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Barker RA, Buttery PC. Disease-specific interventions: The use of cell and gene therapies for Parkinson disease. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2024; 205:171-191. [PMID: 39341654 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-90120-8.00003-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/01/2024]
Abstract
Approaches to repair the brain around the loss of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathways in Parkinson disease (PD) are not new and have been attempted over many years. However, of late, the situation has moved forward in two main ways. In the case of cell therapies, the ability to make large numbers of authentic midbrain dopaminergic neuroblasts from human pluripotent stem cell sources has turned what was an interesting avenue of research into a major area of investment and trialing, by academics in conjunction with Pharma. In the case of gene therapies, their use around dopamine replacement has waned, as the interest in using them for disease modification targeting PD-specific pathways has grown. In this chapter, we discuss all these developments and the current status of cell and gene therapies for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger A Barker
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
| | - Philip C Buttery
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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2
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Pan Z, Yu CW, Zhao C, Shao M, Yang X, Liang X, Li H, Lu Y, Ye Q, Chern JW, Lu J, Zhou H, Lee SMY. Antagonizing pathological α-synuclein-mediated neurodegeneration by J24335 via the activation of immunoproteasome. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2023; 480:116745. [PMID: 37931757 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2023.116745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
The aggregation of misfolded proteins, such as α-synuclein in Parkinson's disease (PD), occurs intracellularly or extracellularly in the majority of neurodegenerative diseases. The immunoproteasome has more potent chymotrypsin-like activity than normal proteasome. Thus, degradation of α-synuclein aggregation via immunoproteasome is an attractive approach for PD drug development. Herein, we aimed to determine if novel compound, 11-Hydroxy-1-(8-methoxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)quinolin-2-yl)undecan-1-one oxime (named as J24335), is a promising candidate for disease-modifying therapy to prevent the pathological progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as PD. The effects of J24335 on inducible PC12/A53T-α-syn cell viability and cytotoxicity were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH assay, respectively. Evaluation of various proteasome activities was done by measuring the luminescence of enzymatic activity after the addition of different amounts of aminoluciferin. Immunoblotting and real-time PCR were employed to detect the expression of various proteins and genes, respectively. We also used a transgenic mouse model for behavioral testing and immunochemical analysis, to assess the neuroprotective effects of J24335. J24335 inhibited wild-type and mutant α-synuclein aggregation without affecting the growth or death of neuronal cells. The inhibition of α-synuclein aggregation by J24335 was caused by activation of immunoproteasome, as mediated by upregulation of LMP7, and increased cellular chymotrypsin-like activity in 20S proteasome. J24335-enhanced immunoproteasome activity was mediated by PKA/Akt/mTOR pathway activation. Moreover, animal studies revealed that J24335 treatment markedly mitigated both the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (TH-) neurons and impaired motor skill development. This is the first report to use J24335 as an immunoproteasome enhancing agent to antagonize pathological α-synuclein-mediated neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijian Pan
- Department of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Chao-Wu Yu
- School of Pharmacy, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10050, Taiwan, China
| | - Chen Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Min Shao
- Department of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Xuanjun Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China; Department of Biology, South University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaonan Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Haitao Li
- Department of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Yucong Lu
- Department of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Qingqing Ye
- School of Pharmacy, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10050, Taiwan, China
| | - Ji-Wang Chern
- School of Pharmacy, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10050, Taiwan, China
| | - Jiahong Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China
| | - Hefeng Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering, Zhuhai Campus of Zunyi Medical University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China.
| | - Simon Ming-Yuen Lee
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macao.
