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Mahony TJ, Briody TE, Ommeh SC. Can the Revolution in mRNA-Based Vaccine Technologies Solve the Intractable Health Issues of Current Ruminant Production Systems? Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:152. [PMID: 38400135 PMCID: PMC10893269 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
To achieve the World Health Organization's global Sustainable Development Goals, increased production of high-quality protein for human consumption is required while minimizing, ideally reducing, environmental impacts. One way to achieve these goals is to address losses within current livestock production systems. Infectious diseases are key limiters of edible protein production, affecting both quantity and quality. In addition, some of these diseases are zoonotic threats and potential contributors to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. Vaccination has proven to be highly successful in controlling and even eliminating several livestock diseases of economic importance. However, many livestock diseases, both existing and emerging, have proven to be recalcitrant targets for conventional vaccination technologies. The threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in unprecedented global investment in vaccine technologies to accelerate the development of safe and efficacious vaccines. While several vaccination platforms emerged as front runners to meet this challenge, the clear winner is mRNA-based vaccination. The challenge now is for livestock industries and relevant stakeholders to harness these rapid advances in vaccination to address key diseases affecting livestock production. This review examines the key features of mRNA vaccines, as this technology has the potential to control infectious diseases of importance to livestock production that have proven otherwise difficult to control using conventional approaches. This review focuses on the challenging diseases of ruminants due to their importance in global protein production. Overall, the current literature suggests that, while mRNA vaccines have the potential to address challenges in veterinary medicine, further developments are likely to be required for this promise to be realized for ruminant and other livestock species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Mahony
- Centre for Animal Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia; (T.E.B.); (S.C.O.)
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Riitho V, Strong R, Larska M, Graham SP, Steinbach F. Bovine Pestivirus Heterogeneity and Its Potential Impact on Vaccination and Diagnosis. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101134. [PMID: 33036281 PMCID: PMC7601184 DOI: 10.3390/v12101134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine Pestiviruses A and B, formerly known as bovine viral diarrhoea viruses (BVDV)-1 and 2, respectively, are important pathogens of cattle worldwide, responsible for significant economic losses. Bovine viral diarrhoea control programmes are in effect in several high-income countries but less so in low- and middle-income countries where bovine pestiviruses are not considered in disease control programmes. However, bovine pestiviruses are genetically and antigenically diverse, which affects the efficiency of the control programmes. The emergence of atypical ruminant pestiviruses (Pestivirus H or BVDV-3) from various parts of the world and the detection of Pestivirus D (border disease virus) in cattle highlights the challenge that pestiviruses continue to pose to control measures including the development of vaccines with improved cross-protective potential and enhanced diagnostics. This review examines the effect of bovine pestivirus diversity and emergence of atypical pestiviruses in disease control by vaccination and diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Riitho
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK; (V.R.); (R.S.)
| | - Rebecca Strong
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK; (V.R.); (R.S.)
| | - Magdalena Larska
- Department of Virology, National Veterinary Research Institute, Al. Partyzantów 57, 24-100 Puławy, Poland;
| | - Simon P. Graham
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright GU24 0NF, UK;
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guilford GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, APHA-Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone KT15 3NB, UK; (V.R.); (R.S.)
