1
|
Dürrwald R, Kolodziejek J, Oh DY, Herzog S, Liebermann H, Osterrieder N, Nowotny N. Vaccination against Borna Disease: Overview, Vaccine Virus Characterization and Investigation of Live and Inactivated Vaccines. Viruses 2022; 14:v14122706. [PMID: 36560710 PMCID: PMC9788498 DOI: 10.3390/v14122706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Vaccination of horses and sheep against Borna disease (BD) was common in endemic areas of Germany in the 20th century but was abandoned in the early 1990s. The recent occurrence of fatal cases of human encephalitis due to Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) has rekindled the interest in vaccination. (2) Methods: The full genomes of the BD live vaccine viruses "Dessau" and "Giessen" were sequenced and analyzed for the first time. All vaccination experiments followed a proof-of-concept approach. Dose-titration infection experiments were performed in rabbits, based on both cell culture- and brain-derived viruses at various doses. Inactivated vaccines against BD were produced from concentrated cell culture supernatants and investigated in rabbits and horses. The BoDV-1 live vaccine "Dessau" was administered to horses and antibody profiles were determined. (3) Results: The BD live vaccine viruses "Dessau" and "Giessen" belong to clusters 3 and 4 of BoDV-1. Whereas the "Giessen" virus does not differ substantially from field viruses, the "Dessau" virus shows striking differences in the M gene and the N-terminal part of the G gene. Rabbits infected with high doses of cell-cultured virus developed neutralizing antibodies and were protected from disease, whereas rabbits infected with low doses of cell-cultured virus, or with brain-derived virus did not. Inactivated vaccines were administered to rabbits and horses, following pre-defined vaccination schemes consisting of three vaccine doses of either adjuvanted or nonadjuvanted inactivated virus. Their immunogenicity and protective efficacy were compared to the BD live vaccine "Dessau". Seventy per cent of horses vaccinated with the BD live vaccine "Dessau" developed neutralizing antibodies after vaccination. (4) Conclusion: Despite a complex evasion of immunological responses by bornaviruses, some vaccination approaches can protect against clinical disease. For optimal effectiveness, vaccines should be administered at high doses, following vaccination schemes consisting of three vaccine doses as basic immunization. Further investigations are necessary in order to investigate and improve protection against infection and to avoid side effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Dürrwald
- Unit 17: Influenza and Other Viruses of the Respiratory Tract, Department of Infectious Diseases, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-30-18754-2456
| | - Jolanta Kolodziejek
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Djin-Ye Oh
- Unit 17: Influenza and Other Viruses of the Respiratory Tract, Department of Infectious Diseases, Robert Koch Institute, Seestraße 10, 13353 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sibylle Herzog
- Institute of Virology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Heinrich Liebermann
- retd., former Institute of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Norbert Nowotny
- Institute of Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai P.O. Box 505055, United Arab Emirates
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Rubbenstroth D. Avian Bornavirus Research—A Comprehensive Review. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071513. [PMID: 35891493 PMCID: PMC9321243 DOI: 10.3390/v14071513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian bornaviruses constitute a genetically diverse group of at least 15 viruses belonging to the genus Orthobornavirus within the family Bornaviridae. After the discovery of the first avian bornaviruses in diseased psittacines in 2008, further viruses have been detected in passerines and aquatic birds. Parrot bornaviruses (PaBVs) possess the highest veterinary relevance amongst the avian bornaviruses as the causative agents of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). PDD is a chronic and often fatal disease that may engulf a broad range of clinical presentations, typically including neurologic signs as well as impaired gastrointestinal motility, leading to proventricular dilatation. It occurs worldwide in captive psittacine populations and threatens private bird collections, zoological gardens and rehabilitation projects of endangered species. In contrast, only little is known about the pathogenic roles of passerine and waterbird bornaviruses. This comprehensive review summarizes the current knowledge on avian bornavirus infections, including their taxonomy, pathogenesis of associated diseases, epidemiology, diagnostic strategies and recent developments on prophylactic and therapeutic countermeasures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Rubbenstroth