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3
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Geerts H, Bergeler S, Walker M, van der Graaf PH, Courade JP. Analysis of clinical failure of anti-tau and anti-synuclein antibodies in neurodegeneration using a quantitative systems pharmacology model. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14342. [PMID: 37658103 PMCID: PMC10474108 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41382-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Misfolded proteins in Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease follow a well-defined connectomics-based spatial progression. Several anti-tau and anti-alpha synuclein (aSyn) antibodies have failed to provide clinical benefit in clinical trials despite substantial target engagement in the experimentally accessible cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The proposed mechanism of action is reducing neuronal uptake of oligomeric protein from the synaptic cleft. We built a quantitative systems pharmacology (QSP) model to quantitatively simulate intrasynaptic secretion, diffusion and antibody capture in the synaptic cleft, postsynaptic membrane binding and internalization of monomeric and oligomeric tau and aSyn proteins. Integration with a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model allowed us to simulate clinical trials of anti-tau antibodies gosuranemab, tilavonemab, semorinemab, and anti-aSyn antibodies cinpanemab and prasineuzumab. Maximal target engagement for monomeric tau was simulated as 45% (semorinemab) to 99% (gosuranemab) in CSF, 30% to 99% in ISF but only 1% to 3% in the synaptic cleft, leading to a reduction of less than 1% in uptake of oligomeric tau. Simulations for prasineuzumab and cinpanemab suggest target engagement of free monomeric aSyn of only 6-8% in CSF, 4-6% and 1-2% in the ISF and synaptic cleft, while maximal target engagement of aggregated aSyn was predicted to reach 99% and 80% in the synaptic cleft with similar effects on neuronal uptake. The study generates optimal values of selectivity, sensitivity and PK profiles for antibodies. The study identifies a gradient of decreasing target engagement from CSF to the synaptic cleft as a key driver of efficacy, quantitatively identifies various improvements for drug design and emphasizes the need for QSP modelling to support the development of tau and aSyn antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Geerts
- Certara US, 100 Overlook Centre, Suite 101, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA.
| | - Silke Bergeler
- Certara US, 100 Overlook Centre, Suite 101, Princeton, NJ, 08540, USA
- Bristol-Meyers-Squibb, Lawrenceville, NJ, 08648, USA
| | - Mike Walker
- Certara UK, Canterbury Innovation Centre, University Road, Canterbury, CT2 7FG, Kent, UK
| | - Piet H van der Graaf
- Certara UK, Canterbury Innovation Centre, University Road, Canterbury, CT2 7FG, Kent, UK
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4
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Quintin S, Lloyd GM, Paterno G, Xia Y, Sorrentino Z, Bell BM, Gorion KM, Lee EB, Prokop S, Giasson BI. Cellular processing of α-synuclein fibrils results in distinct physiological C-terminal truncations with a major cleavage site at residue Glu 114. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104912. [PMID: 37307916 PMCID: PMC10404685 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
α-synuclein (αS) is an abundant, neuronal protein that assembles into fibrillar pathological inclusions in a spectrum of neurodegenerative diseases that include Lewy body diseases (LBD) and Multiple System Atrophy (MSA). The cellular and regional distributions of pathological inclusions vary widely between different synucleinopathies contributing to the spectrum of clinical presentations. Extensive cleavage within the carboxy (C)-terminal region of αS is associated with inclusion formation, although the events leading to these modifications and the implications for pathobiology are of ongoing study. αS preformed fibrils can induce prion-like spread of αS pathology in both in vitro and animal models of disease. Using C truncation-specific antibodies, we demonstrated here that prion-like cellular uptake and processing of αS preformed fibrils resulted in two major cleavages at residues 103 and 114. A third cleavage product (122 αS) accumulated upon application of lysosomal protease inhibitors. In vitro, both 1-103 and 1-114 αS polymerized rapidly and extensively in isolation and in the presence of full-length αS. 1-103 αS also demonstrated more extensive aggregation when expressed in cultured cells. Furthermore, we used novel antibodies to αS cleaved at residue Glu114, to assess x-114 αS pathology in postmortem brain tissue from patients with LBD and MSA, as well as three different transgenic αS mouse models of prion-like induction. The distribution of x-114 αS pathology was distinct from that of overall αS pathology. These studies reveal the cellular formation and behavior of αS C-truncated at residues 114 and 103 as well as the disease dependent distribution of x-114 αS pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Quintin
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Grace M Lloyd
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Giavanna Paterno
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Yuxing Xia
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Zachary Sorrentino
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Brach M Bell
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Kimberly-Marie Gorion
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Edward B Lee
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania (PENN) School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Stefan Prokop
- Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Benoit I Giasson
- Department of Neuroscience, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; Center for Translational Research in Neurodegenerative Disease, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA; McKnight Brain Institute, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.