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guilford GU2 7XH, UK
- Correspondence:
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Riitho V, Walters AA, Somavarapu S, Lamp B, Rümenapf T, Krey T, Rey FA, Oviedo-Orta E, Stewart GR, Locker N, Steinbach F, Graham SP. Design and evaluation of the immunogenicity and efficacy of a biomimetic particulate formulation of viral antigens. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13743. [PMID: 29062078 PMCID: PMC5653838 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13915-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Subunit viral vaccines are typically not as efficient as live attenuated or inactivated vaccines at inducing protective immune responses. This paper describes an alternative ‘biomimetic’ technology; whereby viral antigens were formulated around a polymeric shell in a rationally arranged fashion with a surface glycoprotein coated on to the surface and non-structural antigen and adjuvant encapsulated. We evaluated this model using BVDV E2 and NS3 proteins formulated in poly-(D, L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles adjuvanted with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C) as an adjuvant (Vaccine-NP). This Vaccine-NP was compared to ovalbumin and poly(I:C) formulated in a similar manner (Control-NP) and a commercial adjuvanted inactivated BVDV vaccine (IAV), all inoculated subcutaneously and boosted prior to BVDV-1 challenge. Significant virus-neutralizing activity, and E2 and NS3 specific antibodies were observed in both Vaccine-NP and IAV groups following the booster immunisation. IFN-γ responses were observed in ex vivo PBMC stimulated with E2 and NS3 proteins in both vaccinated groups. We observed that the protection afforded by the particulate vaccine was comparable to the licenced IAV formulation. In conclusion, the biomimetic particulates showed a promising immunogenicity and efficacy profile that may be improved by virtue of being a customisable mode of delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Riitho
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom.,International Livestock Research Institute, P.O. Box 30709, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya
| | - Adam A Walters
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom.,The Jenner Institute, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7DQ, United Kingdom
| | | | - Benjamin Lamp
- Institute for Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Till Rümenapf
- Institute for Virology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
| | - Thomas Krey
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Virologie Structurale, Department Virologie, Paris CNRS UMR, 3569, Paris, France.,Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Felix A Rey
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Virologie Structurale, Department Virologie, Paris CNRS UMR, 3569, Paris, France
| | - Ernesto Oviedo-Orta
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom.,Sanofi Pasteur, 1541, Avenue Marcel Merieux - Campus Merieux, 69280, Marcy, L'Etoile, France
| | - Graham R Stewart
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Nicolas Locker
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Falko Steinbach
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom
| | - Simon P Graham
- Virology Department, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Woodham Lane, Addlestone, KT15 3NB, United Kingdom. .,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, United Kingdom. .,The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, United Kingdom.
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Resistance to Chronic Toxoplasma gondii Infection Induced by a DNA Vaccine Expressing GRA16. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 2017:1295038. [PMID: 28875149 PMCID: PMC5569751 DOI: 10.1155/2017/1295038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii can infect all warm-blooded animals including human beings. T. gondii dense granule protein 16 (TgGRA16) as a crucial virulence factor could modulate the host gene expression. Here, a DNA vaccine expressing TgGRA16 was constructed to explore the protective efficacy against T. gondii infection in Kunming mice. The immune responses induced by pVAX-GRA16 were also evaluated. Mice immunized with pVAX-GRA16 could elicit higher levels of specific IgG antibody and strong cellular response compared to those in controls. The DNA vaccination significantly increased the levels of cytokines (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10) and the percentages of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in mice. After lethal challenge, mice immunized with pVAX-GRA16 (8.4 ± 0.78 days) did not show a significant longer survival time than that in controls (7.1 ± 0.30 days) (p > 0.05). However, in chronic toxoplasmosis model (administration of 10 brain cysts of PRU strain orally), numbers of tissue cysts in mice immunized with pVAX-GRA16 were significantly reduced compared to those in controls (p < 0.05) and the rate of reduction could reach 43.89%. The results indicated that the TgGRA16 would be a promising vaccine candidate for further development of effective epitope-based vaccines against chronic T. gondii infection in mice.
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Sadat SM, Snider M, Garg R, Brownlie R, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S. Local innate responses and protective immunity after intradermal immunization with bovine viral diarrhea virus E2 protein formulated with a combination adjuvant in cattle. Vaccine 2017; 35:3466-3473. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2017] [Revised: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Induction of functional interferon alpha and gamma responses during acute infection of cattle with non-cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus. Vet Microbiol 2016; 195:104-114. [PMID: 27771055 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
As a part of their pathogenic mechanism, many pathogens causing persistent infections, including bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), immunosuppress their hosts, often by limiting the ability to either produce, or respond to, interferon. The objective of this study was to quantify the extent to which an acute infection of cattle with a non-cytopathic strain of BVDV induces interferon responses and to establish the functionality of these responses. Functionality of responses was investigated using a bovine specific peptide array to monitor kinase-mediated signal transduction activity within peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) at time points corresponding to the interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and alpha (IFN-α) responsive phases of acute BVDV infection. Further, with an appreciation of diverse mechanisms and levels at which pathogens modulate host cell defences, patterns of expression of IFN-γ and -α responsive genes were also quantified within PBMCs. Infection of cows with ncpBVDV2-1373 induced significant increases in levels of serum IFN-γ and IFN-α. Within the PBMCs of the infected animals, distinct patterns of kinase-mediated signal transduction activity, in particular with respect to activation of classic IFN-activated signalling pathways, such as Jak-Stat, as well as induced expression of IFN-γ and IFN-α regulated genes, support the functionality of the host interferon response.
