Assessment of the incidence of enteric adenovirus species and serotypes in surface waters in the eastern cape province of South Africa: Tyume River as a case study

Global public health implications of human exposure to viral contaminated water

Enteric viruses are common waterborne pathogens found in environmental water bodies contaminated with either raw or partially treated sewage discharge. Examples of these viruses include adenovirus, rotavirus, noroviruses, and other caliciviruses and enteroviruses like coxsackievirus and polioviruses. They have been linked with gastroenteritis, while some enteric viruses have also been implicated in more severe infections such as encephalitis, meningitis, hepatitis (hepatitis A and E viruses), cancer (polyomavirus), and myocarditis (enteroviruses). Therefore, this review presents information on the occurrence of enteric viruses of public health importance, diseases associated with human exposure to enteric viruses, assessment of their presence in contaminated water, and their removal in water and wastewater sources. In order to prevent illnesses associated with human exposure to viral contaminated water, we suggest the regular viral monitoring of treated wastewater before discharging it into the environment. Furthermore, we highlight the need for more research to focus on the development of more holistic disinfection methods that will inactivate waterborne viruses in municipal wastewater discharges, as this is highly needed to curtail the public health effects of human exposure to contaminated water. Moreover, such a method must be devoid of disinfection by-products that have mutagenic and carcinogenic potential.

Infection with adenovirus, rotavirus, and coinfection among hospitalized children with gastroenteritis in an Egyptian university hospital

Acute gastroenteritis is the main cause of mortality and morbidity in children worldwide. Studies stated that rotavirus and human adenovirus (HAdV) are common causes of nonbacterial gastroenteritis in children aged 0-5 years. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and the distribution of rotavirus, HAdV, and coinfections among hospitalized children with gastroenteritis below 7 years old and determine the prevalence of enteric HAdV among all HAdV gastroenteritis. The study was conducted on 150 children below 7 years old. Antigen detection for rotavirus and HAdV by ELISA and determination of enteric HAdV (serotype 40 and 41) by nested PCR and restriction endonucleases study were performed. Detection of rotavirus and HAdV antigens in 150 stool specimens from patients with gastroenteritis were 58% (87), 6.7% (10), and 8% (12) positive for rotavirus, HAdV, and coinfection, respectively. Out of 22 HAdV antigen-positive cases, 15 cases were positive by PCR for enteric HAdV, with the prevalence rate of enteric HAdV gastroenteritis among all HAdV gastroenteritis cases of 68%, a serotyping study by PCR detected serotype 40 in 46.7% of cases (7/15) and serotype 41 in 53.3% of cases (8/15) with no statistically significant difference between them. The study confirmed that rotavirus and HAdV are prevalent etiological agents of diarrhea in children below the school-age group, highlighting the necessity of the rotavirus vaccine in addition to the obligatory schedule of vaccines in Egypt. Also, it determined that the enteric HAdV gastroenteritis prevalence rate was 68% among all HAdV gastroenteritis.

An assessment of hospital wastewater and biomedical waste generation, existing legislations, risk assessment, treatment processes, and scenario during COVID-19

Hospitals release significant quantities of wastewater (HWW) and biomedical waste (BMW), which hosts a wide range of contaminants that can adversely affect the environment if left untreated. The COVID-19 outbreak has further increased hospital waste generation over the past two years. In this context, a thorough literature study was carried out to reveal the negative implications of untreated hospital waste and delineate the proper ways to handle them. Conventional treatment methods can remove only 50%-70% of the emerging contaminants (ECs) present in the HWW. Still, many countries have not implemented suitable treatment methods to treat the HWW in-situ. This review presents an overview of worldwide HWW generation, regulations, and guidelines on HWW management and highlights the various treatment techniques for efficiently removing ECs from HWW. When combined with advanced oxidation processes, biological or physical treatment processes could remove around 90% of ECs. Analgesics were found to be more easily removed than antibiotics, β-blockers, and X-ray contrast media. The different environmental implications of BMW have also been highlighted. Mishandling of BMW can spread infections, deadly diseases, and hazardous waste into the environment. Hence, the different steps associated with collection to final disposal of BMW have been delineated to minimize the associated health risks. The paper circumscribes the multiple aspects of efficient hospital waste management and may be instrumental during the COVID-19 pandemic when the waste generation from all hospitals worldwide has increased significantly.