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Komatsu Y, Tomonaga K. Reverse genetics approaches of Borna disease virus: applications in development of viral vectors and preventive vaccines. Curr Opin Virol 2020; 44:42-48. [PMID: 32659515 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2020.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The plasmid-based reverse genetics system, which involves generation of recombinant viruses from cloned cDNA, has accelerated the understanding of clinical and virological aspects of different viruses. Borna disease virus (BoDV) is a nonsegmented, negative-strand RNA virus that causes persistent intranuclear infection in various vertebrate species. Since its first report, reverse genetics approaches with modified strategies have greatly improved rescue efficiency of recombinant BoDV and enhanced the understanding of function of each viral protein and mechanism of intranuclear persistency. Here, we summarize different reverse genetics approaches of BoDV and recent developments in the use of reverse genetics for generation of viral vectors for gene therapy and virus-like particles for potential preventive vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yumiko Komatsu
- Laboratory of RNA Viruses, Department of Virus Research, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences (inFront), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Keihanshin Consortium for Fostering the Next Generation of Global Leaders in Research, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keizo Tomonaga
- Laboratory of RNA Viruses, Department of Virus Research, Institute for Frontier Life and Medical Sciences (inFront), Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Department of Mammalian Regulatory Network, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan; Department of Molecular Virology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Nobach D, Müller J, Tappe D, Herden C. Update on immunopathology of bornavirus infections in humans and animals. Adv Virus Res 2020; 107:159-222. [PMID: 32711729 DOI: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2020.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge on bornaviruses has expanded tremendously during the last decade through detection of novel bornaviruses and endogenous bornavirus-like elements in many eukaryote genomes, as well as by confirmation of insectivores as reservoir species for classical Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1). The most intriguing finding was the demonstration of the zoonotic potential of lethal human bornavirus infections caused by a novel bornavirus of different squirrel species (variegated squirrel 1 bornavirus, VSBV-1) and by BoDV-1 known as the causative agent for the classical Borna disease in horses and sheep. Whereas a T cell-mediated immunopathology has already been confirmed as key disease mechanism for infection with BoDV-1 by experimental studies in rodents, the underlying pathomechanisms remain less clear for human bornavirus infections, infection with other bornaviruses or infection of reservoir species. Thus, an overview of current knowledge on the pathogenesis of bornavirus infections focusing on immunopathology is given.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Nobach
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Jana Müller
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Dennis Tappe
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christiane Herden
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; Center for Brain, Mind and Behavior, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hameed SS, Guo J, Tizard I, Shivaprasad HL, Payne S. Studies on immunity and immunopathogenesis of parrot bornaviral disease in cockatiels. Virology 2017; 515:81-91. [PMID: 29274528 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have demonstrated that vaccination of cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) with killed parrot bornavirus (PaBV) plus recombinant PaBV-4 nucleoprotein (N) in alum was protective against disease in birds challenged with a virulent bornavirus isolate (PaBV-2). Unvaccinated birds, as well as birds vaccinated after challenge, developed gross and histologic lesions typical of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD). There was no evidence that vaccination either before or after challenge made the infection more severe. Birds vaccinated prior to challenge largely remained free of disease, despite the persistence of the virus in many organs. Similar results were obtained when recombinant N, in alum, was used for vaccination. In some rodent models, Borna disease is immune mediated thus we did an additional study whereby cyclosporine A was administered to unvaccinated birds starting 1day prior to challenge. This treatment also conferred complete protection from disease, but not infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samer Sadeq Hameed
- Schubot Exotic Bird Health Center, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Jianhua Guo
- Schubot Exotic Bird Health Center, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Ian Tizard
- Schubot Exotic Bird Health Center, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - H L Shivaprasad
- University of California-Davis, CAHFS - Tulare Branch, 18830 Road 112, Tulare, CA 93274, USA
| | - Susan Payne