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Downey-Slinker E, Ridpath J, Sawyer J, Skow L, Herring A. Antibody titers to vaccination are not predictive of level of protection against a BVDV type 1b challenge in Bos indicus - Bos taurus steers. Vaccine 2016; 34:5053-5059. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.08.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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8
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Xu Q, Cui N, Ma X, Wang F, Li H, Shen Z, Zhao X. Evaluation of a chimeric multi-epitope-based DNA vaccine against subgroup J avian leukosis virus in chickens. Vaccine 2016; 34:3751-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2016.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Abstract
In approaching the development of a veterinary vaccine, researchers must choose from a bewildering array of options that can be combined to enhance benefit. The choice and combination of options is not just driven by efficacy, but also consideration of the cost, practicality, and challenges faced in licensing the product. In this review we set out the different choices faced by veterinary vaccine developers, highlight some issues, and propose some pressing needs to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Chambers
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK.
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal and Plant Health Agency, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK.
| | - Simon P Graham
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, UK
| | - Roberto M La Ragione
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey, GU2 7AL, UK
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R El-Attar LM, Thomas C, Luke J, A Williams J, Brownlie J. Enhanced neutralising antibody response to bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) induced by DNA vaccination in calves. Vaccine 2015; 33:4004-12. [PMID: 26079613 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Revised: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
DNA vaccination is effective in inducing potent immunity in mice; however it appears to be less so in large animals. Increasing the dose of DNA plasmid to activate innate immunity has been shown to improve DNA vaccine adaptive immunity. Retinoic acid-inducible gene I (RIG-I) is a critical cytoplasmic double-stranded RNA pattern receptor required for innate immune activation in response to viral infection. RIG-I recognise viral RNA and trigger antiviral response, resulting in type I interferon (IFN) and inflammatory cytokine production. In an attempt to enhance the antibody response induced by BVDV DNA in cattle, we expressed BVDV truncated E2 (E2t) and NS3 codon optimised antigens from antibiotic free-plasmid vectors expressing a RIG-I agonist and designated either NTC E2t(co) and NTC NS3(co). To evaluate vaccine efficacy, groups of five BVDV-free calves were intramuscularly injected three times with NTC E2t(co) and NTC NS3(co) vaccine plasmids individually or in combination. Animals vaccinated with our (previously published) conventional DNA vaccines pSecTag/E2 and pTriExNS3 and plasmids expressing RIG-I agonist only presented both the positive and mock-vaccine groups. Our results showed that vaccines coexpressing E2t with a RIG-I agonist induced significantly higher E2 antigen specific antibody response (p<0.05). Additionally, E2t augmented the immune response to NS3 when the two vaccines were delivered in combination. Despite the lack of complete protection, on challenge day 4/5 calves vaccinated with NTC E2t(co) alone or NTC E2t(co) plus NTC NS3(co) had neutralising antibody titres exceeding 1/240 compared to 1/5 in the mock vaccine control group. Based on our results we conclude that co-expression of a RIG-I agonist with viral antigen could enhance DNA vaccine potency in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laila M R El-Attar
- Pathology & Pathogen Biology, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, UK.
| | - Carole Thomas
- Pathology & Pathogen Biology, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Jeremy Luke
- Nature Technology Corporation, 4701 Innovation Drive, Lincoln, NE 68521, USA
| | - James A Williams
- Nature Technology Corporation, 4701 Innovation Drive, Lincoln, NE 68521, USA
| | - Joe Brownlie
- Pathology & Pathogen Biology, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, Hertfordshire, UK
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Abstract
Pestiviruses are among the economically most important pathogens of livestock. The biology of these viruses is characterized by unique and interesting features that are both crucial for their success as pathogens and challenging from a scientific point of view. Elucidation of these features at the molecular level has made striking progress during recent years. The analyses revealed that major aspects of pestivirus biology show significant similarity to the biology of human hepatitis C virus (HCV). The detailed molecular analyses conducted for pestiviruses and HCV supported and complemented each other during the last three decades resulting in elucidation of the functions of viral proteins and RNA elements in replication and virus-host interaction. For pestiviruses, the analyses also helped to shed light on the molecular basis of persistent infection, a special strategy these viruses have evolved to be maintained within their host population. The results of these investigations are summarized in this chapter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert Tautz
- Institute for Virology and Cell Biology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Birke Andrea Tews
- Institut für Immunologie, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Gregor Meyers