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5
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Smith JK, Mellick GD, Sykes AM. The role of the endolysosomal pathway in α-synuclein pathogenesis in Parkinson's disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 16:1081426. [PMID: 36704248 PMCID: PMC9871505 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.1081426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by a loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of the midbrain (SNpc). Extensive studies into genetic and cellular models of PD implicate protein trafficking as a prominent contributor to the death of these dopaminergic neurons. Considerable evidence also suggests the involvement of α-synuclein as a central component of the characteristic cell death in PD and it is a major structural constituent of proteinaceous inclusion bodies (Lewy bodies; LB). α-synuclein research has been a vital part of PD research in recent years, with newly discovered evidence suggesting that α-synuclein can propagate through the brain via prion-like mechanisms. Healthy cells can internalize toxic α-synuclein species and seed endogenous α-synuclein to form large, pathogenic aggregates and form LBs. A better understanding of how α-synuclein can propagate, enter and be cleared from the cell is vital for therapeutic strategies.
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Santulli C, Bon C, De Cecco E, Codrich M, Narkiewicz J, Parisse P, Perissinotto F, Santoro C, Persichetti F, Legname G, Espinoza S, Gustincich S. Neuronal haemoglobin induces loss of dopaminergic neurons in mouse Substantia nigra, cognitive deficits and cleavage of endogenous α-synuclein. Cell Death Dis 2022; 13:1048. [PMID: 36526614 PMCID: PMC9758156 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-022-05489-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) presents the selective loss of A9 dopaminergic (DA) neurons of Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the presence of intracellular aggregates called Lewy bodies. α-synuclein (α-syn) species truncated at the carboxy-terminal (C-terminal) accumulate in pathological inclusions and promote α-syn aggregation and toxicity. Haemoglobin (Hb) is the major oxygen carrier protein in erythrocytes. In addition, Hb is expressed in A9 DA neurons where it influences mitochondrial activity. Hb overexpression increases cells' vulnerability in a neurochemical model of PD in vitro and forms cytoplasmic and nucleolar aggregates upon short-term overexpression in mouse SNpc. In this study, α and β-globin chains were co-expressed in DA cells of SNpc in vivo upon stereotaxic injections of an Adeno-Associated Virus isotype 9 (AAV9) and in DA iMN9D cells in vitro. Long-term Hb over-expression in SNpc induced the loss of about 50% of DA neurons, mild motor impairments, and deficits in recognition and spatial working memory. Hb triggered the formation of endogenous α-syn C-terminal truncated species. Similar α-syn fragments were found in vitro in DA iMN9D cells over-expressing α and β- globins when treated with pre-formed α-syn fibrils. Our study positions Hb as a relevant player in PD pathogenesis for its ability to trigger DA cells' loss in vivo and the formation of C-terminal α-syn fragments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Santulli
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Carlotta Bon
- grid.25786.3e0000 0004 1764 2907Central RNA Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Genova, Italy
| | - Elena De Cecco
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Marta Codrich
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Joanna Narkiewicz
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
| | - Pietro Parisse
- grid.5942.a0000 0004 1759 508XElettra – Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A., Trieste, Italy ,grid.472635.10000 0004 6476 9521Istituto Officina dei Materiali – Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Trieste, Italy
| | - Fabio Perissinotto
- grid.5942.a0000 0004 1759 508XElettra – Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A., Trieste, Italy
| | - Claudio Santoro
- grid.16563.370000000121663741Department of Health Sciences and Research Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases (CAAD), University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), Novara, Italy
| | - Francesca Persichetti
- grid.16563.370000000121663741Department of Health Sciences and Research Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases (CAAD), University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), Novara, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy ,grid.5942.a0000 0004 1759 508XElettra – Sincrotrone Trieste S.C.p.A., Trieste, Italy
| | - Stefano Espinoza
- grid.25786.3e0000 0004 1764 2907Central RNA Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Genova, Italy ,grid.16563.370000000121663741Department of Health Sciences and Research Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases (CAAD), University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), Novara, Italy
| | - Stefano Gustincich
- grid.5970.b0000 0004 1762 9868Area of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Trieste, Italy ,grid.25786.3e0000 0004 1764 2907Central RNA Laboratory, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Genova, Italy
