells, and it does not code for ORFs corresponding to UL128 and the second exon of UL130. We repaired the UL128-UL131 locus of strain 68-1, using rhesus cytomegalovirus strain 180.92 as template, to generate BRh68-1.1. We also repaired a mutation in the UL36 ORF in BRh68-1.1 to make BRh68-1.2. Both repaired derivatives replicate much more efficiently than parental 68-1 virus in rhesus epithelial cells, suggesting that strain 68-1 may be attenuated. Intriguingly, BRh68-1.1 and BRh68-1.2 replicate efficiently in cultured human epithelial cells and endothelial cells. The extended human cell host range of the repaired viruses raises the possibility that rhesus cytomegalovirus-like viruses will be found in humans.
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Engel GA, Pizarro M, Shaw E, Cortes J, Fuentes A, Barry P, Lerche N, Grant R, Cohn D, Jones-Engel L. Unique pattern of enzootic primate viruses in Gibraltar macaques. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14:1112-5. [PMID: 18598634 PMCID: PMC2600335 DOI: 10.3201/eid1407.071643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Because Gibraltar's macaques (Macaca sylvanus) have frequent contact with humans, we assayed 79 macaques for antibodies to enzootic primate viruses. All macaques were seronegative for herpesvirus B, simian T-cell lymphotropic virus, simian retrovirus, simian immunodeficiency virus, and rhesus cytomegalovirus. Seroprevalence of simian foamy virus reached 88% among adult animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory A Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Oya C, Ochiai Y, Taniuchi Y, Takano T, Fujima A, Ueda F, Hondo R, Yoshikawa Y. Prevalence of herpes B virus genome in the trigeminal ganglia of seropositive cynomolgus macaques. Lab Anim 2008; 42:99-103. [PMID: 18348771 DOI: 10.1258/la.2007.006031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Herpes B virus infection is almost asymptomatic in macaques (Macaca spp.), which are the natural hosts of this pathogen, but is the cause of high mortality in humans. Reactivation of the latent virus in the trigeminal ganglia (TG) results in the shedding of infectious particles into the oral mucosal membrane. Saliva contaminated with the reactivated virus from the ganglia of the natural host is considered to be important for viral transmission to humans and other monkeys. In the present study, we investigated the prevalence of the herpes B virus genome in the left and right TG of seropositive asymptomatic cynomolgus macaques. The latent virus genome was detected using a polymerase chain reaction and microplate hybridization assay. We found that the virus DNA was present in one or both TG of 12 of the 30 macaques (40%) tested, with the virus being detected from both TG in five of the 12 macaques and from a single TG in the remaining seven.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Oya
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Nippon Veterinary and Life Sciences University, Musashino, Tokyo 180-8602, Japan.
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A heterologous DNA prime/protein boost immunization strategy for rhesus cytomegalovirus. Vaccine 2008; 26:6013-25. [PMID: 18760319 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.07.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2008] [Revised: 07/29/2008] [Accepted: 07/30/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A previous study in nonhuman primates demonstrated that genetic immunization against the rhesus cytomegalovirus phosphoprotein 65-2 (pp65-2) and glycoprotein B (gB) antigens both stimulated antigen-specific antibodies and CD8 T cell responses, and significantly reduced plasma viral loads following intravenous challenge with RhCMV. It was also noted in this study that weak CD4 T cell and neutralizing antibody responses were generated by DNA alone. To broaden the type of immune responses, a DNA prime/protein boost strategy was used in seronegative macaques, consisting of four DNA immunizations against pp65-2, gB, and immediate-early 1 (IE1), followed by two boosts with formalin-inactivated RhCMV virions. This heterologous prime/boost strategy elicited robust antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell responses in addition to biologically relevant neutralizing antibody titers. Animals were challenged with RhCMV delivered into four sites via a subcutaneous route. Skin biopsies of one of the inoculation sites 7 days post challenge revealed marked differences in the level of RhCMV replication between the vaccinated and control monkeys. Whereas the inoculation site in the controls was noted for a prominent inflammatory response and numerous cytomegalic, antigen-positive (IE1) cells, the inoculation site in the vaccinees was characterized by an absence of inflammation and antigen-positive cells. All five vaccinees developed robust recall responses to viral antigens, and four of them exhibited long-term viral immune responses consistent with effective control of viral expression and replication. These results demonstrate that a heterologous DNA prime/protein boost strategy greatly expands the breadth of antiviral immune responses and greatly reduces the level of viral replication at the primary site of challenge infection.