- Institut für Immunologie, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Snider M, Garg R, Brownlie R, van den Hurk JV, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S. The bovine viral diarrhea virus E2 protein formulated with a novel adjuvant induces strong, balanced immune responses and provides protection from viral challenge in cattle. Vaccine 2014; 32:6758-64. [PMID: 25454860 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 10/04/2014] [Accepted: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is still one of the most serious pathogens in cattle, meriting the development of improved vaccines. Recently, we developed a new adjuvant consisting of poly[di(sodium carboxylatoethylphenoxy)]-phosphazene (PCEP), either CpG ODN or poly(I:C), and an immune defense regulator (IDR) peptide. As this adjuvant has been shown to mediate the induction of robust, balanced immune responses, it was evaluated in an E2 subunit vaccine against BVDV in lambs and calves. The BVDV type 2 E2 protein was produced at high levels in a mammalian expression system and purified. When formulated with either CpG ODN or poly(I:C), together with IDR and PCEP, the E2 protein elicited high antibody titers and production of IFN-γ secreting cells in lambs. As the immune responses were stronger when poly(I:C) was used, the E2 protein with poly(I:C), IDR and PCEP was subsequently tested in cattle. Robust virus neutralizing antibodies as well as cell-mediated immune responses, including CD8(+) cytotoxic T cell (CTL) responses, were induced. The fact that CTL responses were demonstrated in calves vaccinated with an E2 protein subunit vaccine indicates that this adjuvant formulation promotes cross-presentation. Furthermore, upon challenge with a high dose of virulent BVDV-2, the vaccinated calves showed almost no temperature response, weight loss, leukopenia or virus replication, in contrast to the control animals, which had severe clinical disease. These data suggest that this E2 subunit formulation induces significant protection from BVDV-2 challenge, and thus is a promising BVDV vaccine candidate; in addition, the adjuvant platform has applications in bovine vaccines in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Snider
- VIDO-Intervac, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Ravendra Garg
- VIDO-Intervac, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Robert Brownlie
- VIDO-Intervac, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Jan V van den Hurk
- VIDO-Intervac, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3
| | - Sylvia van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk
- VIDO-Intervac, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3; Microbiology and Immunology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5E3.
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Inclusion of the bovine neutrophil beta-defensin 3 with glycoprotein D of bovine herpesvirus 1 in a DNA vaccine modulates immune responses of mice and cattle. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2014; 21:463-77. [PMID: 24451331 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00696-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) causes recurrent respiratory and genital infections in cattle and predisposes them to lethal secondary infections. While modified live and killed BoHV-1 vaccines exist, these are not without problems. Development of an effective DNA vaccine for BoHV-1 has the potential to address these issues. As a strategy to enhance DNA vaccine immunity, a plasmid encoding the bovine neutrophil beta-defensin 3 (BNBD3) as a fusion with truncated glycoprotein D (tgD) and a mix of two plasmids encoding BNBD3 and tgD were tested in mice and cattle. In mice, coadministration of BNBD3 on the separate plasmid enhanced the tgD-induced gamma interferon (IFN-γ) response but not the antibody response. BNBD3 fused to tgD did not affect the antibody levels or the number of IFN-γ-secreting cells but increased the induction of tgD-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). In cattle, the addition of BNBD3 as a fusion construct also modified the immune response. While the IgG and virus-neutralizing antibody levels were not affected, the number of IFN-γ-secreting cells was increased after BoHV-1 challenge, specifically the CD8(+) IFN-γ(+) T cells, including CD8(+) IFN-γ(+) CD25(+) CTLs. While reduced virus shedding, rectal temperature, and weight loss were observed, the level of protection was comparable to that observed in pMASIA-tgD-vaccinated animals. These data show that coadministration of BNBD3 with a protective antigen as a fusion in a DNA vaccine strengthened the Th1 bias and increased cell-mediated immune responses but did not enhance protection from BoHV-1 infection.
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Two doses of bovine viral diarrhea virus DNA vaccine delivered by electroporation induce long-term protective immune responses. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2012; 20:166-73. [PMID: 23220999 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00565-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is a pathogen of major importance in cattle, so there is a need for new effective vaccines. DNA vaccines induce balanced immune responses and are relatively inexpensive and thus promising for both human and veterinary applications. In this study, newborn calves with maternal antibodies were vaccinated intramuscularly (i.m.) with a BVDV E2 DNA vaccine with the TriGrid Delivery System for i.m. delivery (TDS-IM). Two doses of this vaccine spaced 6 or 12 weeks apart were sufficient to induce significant virus-neutralizing antibody titers, numbers of activated T cells, and reduction in viral shedding and clinical presentations after BVDV-2 challenge. In contrast to the placebo-treated animals, the vaccinated calves did not lose any weight, which is an excellent indicator of the well-being of an animal and has a significant economic impact. Furthermore, the interval between the two vaccinations did not influence the magnitude of the immune responses or degree of clinical protection, and a third immunization was not necessary or beneficial. Since electroporation may enhance not only the magnitude but also the duration of immunity after DNA immunization, the interval between vaccination and challenge was extended in a second trial, which showed that two doses of this E2 DNA vaccine again significantly reduced clinical disease against BVDV for several months. These results are promising and support this technology for use against infectious diseases in cattle and large species, including humans, in general.