Detection and Phylogenetic Analysis of Hepatitis A Virus in the Wastewater Treatment Plant of Ekbatan Town in Tehran, Iran

Background: Limited sources of fresh water necessitate the application of health policies for treatment and decontamination of human sewage for further use. A wide variety of infectious agents, including bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses, can be found in sewage. Enteric viruses such as hepatitis A virus (HAV) can survive the current treatments and infect susceptible hosts. Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate HAV contamination in human sewage before and after treatment in the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran, and analyze the phylogenetic properties of the identified viruses. Methods: Over a 12-month period, we collected the wastewater samples including influent, before chlorination, and effluent, from the wastewater treatment plant of Ekbatan town in Tehran, Iran. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) extraction, complementary deoxyribonucleic acid (cDNA) synthesis, and semi-nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were performed to identify HAV contamination. Phylogenetic analysis was performed to investigate subgenotypes of the virus. Results: HAV was detected in all influents and samples before chlorination, while the virus was detected in 50% of the effluent samples. All detected viruses belonged to subgenotype IB. Conclusions: Investigating the presence of HAV in sewage provides a general picture of the virus spread in the population of interest. HAV was detected in all influent samples, indicating that the infection is endemic in this area all year round. This also indicates the inability of the current treatment protocols in virus removal, which can be a threat to the public health.

Occurrence of Human Enteric Viruses in Water Sources and Shellfish: A Focus on Africa

Enteric viruses are a diverse group of human pathogens which are primarily transmitted by the faecal-oral route and are a major cause of non-bacterial diarrhoeal disease in both developed and developing countries. Because they are shed in high numbers by infected individuals and can persist for a long time in the environment, they pose a serious threat to human health globally. Enteric viruses end up in the environment mainly through discharge or leakage of raw or inadequately treated sewage into water sources such as springs, rivers, dams, or marine estuaries. Human exposure then follows when contaminated water is used for drinking, cooking, or recreation and, importantly, when filter-feeding bivalve shellfish are consumed. The human health hazard posed by enteric viruses is particularly serious in Africa where rapid urbanisation in a relatively short period of time has led to the expansion of informal settlements with poor sanitation and failing or non-existent wastewater treatment infrastructure, and where rural communities with limited or no access to municipal water are dependent on nearby open water sources for their subsistence. The role of sewage-contaminated water and bivalve shellfish as vehicles for transmission of enteric viruses is well documented but, to our knowledge, has not been comprehensively reviewed in the African context. Here we provide an overview of enteric viruses and then review the growing body of research where these viruses have been detected in association with sewage-contaminated water or food in several African countries. These studies highlight the need for more research into the prevalence, molecular epidemiology and circulation of these viruses in Africa, as well as for development and application of innovative wastewater treatment approaches to reduce environmental pollution and its impact on human health on the continent.

Quantitative Detection of Human Adenovirus and Human Rotavirus Group A in Wastewater and El-Rahawy Drainage Canal Influencing River Nile in the North of Giza, Egypt

Environmental monitoring is critical in a developing country like Egypt where there is an insufficient framework for recording and tracking outbreaks. In this study, the prevalence of human adenovirus (HAdV), rotavirus group A (RVA) was determined in urban sewage, activated sludge, drainage water, drainage sediment, Nile water, and Nile sediment, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis. HAdV was detected in 50% of urban sewage with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ genome copies/liter (GC/L), 33% of activated sludge with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/kilogram (GC/kg), 95% of drainage water with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, 75% of drainage sediment with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, 50% of Nile water with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, and 45% of Nile sediment with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/kg. RVA was detected in 50% of urban sewage with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, 75% of activated sludge with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, 58% of drainage water with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, 50% of drainage sediment with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/L, and 45% of Nile water with viral concentrations ranging from 10³ to 10⁷ GC/kg. In conclusion, Abu-Rawash WWTP acts as a source of HAdV and RVA, releasing them into El-Rahawy drain then to the River Nile Rosetta branch.