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Engel GA, Pizarro M, Shaw E, Cortes J, Fuentes A, Barry P, Lerche N, Grant R, Cohn D, Jones-Engel L. Unique Pattern of Enzootic Primate Viruses in Gibraltar Macaques. Emerg Infect Dis 2008. [DOI: 10.3201/eid1407.071673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gregory A. Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Eric Shaw
- Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society, Gibraltar
| | - John Cortes
- Gibraltar Ornithological and Natural History Society, Gibraltar
| | | | - Peter Barry
- University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | | | - Richard Grant
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Lisa Jones-Engel
- University of Washington National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Yue Y, Wang Z, Abel K, Li J, Strelow L, Mandarino A, Eberhardt MK, Schmidt KA, Diamond DJ, Barry PA. Evaluation of recombinant modified vaccinia Ankara virus-based rhesus cytomegalovirus vaccines in rhesus macaques. Med Microbiol Immunol 2008; 197:117-123. [PMID: 18196272 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-008-0074-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A vaccine consisting of rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) pp65-2, gB and IE1 expressed via modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) was evaluated in rhesus macaques with or without prior priming with expression plasmids for the same antigens. Following two MVA treatments, comparable levels of anti-gB, pp65-2 and neutralizing antibody responses, and pp65-2- and IE1-specific cellular immune responses were detected in both vaccinated groups. Similar reductions in plasma peak viral loads were observed in these groups compared to untreated controls. This study demonstrates the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of rMVA-based RhCMV subunit vaccines in a primate host and warrants further investigation to improve the efficacy of subunit vaccines against CMV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujuan Yue
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California-Davis, County Rd 98 & Hutchison Dr., Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Oxford KL, Eberhardt MK, Yang KW, Strelow L, Kelly S, Zhou SS, Barry PA. Protein coding content of the UL)b' region of wild-type rhesus cytomegalovirus. Virology 2008; 373:181-8. [PMID: 18068749 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2007.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Revised: 10/15/2007] [Accepted: 10/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A recent comparison of two rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) genomes revealed that the region at the right end of the U(L) genome component (U(L)b') undergoes genetic alterations similar to those observed in serially passaged human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). To determine the coding content of authentic wild-type RhCMV in this region, the U(L)b' sequence was amplified from virus obtained from naturally infected rhesus macaques without passage in vitro. A total of 24 open reading frames (ORFs) potentially encoding >99 amino acid residues were identified, 10 of which are related to HCMV ORFs and 15 to previously listed RhCMV ORFs. In addition, the analysis revealed a cluster of three novel alpha chemokine-like ORFs, bringing the number of predicted alpha chemokine genes in this region to six. Three of these six genes exhibit a high level of sequence diversity, as has been observed for the HCMV alpha chemokine gene UL146.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie L Oxford
- Center for Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Abstract
Human CMV is the predominant infectious cause of congenital birth defects and an opportunistic pathogen in immunosuppressed individuals, including AIDS patients. Most individuals are infected early during their life followed by life-long latent infection. During this latent phase, frequent reactivation and antigen production continue to stimulate the immune system. While the immune response is able to control the virus, it is unable to eradicate it. Moreover, super-infection by different CMV strains has been observed despite a strong immune response. Long-term immune stimulation by CMV has also been implicated in immune senescence and chronic conditions such as atherosclerosis. CMVs are highly species-specific and the relatedness of CMV genomes exactly mirrors the relatedness of their hosts. Thus, each CMV species is highly adapted to its respective host species, but is unable to infect other, even closely related hosts. While fascinating from an evolutionary perspective, this host restriction prevents studying HCMV in experimental animals. Exceptions are severely immunocompromised mice, e.g. SCID mice, or SCID/NOD mice, which might allow partial reconstitution of CMV infection in rodents. More practical however, is to study CMVs in their natural host, e.g. murine, rat or guinea pig CMVs. However, while these small animal models have many advantages, such as the availability of inbred animals as well as lower cost, the limited homology of the viral genomes with HCMV limits the functional analysis of homologous gene products. The closest relative to HCMV is chimpanzee CMV (CCMV), but this is not a practical animal model since chimps are a protected species, extremely expensive and of very limited availability. In contrast, rhesus macaques are a more widely used experimental animal species and, while more distant than CCMV, rhesus CMV (RhCMV) contains most of the HCMV gene families thus allowing the study of their role in acute and latent CMV infection. In this review we will discuss the current state of developing RhCMV as a model for HCMV.