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Okay S, Özcengiz E, Özcengiz G. Immune responses against chimeric DNA and protein vaccines composed of plpEN-OmpH and PlpEC-OmpH from Pasteurella multocida A:3 in mice. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung 2012. [PMID: 23195557 DOI: 10.1556/amicr.59.2012.4.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Pasteurella multocida is a pathogenic bacterium causing many diseases that are of significant economic importance to livestock industries. Outer membrane protein H (ompH) gene and two fragments of Pasteurella lipoprotein E (plpE) gene, namely plpEN and plpEC, were cloned from P. multocida A:3. Three DNA vaccine formulations, namely pCMV-ompH, pCMV-plpEN-ompH and pCMV-plpEC-ompH and two protein-based prototype vaccines, alum adjuvanted PlpEN-OmpH and PlpEC-OmpH, were generated. Antibody levels were induced in mice vaccinated with chimeric DNA or protein vaccines. A significant (p < 0.05) increase in serum IFN-g titer was obtained by vaccination with 100 μg of pCMV-ompH, pCMV-plpEC-ompH and PlpEC-OmpH. DNA vaccines did not provide protection upon intraperitoneal challenge with 10 LD50 of live P. multocida A:3. However, 40% protection was conferred by 100 μg of PlpEC-OmpH which was not statistically significant. These results showed that plpEN-ompH and plpEC-ompH chimeric DNA vaccines and alum adjuvanted PlpEN-OmpH or PlpEC-OmpH protein vaccines were immunogenic but not protective against P. multocida A:3 in mice. Prime-boost strategies, i.e. priming with DNA vaccines and boost with protein formulations or different adjuvants can be utilized to obtain significant protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sezer Okay
- 1 Middle East Technical University Department of Biological Sciences 06800 Ankara Turkey
| | - Erkan Özcengiz
- 2 Middle East Technical University Berk Pharma Co., METU Technopolis Gumus Bloklaré, No. 14 06800 Ankara Turkey
| | - Gülay Özcengiz
- 1 Middle East Technical University Department of Biological Sciences 06800 Ankara Turkey
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Chase CCL. The impact of BVDV infection on adaptive immunity. Biologicals 2012; 41:52-60. [PMID: 23137817 DOI: 10.1016/j.biologicals.2012.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) causes immunosuppression of the adaptive immune response. The level of suppression of the adaptive immune response is strain dependent. The early events of antigen presentation require activation of toll-like receptors that results in the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Non-cytopathic (ncp) BVDV infection stimulates cytokines from macrophages in vitro but the effect of BVDV infection in vivo on macrophages or in vitro with monocytes is not clear. Antigen presentation is decreased and co-stimulatory molecules are down regulated. T-lymphocytes numbers are reduced following BVDV infection in a strain dependent manner. There is recruitment of lymphocytes to the bronchial alveolar space following cytopathic (cp) BVDV infection. Depletion of T-lymphocytes occurs in the lymphoid tissue and is strain dependent. BVDV cp T-lymphocyte responses appear to be primarily a T helper 1 response while the response following ncp BVDV induces a T helper 2 response. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTL), an important BVDV defense mechanism are compromised. The major neutralizing antigens are well characterized but cross-protection between strains is variable. PI animals have normal adaptive immune responses with the exception of the PI strain immunotolerance and mucosal disease may be a function of the level of gamma delta T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C L Chase
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, PO Box 2175, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
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Construction of chimeric bovine viral diarrhea viruses containing glycoprotein Erns of heterologous pestiviruses and evaluation of the chimeras as potential marker vaccines against BVDV. Vaccine 2012; 30:3843-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2011] [Revised: 03/30/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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18
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Pecora A, Aguirreburualde MSP, Aguirreburualde A, Leunda MR, Odeon A, Chiavenna S, Bochoeyer D, Spitteler M, Filippi JL, Dus Santos MJ, Levy SM, Wigdorovitz A. Safety and efficacy of an E2 glycoprotein subunit vaccine produced in mammalian cells to prevent experimental infection with bovine viral diarrhoea virus in cattle. Vet Res Commun 2012; 36:157-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s11259-012-9526-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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19
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Hill KL, Hunsaker BD, Townsend HG, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S, Griebel PJ. Mucosal immune response in newborn Holstein calves that had maternally derived antibodies and were vaccinated with an intranasal multivalent modified-live virus vaccine. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012; 240:1231-40. [DOI: 10.2460/javma.240.10.1231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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20