Viral indicators for tracking domestic wastewater contamination in the aquatic environment

Waterborne enteric viruses are an emerging cause of disease outbreaks and represent a major threat to global public health. Enteric viruses may originate from human wastewater and can undergo rapid transport through aquatic environments with minimal decay. Surveillance and source apportionment of enteric viruses in environmental waters is therefore essential for accurate risk management. However, individual monitoring of the >100 enteric viral strains that have been identified as aquatic contaminants is unfeasible. Instead, viral indicators are often used for quantitative assessments of wastewater contamination, viral decay and transport in water. An ideal indicator for tracking wastewater contamination should be (i) easy to detect and quantify, (ii) source-specific, (iii) resistant to wastewater treatment processes, and (iv) persistent in the aquatic environment, with similar behaviour to viral pathogens. Here, we conducted a comprehensive review of 127 peer-reviewed publications, to critically evaluate the effectiveness of several viral indicators of wastewater pollution, including common enteric viruses (mastadenoviruses, polyomaviruses, and Aichi viruses), the pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV), and gut-associated bacteriophages (Type II/III FRNA phages and phages infecting human Bacteroides species, including crAssphage). Our analysis suggests that overall, human mastadenoviruses have the greatest potential to indicate contamination by domestic wastewater due to their easy detection, culturability, and high prevalence in wastewater and in the polluted environment. Aichi virus, crAssphage and PMMoV are also widely detected in wastewater and in the environment, and may be used as molecular markers for human-derived contamination. We conclude that viral indicators are suitable for the long-term monitoring of viral contamination in freshwater and marine environments and that these should be implemented within monitoring programmes to provide a holistic assessment of microbiological water quality and wastewater-based epidemiology, improve current risk management strategies and protect global human health.

Assessment of the Incidence of Human Adenovirus in Surface Waters of Southwest Greece: Vouraikos River as a Case Study

The purpose of this study is to assess the overall impact of different anthropogenic activities in the Vouraikos River basin (southwestern Greece, Natura 2000 area). Virological quality of river water samples was investigated. Positive samples for human adenoviruses were found occasionally, while porcine adenoviruses and bovine polyoma viruses were not detected. It is the first time that virological data are collected in the study area.

Conceptual environmental impact assessment of a novel self-sustained sanitation system incorporating a quantitative microbial risk assessment approach

In many developing countries, including South Africa, water scarcity has resulted in poor sanitation practices. The majority of the sanitation infrastructures in those regions fail to meet basic hygienic standards. This along with the lack of proper sewage/wastewater infrastructure creates significant environmental and public health concerns. A self-sustained, waterless "Nano Membrane Toilet" (NMT) design was proposed as a result of the "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. A "cradle-to-grave" life cycle assessment (LCA) approach was adopted to study the use of NMT in comparison with conventional pour flush toilet (PFT) and urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT). All three scenarios were applied in the context of South Africa. In addition, a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was used to reflect the impact of the pathogen risk on human health. LCA study showed that UDDT had the best environmental performance, followed by NMT and PFT systems for all impact categories investigated including human health, resource and ecosystem. This was mainly due to the environmental credits associated with the use of urine and compost as fertilizers. However, with the incorporation of the pathogen impact into the human health impact category, the NMT had a significant better performance than the PFT and UDDT systems, which exhibited an impact category value 4E + 04 and 4E + 03 times higher, respectively. Sensitivity analysis identified that the use of ash as fertilizer, electricity generation and the reduction of NOx emissions were the key areas that influenced significantly the environmental performance of the NMT system.

Rapid diagnosis of human adenovirus B, C and E in the respiratory tract using multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction

Human adenovirus (HAdV) is increasingly recognized as a major cause of human respiratory tract viral infections. Its outbreaks and epidemics in various populations resulted in considerable morbidity and mortality. Therefore, a rapid and specific assay for HAdV in clinical samples is of crucial importance to diagnosing HAdV infections. The present study aimed to develop and evaluate a multiplex quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay for the rapid detection and accurate quantification of HAdV B, C and E. The lower limit of detection for this assay was two genomic copies per reaction, and quantitative linearity ranged from 2 to 2×10⁶ copies per reaction of the input viral DNA. Furthermore, 3,160 throat swab samples that tested HAdV negative by the immunofluorescence assay were collected and retested using the multiplex qPCR assay. The results showed that 2,906 samples were HAdV negative and the other 254 samples were HAdV positive. The HAdV species identified included B (184 samples), C (51 samples), and E (39 samples). Among the three HAdV species, HAdV B and E were detected from 8 samples, and HAdV C and E were detected from other 12 samples. The overall results demonstrated that the sensitivity and specificity of the proposed assay were 100% (254/254) and 99.6% (2894/2906), respectively. From the perspective of routine clinical diagnosis, this assay represented a rapid (≤1.5 h) and economic strategy, and had the potential to be used for the rapid and accurate diagnosis of human respiratory infections caused by HAdV B, C and E.