- Schubot Exotic Bird Health Center, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Viral vector vaccines protect cockatiels from inflammatory lesions after heterologous parrot bornavirus 2 challenge infection. Vaccine 2016; 35:557-563. [PMID: 28017426 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Avian bornaviruses are causative agents of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), a chronic neurologic and often fatal disorder of psittacines including endangered species. To date no causative therapy or immunoprophylaxis is available. Our previous work has shown that viral vector vaccines can delay the course of homologous bornavirus challenge infections but failed to protect against PDD when persistent infection was not prevented. The goal of this study was to refine our avian bornavirus vaccination and infection model to better represent natural bornavirus infections in order to achieve full protection against a heterologous challenge infection. We observed that parrot bornavirus 2 (PaBV-2) readily infected cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) by combined intramuscular and subcutaneous injection with as little as 102.7foci-forming units (ffu) per bird, whereas a 500-fold higher dose of the same virus administered via peroral and oculonasal route did not result in persistent infection. These results indicated that experimental bornavirus challenge infections with this virus should be performed via the parenteral route. Prime-boost vaccination of cockatiels with Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) vectors expressing the nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein genes of PaBV-4 substantially blocked bornavirus replication following parenteral challenge infection with 103.5ffu of heterologous PaBV-2. Only two out of six vaccinated birds had very low viral levels detectable in a few organs. As a consequence, only one vaccinated bird developed mild PDD-associated microscopic lesions, while mock-vaccinated controls were not protected against PaBV-2 infection and inflammation. Our results demonstrate that NDV and MVA vector vaccines can protect against invasive heterologous bornavirus challenge infections and subsequent PDD. These vector vaccines represent a promising tool to combat avian bornaviruses in psittacine populations.
Collapse
|
7
|
Olbert M, Römer-Oberdörfer A, Herden C, Malberg S, Runge S, Staeheli P, Rubbenstroth D. Viral vector vaccines expressing nucleoprotein and phosphoprotein genes of avian bornaviruses ameliorate homologous challenge infections in cockatiels and common canaries. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36840. [PMID: 27830736 PMCID: PMC5103271 DOI: 10.1038/srep36840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian bornaviruses are causative agents of proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), an often fatal disease of parrots and related species (order Psittaciformes) which is widely distributed in captive psittacine populations and may affect endangered species. Here, we established a vaccination strategy employing two different well described viral vectors, namely recombinant Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) that were engineered to express the phosphoprotein and nucleoprotein genes of two avian bornaviruses, parrot bornavirus 4 (PaBV-4) and canary bornavirus 2 (CnBV-2). When combined in a heterologous prime/boost vaccination regime, NDV and MVA vaccine viruses established self-limiting infections and induced a bornavirus-specific humoral immune response in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and common canaries (Serinus canaria forma domestica). After challenge infection with a homologous bornavirus, shedding of bornavirus RNA and viral loads in tissue samples were significantly reduced in immunized birds, indicating that vaccination markedly delayed the course of infection. However, cockatiels still developed signs of PDD if the vaccine failed to prevent viral persistence. Our work demonstrates that avian bornavirus infections can be repressed by vaccine-induced immunity. It represents a first crucial step towards a protective vaccination strategy to combat PDD in psittacine birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marita Olbert
- Institute for Virology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Angela Römer-Oberdörfer
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald – Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Christiane Herden
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, University Justus Liebig Gießen, Frankfurter Str. 96, D-35392 Gießen, Germany
| | - Sara Malberg
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, University Justus Liebig Gießen, Frankfurter Str. 96, D-35392 Gießen, Germany
| | - Solveig Runge
- Institute for Virology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Peter Staeheli
- Institute for Virology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Dennis Rubbenstroth
- Institute for Virology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rubbenstroth D, Brosinski K, Rinder M, Olbert M, Kaspers B, Korbel R, Staeheli P. No contact transmission of avian bornavirus in experimentally infected cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) and domestic canaries (Serinus canaria forma domestica). Vet Microbiol 2014; 172:146-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 04/29/2014] [Accepted: 05/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
9
|