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Dar A, Lai K, Dent D, Potter A, Gerdts V, Babiuk LA, Mutwiri GK. Administration of poly[di(sodium carboxylatoethylphenoxy)]phosphazene (PCEP) as adjuvant activated mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses in pigs. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2012; 146:289-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2012.01.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2011] [Revised: 01/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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21
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Brun A, Bárcena J, Blanco E, Borrego B, Dory D, Escribano JM, Le Gall-Reculé G, Ortego J, Dixon LK. Current strategies for subunit and genetic viral veterinary vaccine development. Virus Res 2011; 157:1-12. [PMID: 21316403 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2010] [Revised: 02/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Developing vaccines for livestock provides researchers with the opportunity to perform efficacy testing in the natural hosts. This enables the evaluation of different strategies, including definition of effective antigens or antigen combinations, and improvement in delivery systems for target antigens so that protective immune responses can be modulated or potentiated. An impressive amount of knowledge has been generated in recent years on vaccine strategies and consequently a wide variety of antigen delivery systems is now available for vaccine research. This paper reviews several antigen production and delivery strategies other than those based on the use of live viral vectors. Genetic and protein subunit vaccines as well as alternative production systems are considered in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Brun
- Centro de Investigación en Sanidad Animal (CISA-INIA), Valdeolmos, 28130 Madrid, Spain.
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22
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Luo M, Qu X, Pan R, Zhu D, Zhang Y, Wu J, Pan Z. The virus-induced signaling adaptor molecule enhances DNA-raised immune protection against H5N1 influenza virus infection in mice. Vaccine 2011; 29:2561-7. [PMID: 21303708 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 01/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
As an adaptor molecule in the retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) signaling pathway, the virus-induced signaling adaptor (VISA) molecule activates NF-κB and IRF3 and thereby leads to the production of type I interferons (IFNs). To explore the potential of VISA as a genetic adjuvant for DNA vaccines, a eukaryotic expression plasmid, pVISA, was generated by cloning the VISA gene into the pVAX1vector. For comparison, the pTRIF plasmid was similarly constructed, encoding the known genetic adjuvant TRIF (TIR-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β), an adapter in the Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathway. Mice were immunized with the chimeric DNA vaccine pHA/NP(147-155), which encodes the HA (hemagglutinin) fused with NP (nucleoprotein) CTL epitope (NP(147-155)) of H5N1 influenza virus, either alone or in combination with pVISA or pTRIF. Antigen-specific immune responses were examined in immunized mice. Our results demonstrate that co-immunization of the pHA/NP(147-155) plasmid with the VISA adjuvant augmented DNA-raised cellular immune responses and provided protection against H5N1 influenza virus challenge in mice. In addition, our data suggest that VISA acts as a stronger adjuvant for DNA immunization than TRIF. We conclude that co-inoculation with a vector expressing the adaptor molecule VISA enhanced the protective immunity against H5N1 infection induced by pHA/NP(147-155) and that VISA could be developed as a novel genetic adjuvant for DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengcheng Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Hubei Province, Wuhan 430072, PR China
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van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S, Lawman Z, Wilson D, Luxembourg A, Ellefsen B, van den Hurk JV, Hannaman D. Electroporation enhances immune responses and protection induced by a bovine viral diarrhea virus DNA vaccine in newborn calves with maternal antibodies. Vaccine 2010; 28:6445-54. [PMID: 20670907 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.07.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Revised: 07/13/2010] [Accepted: 07/14/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is one of the major pathogens in cattle. In this study, newborn calves with maternal antibodies were vaccinated with a BVDV DNA vaccine, either by conventional intramuscular (IM) injection or with the TriGrid™ Delivery System for IM delivery (TDS-IM). The calves vaccinated with the TDS-IM developed more rapidly and effectively BVDV-specific humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in the presence of maternal antibodies. Overall, the immune responses induced by delivery with the TDS-IM remained stronger than those elicited by conventional IM injection of the BVDV DNA vaccine. Accordingly, electroporation-mediated delivery of the BVDV DNA vaccine resulted in close to complete protection from clinical signs of disease, while conventional IM administration did not fully prevent morbidity and mortality following challenge with BVDV-2. These results demonstrate the TDS-IM to be effective as a delivery system for a BVDV DNA vaccine in newborn calves in the presence of maternal antibodies, which supports the potential of electroporation as a delivery method for prophylactic DNA vaccines.