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Wachtman LM, Mansfield KG. Opportunistic Infections in Immunologically Compromised Nonhuman Primates. ILAR J 2008; 49:191-208. [DOI: 10.1093/ilar.49.2.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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46
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DeFilippis VR. Induction and evasion of the type I interferon response by cytomegaloviruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2007; 598:309-24. [PMID: 17892221 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-71767-8_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cytomegaloviruses represent supreme pathogens in that they are capable of occupying healthy mammalian hosts for life in the face of constant antiviral immune reactions. The inability of the host to eliminate the virus likely results from numerous counteractive strategies employed to disrupt the immune response. The role of type I interferon in the antiviral response has been well documented although only recently have the pathways of induction of this powerful cytokine been described. Cytomegaloviruses have been shown to both induce and be sensitive to the effects of type I interferon. Yet these viruses also possess numerous and varied phenotypes capable of inhibiting not only interferon induction but also interferon signaling and interferon-induced antiviral processes. The balance between induction and evasion of type I interferon responses by cytomegaloviruses is discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor R DeFilippis
- Oregon Health and Science University, Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, USA.
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47
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Messaoudi I, Warner J, Fischer M, Park B, Hill B, Mattison J, Lane MA, Roth GS, Ingram DK, Picker LJ, Douek DC, Mori M, Nikolich-Žugich J. Delay of T cell senescence by caloric restriction in aged long-lived nonhuman primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:19448-53. [PMID: 17159149 PMCID: PMC1748246 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0606661103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Caloric restriction (CR) has long been known to increase median and maximal lifespans and to decreases mortality and morbidity in short-lived animal models, likely by altering fundamental biological processes that regulate aging and longevity. In rodents, CR was reported to delay the aging of the immune system (immune senescence), which is believed to be largely responsible for a dramatic increase in age-related susceptibility to infectious diseases. However, it is unclear whether CR can exert similar effects in long-lived organisms. Previous studies involving 2- to 4-year CR treatment of long-lived primates failed to find a CR effect or reported effects on the immune system opposite to those seen in CR-treated rodents. Here we show that long-term CR delays the adverse effects of aging on nonhuman primate T cells. CR effected a marked improvement in the maintenance and/or production of naïve T cells and the consequent preservation of T cell receptor repertoire diversity. Furthermore, CR also improved T cell function and reduced production of inflammatory cytokines by memory T cells. Our results provide evidence that CR can delay immune senescence in nonhuman primates, potentially contributing to an extended lifespan by reducing susceptibility to infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilhem Messaoudi
- *Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Jessica Warner
- *Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Miranda Fischer
- *Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Buyng Park
- Biostatistics Shared Resource, Oregon Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97201
| | - Brenna Hill
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Julie Mattison
- Laboratory of Experimental Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224; and
| | - Mark A. Lane
- Laboratory of Experimental Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224; and
| | | | - Donald K. Ingram
- Laboratory of Experimental Gerontology, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224; and
| | - Louis J. Picker
- *Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Daniel C. Douek
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892
| | - Motomi Mori
- Biostatistics Shared Resource, Oregon Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97201
| | - Janko Nikolich-Žugich
- *Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute and Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- **To whom correspondence should be addressed at:
Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, West Campus, 505 Northwest 185th Avenue, Beaverton, OR 97006. E-mail:
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48