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Yi S, Wang L, Wang H, Ho MS, Zhang S. Pathogenesis of α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease: From a Neuron-Glia Crosstalk Perspective. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:14753. [PMID: 36499080 PMCID: PMC9739123 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. The classical behavioral defects of PD patients involve motor symptoms such as bradykinesia, tremor, and rigidity, as well as non-motor symptoms such as anosmia, depression, and cognitive impairment. Pathologically, the progressive loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and the accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn)-composed Lewy bodies (LBs) and Lewy neurites (LNs) are key hallmarks. Glia are more than mere bystanders that simply support neurons, they actively contribute to almost every aspect of neuronal development and function; glial dysregulation has been implicated in a series of neurodegenerative diseases including PD. Importantly, amounting evidence has added glial activation and neuroinflammation as new features of PD onset and progression. Thus, gaining a better understanding of glia, especially neuron-glia crosstalk, will not only provide insight into brain physiology events but also advance our knowledge of PD pathologies. This review addresses the current understanding of α-syn pathogenesis in PD, with a focus on neuron-glia crosstalk. Particularly, the transmission of α-syn between neurons and glia, α-syn-induced glial activation, and feedbacks of glial activation on DA neuron degeneration are thoroughly discussed. In addition, α-syn aggregation, iron deposition, and glial activation in regulating DA neuron ferroptosis in PD are covered. Lastly, we summarize the preclinical and clinical therapies, especially targeting glia, in PD treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Margaret S. Ho
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Shiping Zhang
- School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
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8
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Initiation and progression of α-synuclein pathology in Parkinson’s disease. Cell Mol Life Sci 2022; 79:210. [PMID: 35347432 PMCID: PMC8960654 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-022-04240-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
α-Synuclein aggregation is a critical molecular process that underpins the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease. Aggregates may originate at synaptic terminals as a consequence of aberrant interactions between α-synuclein and lipids or evasion of proteostatic defences. The nature of these interactions is likely to influence the emergence of conformers or strains that in turn could explain the clinical heterogeneity of Parkinson’s disease and related α-synucleinopathies. For neurodegeneration to occur, α-synuclein assemblies need to exhibit seeding competency, i.e. ability to template further aggregation, and toxicity which is at least partly mediated by interference with synaptic vesicle or organelle homeostasis. Given the dynamic and reversible conformational plasticity of α-synuclein, it is possible that seeding competency and cellular toxicity are mediated by assemblies of different structure or size along this continuum. It is currently unknown which α-synuclein assemblies are the most relevant to the human condition but recent advances in the cryo-electron microscopic characterisation of brain-derived fibrils and their assessment in stem cell derived and animal models are likely to facilitate the development of precision therapies or biomarkers. This review summarises the main principles of α-synuclein aggregate initiation and propagation in model systems, and their relevance to clinical translation.
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Sawner AS, Ray S, Yadav P, Mukherjee S, Panigrahi R, Poudyal M, Patel K, Ghosh D, Kummerant E, Kumar A, Riek R, Maji SK. Modulating α-Synuclein Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation. Biochemistry 2021; 60:3676-3696. [PMID: 34431665 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.1c00434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) is a crucial phenomenon for the formation of functional membraneless organelles. However, LLPS is also responsible for protein aggregation in various neurodegenerative diseases such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease (PD). Recently, several reports, including ours, have shown that α-synuclein (α-Syn) undergoes LLPS and a subsequent liquid-to-solid phase transition, which leads to amyloid fibril formation. However, how the environmental (and experimental) parameters modulate the α-Syn LLPS remains elusive. Here, we show that in vitro α-Syn LLPS is strongly dependent on the presence of salts, which allows charge neutralization at both terminal segments of protein and therefore promotes hydrophobic interactions supportive for LLPS. Using various purification methods and experimental conditions, we showed, depending upon conditions, α-Syn undergoes either spontaneous (instantaneous) or delayed LLPS. Furthermore, we delineate that the kinetics of liquid droplet formation (i.e., the critical concentration and critical time) is relative and can be modulated by the salt/counterion concentration, pH, presence of surface, PD-associated multivalent cations, and N-terminal acetylation, which are all known to regulate α-Syn aggregation in vitro. Together, our observations suggest that α-Syn LLPS and subsequent liquid-to-solid phase transition could be pathological, which can be triggered only under disease-associated conditions (high critical concentration and/or conditions promoting α-Syn self-assembly). This study will significantly improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of α-Syn LLPS and the liquid-to-solid transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Singh Sawner
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Soumik Ray
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Preeti Yadav
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Semanti Mukherjee
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Rajlaxmi Panigrahi
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Manisha Poudyal
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Komal Patel
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Dhiman Ghosh
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Eric Kummerant
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Ashutosh Kumar
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
| | - Roland Riek
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Samir K Maji
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, IIT Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
