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Wang Y, Hao A, Ji P, Ma Y, Zhang Z, Chen J, Mao Q, Xiong X, Rehati P, Wang Y, Wang Y, Wen Y, Lu L, Chen Z, Zhao J, Wu F, Huang J, Sun L. A bispecific antibody exhibits broad neutralization against SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants XBB.1.16, BQ.1.1 and sarbecoviruses. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5127. [PMID: 38879565 PMCID: PMC11180174 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49096-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The Omicron subvariants BQ.1.1, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16 of SARS-CoV-2 are known for their adeptness at evading immune responses. Here, we isolate a neutralizing antibody, 7F3, with the capacity to neutralize all tested SARS-CoV-2 variants, including BQ.1.1, XBB.1.5, and XBB.1.16. 7F3 targets the receptor-binding motif (RBM) region and exhibits broad binding to a panel of 37 RBD mutant proteins. We develop the IgG-like bispecific antibody G7-Fc using 7F3 and the cross-neutralizing antibody GW01. G7-Fc demonstrates robust neutralizing activity against all 28 tested SARS-CoV-2 variants and sarbecoviruses, providing potent prophylaxis and therapeutic efficacy against XBB.1 infection in both K18-ACE and BALB/c female mice. Cryo-EM structure analysis of the G7-Fc in complex with the Omicron XBB spike (S) trimer reveals a trimer-dimer conformation, with G7-Fc synergistically targeting two distinct RBD epitopes and blocking ACE2 binding. Comparative analysis of 7F3 and LY-CoV1404 epitopes highlights a distinct and highly conserved epitope in the RBM region bound by 7F3, facilitating neutralization of the immune-evasive Omicron variant XBB.1.16. G7-Fc holds promise as a potential prophylactic countermeasure against SARS-CoV-2, particularly against circulating and emerging variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingdan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Pathogenic Microorganisms and Infection, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Aihua Hao
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Ji
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunping Ma
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Immune Therapy Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Affiliated Renji Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhaoyong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jiali Chen
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qiyu Mao
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinyi Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Palizhati Rehati
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yajie Wang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yanqun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yumei Wen
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenguo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jincun Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, the First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China.
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies, School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Fan Wu
- Shanghai Immune Therapy Institute, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Affiliated Renji Hospital, Shanghai, China.
| | - Jinghe Huang
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of Pathogenic Microorganisms and Infection, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
| | - Lei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology (MOE/NHC/CAMS), Shanghai Institute of Infectious Disease and Biosecurity, Shanghai Fifth People's Hospital, Institutes of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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2
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Focosi D, Casadevall A, Franchini M, Maggi F. Sotrovimab: A Review of Its Efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 Variants. Viruses 2024; 16:217. [PMID: 38399991 PMCID: PMC10891757 DOI: 10.3390/v16020217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Among the anti-Spike monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), the S-309 derivative sotrovimab was the most successful in having the longest temporal window of clinical use, showing a high degree of resiliency to SARS-CoV-2 evolution interrupted only by the appearance of the BA.2.86* variant of interest (VOI). This success undoubtedly reflects rational selection to target a highly conserved epitope in coronavirus Spike proteins. We review here the efficacy of sotrovimab against different SARS-CoV-2 variants in outpatients and inpatients, discussing both randomized controlled trials and real-world evidence. Although it could not be anticipated at the time of its development and introduction, sotrovimab's use in immunocompromised individuals who harbor large populations of variant viruses created the conditions for its eventual demise, as antibody selection and viral evolution led to its eventual withdrawal due to inefficacy against later variant lineages. Despite this, based on observational and real-world data, some authorities have continued to promote the use of sotrovimab, but the lack of binding to newer variants strongly argues for the futility of continued use. The story of sotrovimab highlights the power of modern biomedical science to generate novel therapeutics while also providing a cautionary tale for the need to devise strategies to minimize the emergence of resistance to antibody-based therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Focosi
- North-Western Tuscany Blood Bank, Pisa University Hospital, via Paradisa 2, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA;
| | - Massimo Franchini
- Department of Transfusion Medicine and Hematology, Carlo Poma Hospital, 46100 Mantua, Italy;
| | - Fabrizio Maggi
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases “Lazzaro Spallanzani” IRCCS, 00149 Rome, Italy;
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Liu W, Huang Z, Xiao J, Wu Y, Xia N, Yuan Q. Evolution of the SARS-CoV-2 Omicron Variants: Genetic Impact on Viral Fitness. Viruses 2024; 16:184. [PMID: 38399960 PMCID: PMC10893260 DOI: 10.3390/v16020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Over the last three years, the pandemic of COVID-19 has had a significant impact on people's lives and the global economy. The incessant emergence of variant strains has compounded the challenges associated with the management of COVID-19. As the predominant variant from late 2021 to the present, Omicron and its sublineages, through continuous evolution, have demonstrated iterative viral fitness. The comprehensive elucidation of the biological implications that catalyzed this evolution remains incomplete. In accordance with extant research evidence, we provide a comprehensive review of subvariants of Omicron, delineating alterations in immune evasion, cellular infectivity, and the cross-species transmission potential. This review seeks to clarify the underpinnings of biology within the evolution of SARS-CoV-2, thereby providing a foundation for strategic considerations in the post-pandemic era of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Zehong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Jin Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yangtao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Quan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361000, China; (W.L.); (N.X.)