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Wan C, Yi L, Yang Z, Yang J, Shao H, Zhang C, Pan Z. The Toll-like receptor adaptor molecule TRIF enhances DNA vaccination against classical swine fever. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 137:47-53. [PMID: 20466439 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2009] [Revised: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To evaluate the effects of the Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor-inducing interferon-beta (TRIF) on immune responses induced by DNA vaccines, mice were immunized with the eukaryotic expression plasmid pcDNA/E2 encoding classical swine fever virus (CSFV) E2 alone or in combination with the TRIF genetic adjuvant. Immune responses were examined in immunized mice. Our data demonstrates that co-delivery of the DNA vaccine pcDNA/E2 with the TRIF adjuvant augmented specific humoral and cellular immune responses in a mouse model. Vaccination of pigs confirmed that the pcDNA/E2 in combination with TRIF conferred total protection against lethal challenge with highly virulent CSFV. We conclude that TRIF enhances the effects of the DNA vaccine against CSFV infection and could be used as a potential genetic adjuvant for DNA vaccines in large animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
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25
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Pecora A, Aguirreburualde MP, Rodriguez D, Seki C, Levy M, Bochoeyer D, Dus Santos M, Wigdorovitz A. Development and validation of an ELISA for quantitation of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus antigen in the critical stages of vaccine production. J Virol Methods 2009; 162:170-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2009.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2009] [Revised: 07/27/2009] [Accepted: 07/30/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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26
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Zhao HP, Sun JF, Li N, Sun Y, Wang Y, Qiu HJ. Prime-boost immunization using alphavirus replicon and adenovirus vectored vaccines induces enhanced immune responses against classical swine fever virus in mice. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2009; 131:158-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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27
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Abstract
DNA vaccines represent a new frontier in vaccine technology. One important application of this technology is in the veterinary arena. DNA vaccines have already gained a foothold in certain fields of veterinary medicine. However, several important questions must be addressed when developing DNA vaccines for animals, including whether or not the vaccine is efficacious and cost effective compared with currently available options. Another important question to consider is how to apply this developing technology in a wide range of different situations, from the domestic pet to individual fish in fisheries with several thousand animals, to wildlife programs for disease control. In some cases, DNA vaccines represent an interesting option for vaccination, while in others, currently available options are sufficient. This review will examine a number of diseases of veterinary importance and the progress being made in DNA vaccine technology relevant to these diseases, and we compare these with the conventional treatment options available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel Redding
- University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, 3800 Spruce Street, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA,
| | - David B Werner
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 422 Curie Boulevard – 505 SCL, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA, Tel.: +1 215 349 8365, Fax: +1215 573 9436,
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Alekseeva E, Sominskaya I, Skrastina D, Egorova I, Starodubova E, Kushners E, Mihailova M, Petrakova N, Bruvere R, Kozlovskaya T, Isaguliants M, Pumpens P. Enhancement of the expression of HCV core gene does not enhance core-specific immune response in DNA immunization: advantages of the heterologous DNA prime, protein boost immunization regimen. GENETIC VACCINES AND THERAPY 2009; 7:7. [PMID: 19505299 PMCID: PMC2702340 DOI: 10.1186/1479-0556-7-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2008] [Accepted: 06/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis C core protein is an attractive target for HCV vaccine aimed to exterminate HCV infected cells. However, although highly immunogenic in natural infection, core appears to have low immunogenicity in experimental settings. We aimed to design an HCV vaccine prototype based on core, and devise immunization regimens that would lead to potent anti-core immune responses which circumvent the immunogenicity limitations earlier observed. METHODS Plasmids encoding core with no translation initiation signal (pCMVcore); with Kozak sequence (pCMVcoreKozak); and with HCV IRES (pCMVcoreIRES) were designed and expressed in a variety of eukaryotic cells. Polyproteins corresponding to HCV 1b amino acids (aa) 1-98 and 1-173 were expressed in