Lee EY, Schultz KLW, Griffin DE. Mice deficient in interferon-gamma or interferon-gamma receptor 1 have distinct inflammatory responses to acute viral encephalomyelitis. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76412. [PMID: 24204622 PMCID: PMC3811984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon (IFN)-gamma is an important component of the immune response to viral infections that can have a role both in controlling virus replication and inducing inflammatory damage. To determine the role of IFN-gamma in fatal alphavirus encephalitis, we have compared the responses of wild type C57BL/6 (WTB6) mice with mice deficient in either IFN-gamma (GKO) or the alpha-chain of the IFN-gamma receptor (GRKO) after intranasal infection with a neuroadapted strain of sindbis virus. Mortalities of GKO and GRKO mice were similar to WTB6 mice. Both GKO and GRKO mice had delayed virus clearance from the brain and spinal cord, more infiltrating perforin(+) cells and lower levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and interleukin (IL)-6 mRNAs than WTB6 mice. However, inflammation was more intense in GRKO mice than WTB6 or GKO mice with more infiltrating CD3(+) T cells, greater expression of major histocompatibility complex-II and higher levels of interleukin-17A mRNA. Fibroblasts from GRKO embryos did not develop an antiviral response after treatment with IFN-gamma, but showed increases in TNF-alpha, IL-6, CXCL9 and CXCL10 mRNAs although these increases developed more slowly and were less intense than those of WTB6 fibroblasts. These data indicate that both GKO and GRKO mice fail to develop an IFN-gamma-mediated antiviral response, but differ in regulation of the inflammatory response to infection. Therefore, GKO and GRKO cannot be considered equivalent when assessing the role of IFN-gamma in CNS viral infections.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eun-Young Lee
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Kimberly L. W. Schultz
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Diane E. Griffin
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kinnunen PM, Palva A, Vaheri A, Vapalahti O. Epidemiology and host spectrum of Borna disease virus infections. J Gen Virol 2012; 94:247-262. [PMID: 23223618 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.046961-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) has gained lot of interest because of its zoonotic potential, ability to introduce cDNA of its RNA transcripts into host genomes, and ability to cause severe neurobehavioural diseases. Classical Borna disease is a progressive meningoencephalomyelitis in horses and sheep, known in central Europe for centuries. According to current knowledge, BDV or a close relative also infects several other species, including humans at least occasionally, in central Europe and elsewhere, but the existence of potential 'human Borna disease' with its suspected neuropsychiatric symptoms is highly controversial. The recent detection of endogenized BDV-like genes in primate and various other vertebrate genomes confirms that at least ancient bornaviruses did infect our ancestors. The epidemiology of BDV is largely unknown, but accumulating evidence indicates vectors and reservoirs among small wild mammals. The aim of this review is to bring together the current knowledge on epidemiology of BDV infections. Specifically, geographical and host distribution are addressed and assessed in the critical light of the detection methods used. We also review some salient clinical aspects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paula M Kinnunen
- Infection Biology Research Program Unit, Department of Virology, Haartman Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Airi Palva
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Antti Vaheri
- HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.,Infection Biology Research Program Unit, Department of Virology, Haartman Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Olli Vapalahti
- HUSLAB, Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland.,Infection Biology Research Program Unit, Department of Virology, Haartman Institute, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Veterinary Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Taylor K. Reporting the Implementation of the Three Rs in European Primate and Mouse Research Papers: Are We Making Progress? Altern Lab Anim 2010; 38:495-517. [DOI: 10.1177/026119291003800613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
It is now more than 20 years since both Council of Europe Convention ETS123 and EU Directive 86/609?EEC were introduced, to promote the implementation of the Three Rs in animal experimentation and to provide guidance on animal housing and care. It might therefore be expected that reports of the implementation of the Three Rs in animal research papers would have increased during this period. In order to test this hypothesis, a literature survey of animal-based research was conducted. A randomly-selected sample from 16 high-profile medical journals, of original research papers arising from European institutions that featured experiments which involved either mice or primates, were identified for the years 1986 and 2006 (Total sample = 250 papers). Each paper was scored out of 10 for the incidence of reporting on the implementation of Three Rs-related factors corresponding to Replacement (justification of non-use of non-animal methods), Reduction (statistical analysis of the number of animals needed) and Refinement (housing aspects, i.e. increased cage size, social housing, enrichment of cage environment and food; and procedural aspects, i.e. the use of anaesthesia, analgesia, humane endpoints, and training for procedures with positive reinforcement). There was no significant increase in overall reporting score over time, for either mouse or primate research. By 2006, mouse research papers scored an average of 0 out of a possible 10, and primate research papers scored an average of 1.5. This review provides systematic evidence that animal research is still not properly reported, and supports the call within the scientific community for action to be taken by journals to update their policies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katy Taylor