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
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Harari S, Miller D, Fleishon S, Burstein D, Stern A. Using big sequencing data to identify chronic SARS-Coronavirus-2 infections. Nat Commun 2024; 15:648. [PMID: 38245511 PMCID: PMC10799923 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-44803-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolution of SARS-Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been characterized by the periodic emergence of highly divergent variants. One leading hypothesis suggests these variants may have emerged during chronic infections of immunocompromised individuals, but limited data from these cases hinders comprehensive analyses. Here, we harnessed millions of SARS-CoV-2 genomes to identify potential chronic infections and used language models (LM) to infer chronic-associated mutations. First, we mined the SARS-CoV-2 phylogeny and identified chronic-like clades with identical metadata (location, age, and sex) spanning over 21 days, suggesting a prolonged infection. We inferred 271 chronic-like clades, which exhibited characteristics similar to confirmed chronic infections. Chronic-associated mutations were often high-fitness immune-evasive mutations located in the spike receptor-binding domain (RBD), yet a minority were unique to chronic infections and absent in global settings. The probability of observing high-fitness RBD mutations was 10-20 times higher in chronic infections than in global transmission chains. The majority of RBD mutations in BA.1/BA.2 chronic-like clades bore predictive value, i.e., went on to display global success. Finally, we used our LM to infer hundreds of additional chronic-like clades in the absence of metadata. Our approach allows mining extensive sequencing data and providing insights into future evolutionary patterns of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheri Harari
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Center for Bioinformatics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Danielle Miller
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Center for Bioinformatics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Shay Fleishon
- Israeli Health Intelligence Agency, Public Health Division, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - David Burstein
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Edmond J. Safra Center for Bioinformatics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Adi Stern
- The Shmunis School of Biomedicine and Cancer Research, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
- Edmond J. Safra Center for Bioinformatics, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
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Baboo S, Diedrich JK, Torres JL, Copps J, Singh B, Garrett PT, Ward AB, Paulson JC, Yates JR. Evolving spike-protein N-glycosylation in SARS-CoV-2 variants. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.08.539897. [PMID: 37214937 PMCID: PMC10197516 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.08.539897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Since >3 years, SARS-CoV-2 has plunged humans into a colossal pandemic. Henceforth, multiple waves of infection have swept through the human population, led by variants that were able to partially evade acquired immunity. The co-evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants with human immunity provides an excellent opportunity to study the interaction between viral pathogens and their human hosts. The heavily N-glycosylated spike-protein of SARS-CoV-2 plays a pivotal role in initiating infection and is the target for host immune-response, both of which are impacted by host-installed N-glycans. Using highly-sensitive DeGlyPHER approach, we compared the N-glycan landscape on spikes of the SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan-Hu-1 strain to seven WHO-defined variants of concern/interest, using recombinantly expressed, soluble spike-protein trimers, sharing same stabilizing-mutations. We found that N-glycan processing is conserved at most sites. However, in multiple variants, processing of N-glycans from high mannose- to complex-type is reduced at sites N165, N343 and N616, implicated in spike-protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabyasachi Baboo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jolene K. Diedrich
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jonathan L. Torres
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Jeffrey Copps
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Bhavya Singh
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Patrick T. Garrett
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Andrew B. Ward
- Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - James C. Paulson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - John R. Yates
- Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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Frische A, Gunalan V, Krogfelt KA, Fomsgaard A, Lassaunière R. A Candidate DNA Vaccine Encoding the Native SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein Induces Anti-Subdomain 1 Antibodies. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1451. [PMID: 37766128 PMCID: PMC10535225 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11091451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The ideal vaccine against viral infections should elicit antibody responses that protect against divergent strains. Designing broadly protective vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and other divergent viruses requires insight into the specific targets of cross-protective antibodies on the viral surface protein(s). However, unlike therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, the B-cell epitopes of vaccine-induced polyclonal antibody responses remain poorly defined. Here we show that, through the combination of neutralizing antibody functional responses with B-cell epitope mapping, it is possible to identify unique antibody targets associated with neutralization breadth. The polyclonal antibody profiles of SARS-CoV-2 index-strain-vaccinated rabbits that demonstrated a low, intermediate, or high neutralization efficiency of different SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) were distinctly different. Animals with an intermediate and high cross-neutralization of VOCs targeted fewer antigenic sites on the spike protein and targeted one particular epitope, subdomain 1 (SD1), situated outside the receptor binding domain (RBD). Our results indicate that a targeted functional antibody response and an additional focus on non-RBD epitopes could be effective for broad protection against different SARS-CoV-2 variants. We anticipate that the approach taken in this study can be applied to other viral vaccines for identifying future epitopes that confer cross-neutralizing antibody responses, and that our findings will inform a rational vaccine design for SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anders Frische
- Department of Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.F.); (V.G.); (K.A.K.); (A.F.)
- Section of Molecular and Medicinal Biology, Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Vithiagaran Gunalan
- Department of Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.F.); (V.G.); (K.A.K.); (A.F.)
| | - Karen Angeliki Krogfelt
- Department of Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.F.); (V.G.); (K.A.K.); (A.F.)
- Section of Molecular and Medicinal Biology, Department of Science and Environment, Roskilde University, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Anders Fomsgaard
- Department of Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.F.); (V.G.); (K.A.K.); (A.F.)
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Clinical Institute, University of Southern Denmark, 5230 Odense, Denmark
| | - Ria Lassaunière
- Department of Virus & Microbiological Special Diagnostics, Statens Serum Institut, 2300 Copenhagen, Denmark; (A.F.); (V.G.); (K.A.K.); (A.F.)
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Porter SG, Smith TM. Combining iCn3D and NextStrain to create a novel undergraduate research experience around SARS-CoV-2 variants and commercial antibodies. Front Genet 2023; 14:1024063. [PMID: 37396037 PMCID: PMC10311211 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1024063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Undergraduate research experiences are increasingly important in biology education with efforts underway to provide more projects by embedded them in a course. The shift to online learning at the beginning of the pandemic presented a challenge. How could biology instructors provide research experiences to students who were unable to attend in-person labs? During the 2021 ISMB (Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology) iCn3D Hackathon-Collaborative Tools for Protein Analysis-we learned about new capabilities in iCn3D for analyzing the interactions between amino acids in the paratopes of antibodies with amino acids in the epitopes of antigens and predicting the effects of mutations on binding. Additionally, new sequence alignment tools in iCn3D support aligning protein sequences with sequences in structure models. We used these methods to create a new undergraduate research project, that students could perform online as part of a course, by combining the use of new features in iCn3D with analysis tools in NextStrain, and a data set of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. We present results from an example project to illustrate how students would investigate the likelihood of SARS-CoV-2 variants escaping from commercial antibodies and use chemical interaction data to support their hypotheses. We also demonstrate that online tools (iCn3D, NextStrain, and the NCBI databases) can be used to carry out the necessary steps and that this work satisfies the requirements for course-based undergraduate research. This project reinforces major concepts in undergraduate biology-evolution and the relationship between the sequence of a protein, its three-dimensional structure, and its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra G. Porter
- Digital World Biology LLC, Seattle, WA, United States
- Shoreline Community College, Biotechnology Program, Shoreline, WA, United States
| | - Todd M. Smith
- Digital World Biology LLC, Seattle, WA, United States
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