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10
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Park SJ, Jin U, Park SM. Interaction between coxsackievirus B3 infection and α-synuclein in models of Parkinson's disease. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1010018. [PMID: 34695168 PMCID: PMC8568191 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases. PD is pathologically characterized by the death of midbrain dopaminergic neurons and the accumulation of intracellular protein inclusions called Lewy bodies or Lewy neurites. The major component of Lewy bodies is α-synuclein (α-syn). Prion-like propagation of α-syn has emerged as a novel mechanism in the progression of PD. This mechanism has been investigated to reveal factors that initiate Lewy pathology with the aim of preventing further progression of PD. Here, we demonstrate that coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) infection can induce α-syn-associated inclusion body formation in neurons which might act as a trigger for PD. The inclusion bodies contained clustered organelles, including damaged mitochondria with α-syn fibrils. α-Syn overexpression accelerated inclusion body formation and induced more concentric inclusion bodies. In CVB3-infected mice brains, α-syn aggregates were observed in the cell body of midbrain neurons. Additionally, α-syn overexpression favored CVB3 replication and related cytotoxicity. α-Syn transgenic mice had a low survival rate, enhanced CVB3 replication, and exhibited neuronal cell death, including that of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. These results may be attributed to distinct autophagy-related pathways engaged by CVB3 and α-syn. This study elucidated the mechanism of Lewy body formation and the pathogenesis of PD associated with CVB3 infection. Prion-like propagation of α-syn has emerged as a novel mechanism involved in the progression of Parkinson’s disease (PD). This process has been extensively investigated to identify the factors that initiate Lewy pathology to prevent further progression of PD. Nevertheless, initial triggers of Lewy body (LB) formation leading to the acceleration of the process still remain elusive. Infection is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for PD. In particular, several viruses have been reported to be associated with both acute and chronic parkinsonism. It has been proposed that peripheral infections including viral infections accompanying inflammation may trigger PD. In the present study, we explored whether coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) interacts with α-syn to induce aggregation and further Lewy body formation, thereby acting as a trigger and whether α-syn affects the replication of coxsackievirus. It is important to identify the factors that initiate Lewy pathology to understand the pathogenesis of PD. Our findings clarify the mechanism of LB formation and the pathogenesis of PD associated with CVB3 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soo Jin Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Uram Jin
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Cardiology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Sang Myun Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
- * E-mail:
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11
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Zhu C, Bilousova T, Focht S, Jun M, Elias CJ, Melnik M, Chandra S, Campagna J, Cohn W, Hatami A, Spilman P, Gylys KH, John V. Pharmacological inhibition of nSMase2 reduces brain exosome release and α-synuclein pathology in a Parkinson's disease model. Mol Brain 2021; 14:70. [PMID: 33875010 PMCID: PMC8056538 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-021-00776-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim We have previously reported that cambinol (DDL-112), a known inhibitor of neutral sphingomyelinase-2 (nSMase2), suppressed extracellular vesicle (EV)/exosome production in vitro in a cell model and reduced tau seed propagation. The enzyme nSMase2 is involved in the production of exosomes carrying proteopathic seeds and could contribute to cell-to-cell transmission of pathological protein aggregates implicated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease (PD). Here, we performed in vivo studies to determine if DDL-112 can reduce brain EV/exosome production and proteopathic alpha synuclein (αSyn) spread in a PD mouse model. Methods The acute effects of single-dose treatment with DDL-112 on interleukin-1β-induced extracellular vesicle (EV) release in brain tissue of Thy1-αSyn PD model mice and chronic effects of 5 week DDL-112 treatment on behavioral/motor function and proteinase K-resistant αSyn aggregates in the PD model were determined. Results/discussion In the acute study, pre-treatment with DDL-112 reduced EV/exosome biogenesis and in the chronic study, treatment with DDL-112 was associated with a reduction in αSyn aggregates in the substantia nigra and improvement in motor function. Inhibition of nSMase2 thus offers a new approach to therapeutic development for neurodegenerative diseases with the potential to reduce the spread of disease-specific proteopathic proteins. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13041-021-00776-9.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunni Zhu
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Tina Bilousova
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.,School of Nursing, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Samantha Focht
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Michael Jun
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Chris Jean Elias
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Mikhail Melnik
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Sujyoti Chandra
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Jesus Campagna
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Whitaker Cohn
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Asa Hatami
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Patricia Spilman