First detection of enteric adenoviruses genotype 41 in recreation spring areas of Taiwan

Human adenoviruses (HAdVs) are DNA viruses found in recreational water, such as water parks and swimming pools. Human adenovirus 41 (HAdV-41) is the most common serotype detected and is a leading cause of acute diarrheal disease. The focus of this study is to determine the prevalence of HAdVs in hot springs. Of 57 samples collected from four different geological sites, 16 samples have shown evidence of HAdVs (28.1%). HAdV-41 and porcine adenovirus 5 (PAdV-5) were the two types isolated, with a greater frequency of HAdV-41, which in other settings has been associated with acute diarrhea. The highest occurrence was found in private hot tubs/Yuya (37.5%), followed by an outlet of hot springs (30.8%); public pools and foot pools shared the same detection rate of 21.4% (3/14). However, there was no evidence supporting a link between water quality indicators and HAdV detection rate. From a phylogenic analysis and BLAST against the NCBI database, it was concluded that HAdV-41 obtained from hot spring areas are closely related to global environmental genotypes.

Quantitative PCR Detection and Characterisation of Human Adenovirus, Rotavirus and Hepatitis A Virus in Discharged Effluents of Two Wastewater Treatment Facilities in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

The occurrence of enteric viruses in reclaimed wastewater, their removal by efficient treatment processes and the public health hazards associated with their release into the environments are of great significance in environmental microbiology. In this study, TaqMan-based real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was used to assess the prevalence of human adenovirus (HAdV), rotavirus (RV) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) in the final effluents of two wastewater treatment plants in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, over a twelve-month sampling period. The correlation between the concentrations of viruses in the effluents samples and faecal coliform (FC) densities were assessed as to validate the use of FC as microbiological indicator in water quality assessment. HAdV was detected in 62.5 % (30/48) of the samples with concentrations ranging between 8.4 × 101 and 1.0 × 105 genome copies/L while HAV and RV were only detected at concentrations below the set detection limits. FCs densities ranged from 1 to 2.7 × 104 CFU/100 ml. Adenovirus species HAdV-B (serotype 2) and HAdV-F (serotype 41) were detected in 86.7 % (26/30) and 6.7 % (2/30) of the HAdV-positive samples, respectively. No consistent seasonal trend was observed in HAdV concentrations, however, increased concentrations of HAdV were generally observed in the winter months. Also, there was no correlation between the occurrence of HAdV and FC at both the treatment plants. The persistent occurrence of HAdV in the discharged treated effluents points to the potential public health risk through the release of HAdV into the receiving watersheds, and the possibility of their transmission to human population.

Seasonal difference of human adenoviruses in a subtropical river basin based on 1-year monthly survey

In this study, the seasonal difference and the observable presence/absence of human adenovirus (HAdV) in the Puzih River basin in Taiwan was investigated. A total of 288 water samples were collected from 24 sites from March 2014 to February 2015. Human AdV analysis of sample was subjected to viral concentration using a GN-6 Metricel® filter, followed by DNA extraction, nested-PCR, and qPCR. Human AdV was detected in 34.3 % (99/288) of the entire river water sample. A higher percentage of HAdV (76.4 %) was obtained during the winter. The HAdV median concentration was relatively high in fall (1.4 × 10(3) copies/L) and winter (2.8 × 10(3) copies/L). Significant difference and correlation were found between the seasonal variation of HAdV and water quality parameters, including heterotrophic plate count, total coliform, water temperature, and turbidity. The most frequently identified HAdV (subgenus F) serotype was 41. Human AdV-41 is the main cause of gastroenteritis and should be considered for associated human health risk potential in the Puzih River basin.