- British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Thanks to new technologies which enable rapid and unbiased screening for viral nucleic acids in clinical specimens, an impressive number of previously unknown viruses have recently been discovered. Two research groups independently identified a novel negative-strand RNA virus, now designated avian bornavirus (ABV), in parrots with proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), a severe lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis of the gastrointestinal tract of psittacine birds that is frequently accompanied by encephalomyelitis. Since its discovery, ABV has been detected worldwide in many captive parrots and in one canary with PDD. ABV induced a PDD-like disease in experimentally infected cockatiels, strongly suggesting that ABV is highly pathogenic in psittacine birds. Until the discovery of ABV, the Bornaviridae family consisted of a single species, classical Borna disease virus (BDV), which is the causative agent of a progressive neurological disorder that affects primarily horses, sheep, and some other farm animals in central Europe. Although ABV and BDV share many biological features, there exist several interesting differences, which are discussed in this review.
Collapse
|
13
|
Richter K, Hausmann J, Staeheli P. Interferon-gamma prevents death of bystander neurons during CD8 T cell responses in the brain. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2009; 174:1799-807. [PMID: 19359516 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2009.080897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
T cells restricted to neurotropic viruses are potentially harmful as their activity may result in the destruction of neurons. In the Borna disease virus (BDV) model, antiviral CD8 T cells entering the brain of infected mice cause neurological disease but no substantial loss of neurons unless the animals lack interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma). We show here that glutamate receptor antagonists failed to prevent BDV-induced neuronal loss in IFN-gamma-deficient mice, suggesting that excitotoxicity resulting from glutamate receptor overstimulation is an unlikely explanation for the neuronal damage. Experiments with IFN-gamma-deficient mice lacking eosinophils indicated that these cells, which specifically accumulate in the infected brains of IFN-gamma-deficient mice, are not responsible for CA1 neuronal death. Interestingly, BDV-induced damage of CA1 neurons was reduced significantly in IFN-gamma-deficient mice lacking perforin, suggesting a key role for CD8 T cells in this pathological process. Specific death of hippocampal CA1 neurons could be triggered by adoptive transfer of BDV-specific CD8 T cells from IFN-gamma-deficient mice into uninfected mice that express transgene-encoded BDV antigen at high level in astrocytes. These results indicate that attack by CD8 T cells that cause the death of CA1 neurons might be directed toward regional astrocytes and that IFN-gamma protects vulnerable CA1 neurons from collateral damage resulting from exposure to potentially toxic substances generated as a result of CD8 T cell-mediated impairment of astrocyte function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Richter
- Department of Virology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Antiviral CD8 T cells recognize borna disease virus antigen transgenically expressed in either neurons or astrocytes. J Virol 2008; 82:3099-108. [PMID: 18184705 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02479-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) can persistently infect the central nervous system (CNS) of mice. The infection remains nonsymptomatic as long as antiviral CD8 T cells do not infiltrate the infected brain. BDV mainly infects neurons which reportedly carry few, if any, major histocompatibility complex class I molecules on the surface. Therefore, it remains unclear whether T cells can recognize replicating virus in these cells or whether cross-presentation of viral antigen by other cell types is important for immune recognition of BDV. To distinguish between these possibilities, we used two lines of transgenic mice that strongly express the N protein of BDV in either neurons (Neuro-N) or astrocytes (Astro-N). Since these animals are tolerant to the neo-self-antigen, we adoptively transferred T cells with specificity for BDV N. In nontransgenic mice persistently infected with BDV, the transferred cells accumulated in the brain parenchyma along with immune cells of host origin and efficiently induced neurological disease. Neurological disease was also observed if antiviral T cells were injected into the brains of Astro-N or Neuro-N but not nontransgenic control mice. Our results demonstrate that CD8 T cells can recognize foreign antigen on neurons and astrocytes even in the absence of infection or inflammation, indicating that these CNS cell types are playing an active role in immune recognition of viruses.