E. coli. C57BL/6 mice were immunized with four 25-microg doses of pCMVcoreKozak, or pCMV (I). BALB/c mice were immunized with 100 microg of either pCMVcore, or pCMVcoreKozak, or pCMVcoreIRES, or empty pCMV (II). Lastly, BALB/c mice were immunized with 20 microg of core aa 1-98 in prime and boost, or with 100 microg of pCMVcoreKozak in prime and 20 microg of core aa 1-98 in boost (III). Antibody response, [3H]-T-incorporation, and cytokine secretion by core/core peptide-stimulated splenocytes were assessed after each immunization. RESULTS Plasmids differed in core-expression capacity: mouse fibroblasts transfected with pCMVcore, pCMVcoreIRES and pCMVcoreKozak expressed 0.22 +/- 0.18, 0.83 +/- 0.5, and 13 +/- 5 ng core per cell, respectively. Single immunization with highly expressing pCMVcoreKozak induced specific IFN-gamma and IL-2, and weak antibody response. Single immunization with plasmids directing low levels of core expression induced similar levels of cytokines, strong T-cell proliferation (pCMVcoreIRES), and antibodies in titer 103(pCMVcore). Boosting with pCMVcoreKozak induced low antibody response, core-specific T-cell proliferation and IFN-gamma secretion that subsided after the 3rd plasmid injection. The latter also led to a decrease in specific IL-2 secretion. The best was the heterologous pCMVcoreKozak prime/protein boost regiment that generated mixed Th1/Th2-cellular response with core-specific antibodies in titer >or= 3 x 10(3). CONCLUSION Thus, administration of highly expressed HCV core gene, as one large dose or repeated injections of smaller doses, may suppress core-specific immune response. Instead, the latter is induced by a heterologous DNA prime/protein boost regiment that circumvents the negative effects of intracellular core expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Alekseeva
- Latvian Biomedical Research and Study Centre, Ratsupites 1, Riga, LV-1067, Latvia.
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Song S, Liu C, Wang J, Zhang Y, You H, Wang Y, Liu F, Sun S. Vaccination with combination of Fit3L and RANTES in a DNA prime-protein boost regimen elicits strong cell-mediated immunity and antitumor effect. Vaccine 2008; 27:1111-8. [PMID: 19100302 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.11.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2008] [Accepted: 11/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
With accumulating evidence indicating the importance of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in the antitumor response, strategies are being pursued to elicit augmented CD8(+) T-cell responses against tumors with tumor vaccines. Here, we report the protective efficacy of vaccine-elicited antitumor immune responses with an aggressive HBc-expressing B16-HBc melanoma, which expressed HBc as a self and model antigen, tumor model. We demonstrated that the significantly better memory responses or marked inhibition on tumor growth could be achieved after coadministration of cytokine adjuvants RANTES and Flt3L in a DNA prime-protein boost regimen. Furthermore, the augmentation of DNA prime-protein boost regimens by cytokines gene was due to the improvement the immunopotency of DNA vaccine and subsequently the augmented Ag-specific and IFN-gamma mediating CD8(+) T-cell responses after protein boosting. Hence, this study demonstrates for the first time that combinatorial use of chemotactic and potent DC-specific growth factor molecules provides a useful strategy for enhancing antitumor responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxia Song
- Department of Molecular Biology and Key Lab of Laboratory Animal, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, PR China
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A chimeric multi-epitope DNA vaccine elicited specific antibody response against severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus which attenuated the virulence of SARS-CoV in vitro. Immunol Lett 2008; 119:71-7. [PMID: 18533276 PMCID: PMC7112888 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2008.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 04/11/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Epitope-based vaccines designed to induce antibody responses specific for severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) are being developed as a means for increasing vaccine potency. In this study, we identified four B cell epitopes from the spike (S) and membrane (M) protein through bioinformatics analysis and constructed a multi-epitope DNA vaccine. Intramuscular immunization of mice with this vaccine was sufficient to induce specific prime as well as a long-term memory humoral immune response to at least two candidate epitopes, S437–459 and M1–20. A DNA prime–protein boost strategy greatly enhanced the antibody generation and the immune sera not only reacted with the lysates of SARS-CoV-infected Vero cells but also neutralized the cytopathic effect of SARS by 75% at 1:160 dilution. The novel immunogenic S protein peptide revealed in this study provides new target for SARS vaccine design; and our work indicated multi-epitope DNA vaccine as an effective means for eliciting polyvalent humoral immune response against SARS-CoV.
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