Urban effluent discharges as causes of public and environmental health concerns in South Africa's aquatic milieu

The water quality in South Africa's river systems is rapidly deteriorating as a consequence of increased discharge of wastewater effluents. The natural ability of rivers and reservoirs to trap toxic chemicals and nutrients in their sediments enables these systems to accumulate contaminants, altering the natural balance in environmental water quality, thereby raising a plethora of public and environmental health concerns. Impaired water quality has been linked to an array of problems in South Africa including massive fish mortalities, altered habitat template leading to the thinning of riverine macroinvertebrate diversity, shifts in microbial community structures with drastic ecological consequences and evolvement of antibiotic resistance genes that, under natural conditions, can be transferred to waterborne pathogens. Urban wastewater discharge has also been implicated in increased bioaccumulation of metals in edible plant parts, elevated concentrations of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), which are blamed for reduced fertility and increased cancer risk, excessive growth of toxic cyanobacteria and an increase in concentrations of pathogenic microorganisms which constitute a potential health threat to humans. However, despite the ecotoxicological hazards posed by wastewater effluents, ecotoxicological studies are currently underutilised in South African aquatic ecosystem assessments, and where they have been done, the observation is that ecotoxicological studies are mostly experimental and restricted to small study areas. More research is still needed to fully assess especially the ecotoxicological consequences of surface water pollution by urban wastewater effluents in South Africa. A review of the effects of urban effluent discharges that include domestic effluent mixed with industrial effluent and/or urban stormwater run-off is hereby presented.

Detection of human enteric viruses in Umgeni River, Durban, South Africa

The prevalence of adenovirus (AdV), rotaviruses (RV) and enteroviruses (EV) in Umgeni River waters of Durban, South Africa was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively during April 2011 to January 2012 using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)/reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), nested PCR and quantitative PCR (qPCR), as well as nested integrated cell culture PCR (nested ICC-PCR). The phylogenetic analysis of the adenovirus and enterovirus amplicons was also performed. The nested PCR results effectively detected the presence of AdV and EV in all water samples. The results of qPCR demonstrated that higher populations of EV and of AdV were widely found in the Umgeni River. Rotavirus could only be detected in the upper Umgeni River, mainly during drier seasons. Nested ICC-PCR further confirmed the presence of infectious AdV and EV particles in 100% of water samples using various cell lines. The present study identifies potential viral hazards of Umgeni River water for domestic water supply and recreational activities.

Incidence of human adenoviruses and Hepatitis A virus in the final effluent of selected wastewater treatment plants in Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Municipal effluent constitutes a large reservoir of human enteric viruses and bacteria. Contemporary monitoring practices rely on indicator bacteria, and do not test for viruses. Different viruses, including Norwalk-like viruses, Hepatitis A virus (HAV), adenoviruses, and rotaviruses, are important agents of illnesses in humans. The burden of disease caused by adenoviruses manifests as pneumonia, bronchiolitis, otitis media, conjunctivitis, and tonsillitis, whereas HAV infection can manifest as acute inflammatory diseases of the liver, fever, anorexia, malaise, nausea, and abdominal discomfort, followed by jaundice and dark urine. The public health implications of these viruses depend upon the physiological status of the wastewater microbial community.

METHODS

The occurrence of human adenovirus (HAdV) and HAV was determined in the final effluents of five wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Eastern Cape, South Africa, over 12 months (September 2012-August 2013). The viruses were detected with real-time PCR, and conventional PCR was used for serotyping.