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | | | - Varghese John
- Drug Discovery Lab, Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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12
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Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 inhibits α-synuclein-induced microglia inflammation to protect from neurotoxicity in Parkinson's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2021; 18:23. [PMID: 33461598 PMCID: PMC7814625 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-021-02079-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Microglia activation induced by α-synuclein (α-syn) is one of the most important factors in Parkinson’s disease (PD) pathogenesis. However, the molecular mechanisms by which α-syn exerts neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity remain largely elusive. Targeting metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) has been an attractive strategy to mediate microglia activation for neuroprotection, which might be an essential regulator to modulate α-syn-induced neuroinflammation for the treatment of PD. Here, we showed that mGluR5 inhibited α-syn-induced microglia inflammation to protect from neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. Methods Co-immunoprecipitation assays were utilized to detect the interaction between mGluR5 and α-syn in microglia. Griess, ELISA, real-time PCR, western blotting, and immunofluorescence assays were used to detect the regulation of α-syn-induced inflammatory signaling, cytokine secretion, and lysosome-dependent degradation. Results α-syn selectively interacted with mGluR5 but not mGluR3, and α-syn N terminal deletion region was essential for binding to mGluR5 in co-transfected HEK293T cells. The interaction between these two proteins was further detected in BV2 microglia, which was inhibited by the mGluR5 specific agonist CHPG without effect by its selective antagonist MTEP. Moreover, in both BV2 cells and primary microglia, activation of mGluR5 by CHPG partially inhibited α-syn-induced inflammatory signaling and cytokine secretion and also inhibited the microglia activation to protect from neurotoxicity. We further found that α-syn overexpression decreased mGluR5 expression via a lysosomal pathway, as evidenced by the lysosomal inhibitor, NH4Cl, by blocking mGluR5 degradation, which was not evident with the proteasome inhibitor, MG132. Additionally, co-localization of mGluR5 with α-syn was detected in lysosomes as merging with its marker, LAMP-1. Consistently, in vivo experiments with LPS- or AAV-α-syn-induced rat PD model also confirmed that α-syn accelerated lysosome-dependent degradation of mGluR5 involving a complex, to regulate neuroinflammation. Importantly, the binding is strengthened with LPS or α-syn overexpression but alleviated by urate, a potential clinical biomarker for PD. Conclusions These findings provided evidence for a novel mechanism by which the association of α-syn with mGluR5 was attributed to α-syn-induced microglia activation via modulation of mGluR5 degradation and its intracellular signaling. This may be a new molecular target for an effective therapeutic strategy for PD pathology. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02079-1.
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13
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Li Y, Yang C, Wang S, Yang D, Zhang Y, Xu L, Ma L, Zheng J, Petersen RB, Zheng L, Chen H, Huang K. Copper and iron ions accelerate the prion-like propagation of α-synuclein: A vicious cycle in Parkinson's disease. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 163:562-573. [PMID: 32629061 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.06.274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Protein fibrils drive the onset and progression of many diseases in a prion-like manner, i.e. they transcellular propagate through the extracellular space to health cells to initiate toxic aggregation as seeds. The conversion of native α-synuclein into filamentous aggregates in Lewy bodies is a hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD). Copper and iron ions accumulate in PD brains, however, whether they influence the prion-like propagation of α-synuclein remain unclear. Here, we reported that copper/iron ions accelerate prion-like propagation of α-synuclein fibrils by promoting cellular internalization of α-synuclein fibrils, intracellular α-synuclein aggregation and the subsequent release of mature fibrils to the extracellular space to induce further propagation. Mechanistically, copper/iron ions enhanced α-synuclein fibrils internalization was mediated by negatively charged membrane heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs). α-Synuclein fibrils formed in the presence of copper/iron ions were more cytotoxic, causing increased ROS production, cell apoptosis, and shortened the lifespan of a C. elegans PD model overexpressing human α-synuclein. Notably, these deleterious effects were ameliorated by two clinically used chelators, triethylenetetramine and deferiprone. Together, our results suggest a new role for heavy metal ions, e.g. copper and iron, in the pathogenesis of PD through accelerating prion-like propagation of α-synuclein fibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Chen Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Shilin Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Dong Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Li Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Liang Ma
- Affiliated Wuhan Mental Health Center, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430012, China
| | - Jiaojiao Zheng
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Robert B Petersen
- Foundational Sciences, Central Michigan University College of Medicine, Mt. Pleasant 48858, MI, USA
| | - Ling Zheng
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Hong Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China
| | - Kun Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, Wuhan 430030, China.