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Yue Y, Kaur A, Eberhardt MK, Kassis N, Zhou SS, Tarantal AF, Barry PA. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of DNA vaccines expressing rhesus cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B, phosphoprotein 65-2, and viral interleukin-10 in rhesus macaques. J Virol 2006; 81:1095-109. [PMID: 17108040 PMCID: PMC1797524 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01708-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) infection of macaques exhibits strong similarities to human CMV (HCMV) persistence and pathogenesis. The immunogenicity of DNA vaccines encoding three RhCMV proteins (a truncated version of glycoprotein B lacking the transmembrane region and endodomain [gBDeltaTM], phosphoprotein 65-2 [pp65-2], and viral interleukin-10 [vIL-10]) was evaluated in rhesus macaques. Two groups of monkeys (four per group) were genetically immunized four times with a mixture of either pp65-2 and gBDeltaTM or pp65-2, vIL-10, and gBDeltaTM. The vaccinees developed anti-gB and anti-pp65-2 antibodies in addition to pp65-2 cellular responses after the second booster immunization, with rapid responses observed with subsequent DNA injections. Weak vIL-10 immune responses were detected in two of the four immunized animals. Neutralizing antibodies were detected in seven monkeys, although titers were weak compared to those observed in naturally infected animals. The immunized monkeys and naïve controls were challenged intravenously with 10(5) PFU of RhCMV. Anamnestic binding and neutralizing antibody responses were observed 1 week postchallenge in the vaccinees. DNA vaccination-induced immune responses significantly decreased peak viral loads in the immunized animals compared to those in the controls. No difference in peak viral loads was observed between the pp65-2/gBDeltaTM DNA- and pp65-2/vIL-10/gBDeltaTM-vaccinated groups. Antibody responses to nonvaccine antigens were lower postchallenge in both vaccine groups than in the controls, suggesting long-term control of RhCMV protein expression. These data demonstrated that DNA vaccines targeting the RhCMV homologues of HCMV gB and pp65 altered the course of acute and persistent RhCMV infection in a primate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujuan Yue
- Center for Comparative Medicine, University of California Davis, County Rd. 98 and Hutchison Dr., Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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Barry PA, Lockridge KM, Salamat S, Tinling SP, Yue Y, Zhou SS, Gospe SM, Britt WJ, Tarantal AF. Nonhuman primate models of intrauterine cytomegalovirus infection. ILAR J 2006; 47:49-64. [PMID: 16391431 DOI: 10.1093/ilar.47.1.49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Congenital human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection has long been recognized as a threat to the developing fetus, even though studies have shown that only a subset of congenital infections results in clinical signs of disease. Among the estimated 8000 children who develop sequelae from congenital CMV infection each year in the United States alone, most suffer permanent developmental defects within the central nervous system. Because there is currently no approved vaccine for HCMV, and anti-HCMV drugs are not administered to gravid women with congenital infection because of potential toxicity to the fetus, there is a clear clinical need for effective strategies that minimize infection in the mother, transplacental transmission of the virus, and/or fetal disease. Animal models provide a method to understand the mechanisms of HCMV persistence and pathogenesis, and allow for testing of novel strategies that limit prenatal infection and disease. The rhesus macaque model is especially well suited for these tasks because monkeys and humans share strong developmental, immunological, anatomical, and biochemical similarities due to their close phylogenetic relationship. This nonhuman primate model provides an invaluable system to accelerate the clinical development of promising new therapies for the treatment of human disease. This review addresses salient findings with the macaque model as they relate to HCMV infection and potential avenues of discovery, including studies of intrauterine CMV infection. The complexity of the natural history of HCMV is discussed, along with the ethical and logistical issues associated with studies during pregnancy, the recent contributions of animal research in this field of study, and future prospects for increasing our understanding of immunity against HCMV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter A Barry
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Center for Comparative Medicine, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Jones-Engel L, Engel GA, Heidrich J, Chalise M, Poudel N, Viscidi R, Barry PA, Allan JS, Grant R, Kyes R. Temple monkeys and health implications of commensalism, Kathmandu, Nepal. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:900-6. [PMID: 16707044 PMCID: PMC3373059 DOI: 10.3201/eid1206.060030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans in contact with macaques risk exposure to enzootic primateborne viruses. The threat of zoonotic transmission of infectious agents at monkey temples highlights the necessity of investigating the prevalence of enzootic infectious agents in these primate populations. Biological samples were collected from 39 rhesus macaques at the Swoyambhu Temple and tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot, polymerase chain reaction, or combination of these tests for evidence of infection with rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV), Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (CHV-1), simian virus 40 (SV40), simian retrovirus (SRV), simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and simian foamy virus (SFV). Antibody seroprevalence was 94.9% to RhCMV (37/39), 89.7% to SV40 (35/39), 64.1% to CHV-1 (25/39), and 97.4% to SFV (38/39). Humans who come into contact with macaques at Swoyambhu risk exposure to enzootic primateborne viruses. We discuss implications for public health and primate management strategies that would reduce contact between humans and primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Jones-Engel
- University of Washington--National Primate Research Center, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA.
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