RESULTS

Adenovirus was detected in effluent samples from all five WWTPs and in 64 % of the total samples, whereas HAV was not detected in any effluent sample. At WWPT-A, samples were collected from the final effluent tank (adenoviral concentrations ranged from 1.05 × 10(1) to 1.10 × 10(4) genome/L, with a 41.7 % detection rate) and the discharge point (adenoviral concentrations ranged between 1.2 × 10(1) and 2.8 × 10(4) genome/L, with a 54.5 % detection rate). At WWPT-B, HAdV was detected in 91.7 % of samples, with viral concentrations of 7.92 × 10(1)-2.37 × 10(5) genome/L. The HAdV concentrations at WWPT-C were 5.32 × 10(1)-2.20 × 10(5) genome/L, and the detection rate was 75 %. The adenoviral concentrations at WWPT-D were 1.23 × 10(3)-1.05 × 10(4) genome/L, and the detection rate was 66.7 %. At WWPT-E, the viral concentrations were 1.08 × 10(1)-5.16 × 10(4) genome/L, and the detection rate was 54.5 %. Characterization of the adenoviruses revealed HAdV serotypes 2 (1.4 %) and 41 (7.1 %), in species C and F, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is the first to report the prevalence of HAdV in the final effluents of WWTPs in the Eastern Cape, South Africa. The adenoviral detection rates indicate the potential contamination of the environment, with adverse effects on public health.

Prevalence, quantification, and typing of human adenoviruses detected in river water in Taiwan

The prevalence of human adenoviruses (HAdV) in river waters was investigated in this study. Water samples were collected from 13 rivers in Taiwan, concentrated, and assessed for the presence of HAdVs using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Human AdV positive samples were then subjected to real-time PCR (qPCR) to quantify the viral genomes and further subjected to primer-based genotyping to identify the various serotypes present. For each water sample, several water quality parameters were evaluated, including heterotrophic plate count, total coliform, Escherichia coli, water temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen. Among the 13 rivers examined, four rivers (30.8 %) were found to contain HAdVs. The major genotype was F species HAdV serotype 41. The mean HAdVs concentrations ranged from 6.10 × 10(2) to 8.51 × 10(2) copies/L. No significant differences were observed between the presence of HAdVs, and all of the water quality parameters evaluated (heterotrophic plate count, total coliform, E. coli, water temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen). Given the potential health risks posed by the presence of enteric viruses in environmental waters, further assessment is desirable with respect to possible sources, virus transport, and survival of viruses in the aquatic environment.

High frequency of cultivable human subgroup F adenoviruses in stool samples from a paediatric population admitted to hospital with acute gastroenteritis

The family Adenoviridae consists of five genera of which the genus Mastadenovirus includes human viruses classified into 57 serotypes clustered into seven subgroups (A–G). Serotypes 40 and 41 (subgroup F) are specifically associated with childhood gastroenteritis and are the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis in young children after rotaviruses and noroviruses. Standard methods for laboratory diagnosis of adenovirus infection include electron microscopy (EM) and conventional cell culture (CCC), although it is widely considered that adenoviruses 40 and 41 are difficult to cultivate, such that their circulation is most likely underestimated. One hundred and ten faecal specimens from paediatric patients with gastroenteritis were confirmed positive for adenovirus by EM and/or CCC at the Virology Unit of the University Hospital of Parma, Italy, during the period January 2010–December 2012. They were analysed to determine the actual prevalence of adenovirus 40 and 41 in these patients using PCR and restriction endonuclease analysis, and to evaluate their ability to be cultivated in standard cell lines. The results showed a high prevalence of subgroup F (62.7 %), with serotype 41 (89.8 %) predominating over serotype 40 (10.2 %). Surprisingly, among the 75 adenoviruses isolated by CCC, 37 (49 %) belonged to subgroup F, suggesting a higher capacity of adenovirus 40 and 41 to replicate in cell culture than previously thought. PCR and restriction enzyme techniques provide an efficient means of diagnosing enteric adenoviruses correctly, including subgroup F adenovirus strains in young children with gastroenteritis.

Microbiological, coliphages and physico-chemical assessments of the Umgeni River, South Africa

The water quality of Umgeni River in KwaZulu-Natal (South Africa) was investigated from April 2011 to January 2012. Indicator bacterial populations, physico-chemical properties, heavy metal contaminants and the presence of coliphages were determined according to standard protocols. The results showed that all sampling points failed to comply with the set guidelines for turbidity, total coliform, faecal coliform and total heterotrophic counts. Salmonella spp., Shigella spp. and Vibrio cholerae were also detected in all the water samples. The somatic coliphages and F-RNA coliphages were detected more frequently in the lower reaches of the river during summer. Temperature, electrical conductivity and pH were found to have positive relationships with the microbial communities especially in the lower catchment area during spring and summer indicating the impacts of various anthropogenic activities in the surrounding areas.