Collapse
|
15
|
Richter K, Baur K, Ackermann A, Schneider U, Hausmann J, Staeheli P. Pathogenic potential of borna disease virus lacking the immunodominant CD8 T-cell epitope. J Virol 2007; 81:11187-94. [PMID: 17686872 PMCID: PMC2045572 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00742-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) is a highly neurotropic, noncytolytic virus. Experimentally infected B10.BR mice remain healthy unless specific antiviral T cells that infiltrate the infected brain are triggered by immunization. In contrast, infected MRL mice spontaneously mount an antiviral T-cell response that can result in meningoencephalitis and neurological disease. The antiviral T cells may, alternatively, eliminate the virus without inducing disease if they are present in sufficient numbers before the virus replicates to high titers. Since the immune response of H-2(k) mice is directed mainly against the epitope TELEISSI located in the viral nucleoprotein N, we generated BDV mutants that feature TQLEISSI in place of TELEISSI. We show that adoptive transfer of BDV N-specific CD8 T cells induced neurological disease in B10.BR mice persistently infected with wild-type BDV but not with the mutant virus expressing TQLEISSI. Surprisingly, the mutant virus replicated less well in adult MRL wild-type mice than in mutant mice lacking mature CD8 T cells. Furthermore, when MRL mice were infected with the TQLEISSI-expressing BDV mutant as newborns, neurological disease was observed, although at a lower rate and with slower kinetics than in mice infected with wild-type virus. These results confirm that TELEISSI is the major CD8 T-cell epitope in H-2(k) mice and suggest that unidentified minor epitopes are present in the BDV proteome which are recognized rather efficiently by antiviral T cells if the dominant epitope is absent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Richter
- Department of Virology, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Strasse 11, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hausmann J, Pagenstecher A, Baur K, Richter K, Rziha HJ, Staeheli P. CD8 T cells require gamma interferon to clear borna disease virus from the brain and prevent immune system-mediated neuronal damage. J Virol 2005; 79:13509-18. [PMID: 16227271 PMCID: PMC1262614 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.79.21.13509-13518.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) frequently causes meningoencephalitis and fatal neurological disease in young but not old mice of strain MRL. Disease does not result from the virus-induced destruction of infected neurons. Rather, it is mediated by H-2(k)-restricted antiviral CD8 T cells that recognize a peptide derived from the BDV nucleoprotein N. Persistent BDV infection in mice is not spontaneously cleared. We report here that N-specific vaccination can protect wild-type MRL mice but not mutant MRL mice lacking gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) from persistent infection with BDV. Furthermore, we observed a significant degree of resistance of old MRL mice to persistent BDV infection that depended on the presence of CD8 T cells. We found that virus initially infected hippocampal neurons around 2 weeks after intracerebral infection but was eventually cleared in most wild-type MRL mice. Unexpectedly, young as well as old IFN-gamma-deficient MRL mice were completely susceptible to infection with BDV. Moreover, neurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus were severely damaged in most diseased IFN-gamma-deficient mice but not in wild-type mice. Furthermore, large numbers of eosinophils were present in the inflamed brains of IFN-gamma-deficient mice but not in those of wild-type mice, presumably because of increased intracerebral synthesis of interleukin-13 and the chemokines CCL1 and CCL11, which can attract eosinophils. These results demonstrate that IFN-gamma plays a central role in host resistance against infection of the central nervous system with BDV and in clearance of BDV from neurons. They further indicate that IFN-gamma may function as a neuroprotective factor that can limit the loss of neurons in the course of antiviral immune responses in the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Hausmann
- Department of Virology, Bavarian Nordic GmbH, Fraunhoferstrasse 13, D-82152 Martinsried, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|