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14
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Tavassoly O, Yue J, Vocadlo DJ. Pharmacological inhibition and knockdown of O-GlcNAcase reduces cellular internalization of α-synuclein preformed fibrils. FEBS J 2020; 288:452-470. [PMID: 32365408 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The pathological hallmark of Parkinson's disease (PD) is Lewy bodies that form within the brain from aggregated forms of α-synuclein (α-syn). These toxic α-syn aggregates are transferred from cell to cell by release of fibrils from dying neurons into the extracellular environment, followed by their subsequent uptake by neighboring cells. This process leads to spreading of the pathology throughout the brain in a prion-like manner. Identifying new pathways that hinder the internalization of such α-syn fibrils is of high interest for their downstream potential exploitation as a way to create disease-modifying therapeutics for PD. Here, we show that Thiamet-G, a highly selective pharmacological agent that inhibits the glycoside hydrolase O-GlcNAcase (OGA), blunts the cellular uptake of α-syn fibrils. This effect correlates with increased nucleocytoplasmic levels of O-linked N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc)-modified proteins, and genetic knockdown of OGA expression closely phenocopies both these effects. These reductions in the uptake of α-syn fibrils caused by inhibition of OGA are both concentration- and time-dependent and are observed in multiple cell lines including mouse primary cortical neurons. Moreover, treatment of cells with the OGT inhibitor, 5SGlcNHex, increases the level of uptake of α-syn PFFs, further supporting O-GlcNAcylation of proteins driving these effects. Notably, this effect is mediated through an unknown mechanism that does not involve well-characterized endocytotic pathways. These data suggest one mechanism by which OGA inhibitors might exert their protective effects in prion-like neuropathologies and support exploration of OGA inhibitors as a potential disease-modifying approach to treat PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Tavassoly
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | - Jefferey Yue
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
| | - David J Vocadlo
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada.,Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada
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15
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Choi YR, Kim JB, Kang SJ, Noh HR, Jou I, Joe EH, Park SM. The dual role of c-src in cell-to-cell transmission of α-synuclein. EMBO Rep 2020; 21:e48950. [PMID: 32372484 DOI: 10.15252/embr.201948950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons located in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the presence of proteinaceous inclusions called Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites in numerous brain regions. Increasing evidence indicates that Lewy pathology progressively involves additional regions of the nervous system as the disease advances, and the prion-like propagation of α-synuclein (α-syn) pathology promotes PD progression. Accordingly, the modulation of α-syn transmission may be important for the development of disease-modifying therapies in patients with PD. Here, we demonstrate that α-syn fibrils induce c-src activation in neurons, which depends on the FcγRIIb-SHP-1/-2-c-src pathway and enhances signals for the uptake of α-syn into neurons. Blockade of c-src activation inhibits the uptake of α-syn and the formation of Lewy body-like inclusions. Furthermore, the blockade of c-src activation also inhibits the release of α-syn via activation of autophagy. The brain-permeable c-src inhibitor, saracatinib, efficiently reduces α-syn propagation into neighboring regions in an in vivo model system. These results suggest a new therapeutic target against progressive PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Ree Choi
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Jae-Bong Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Seo-Jun Kang
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Hye Rin Noh
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Ilo Jou
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Eun-Hye Joe
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Sang Myun Park
- Department of Pharmacology, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Center for Convergence Research of Neurological Disorders, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, BK21 Plus Program, Ajou University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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16
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Hayakawa H, Nakatani R, Ikenaka K, Aguirre C, Choong CJ, Tsuda H, Nagano S, Koike M, Ikeuchi T, Hasegawa M, Papa SM, Nagai Y, Mochizuki H, Baba K. Structurally distinct α-synuclein fibrils induce robust parkinsonian pathology. Mov Disord 2019; 35:256-267. [PMID: 31643109 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alpha-synuclein (α-syn) is a major component of Lewy bodies, which are the pathological hallmark in Parkinson's disease, and its genetic mutations cause familial forms of Parkinson's disease. Patients with α-syn G51D mutation exhibit severe clinical symptoms. However, in vitro studies showed low propensity for α-syn with the G51D mutation. We studied the mechanisms associated with severe neurotoxicity of α-syn G51D mutation using a murine model generated by G51D α-syn fibril injection into the brain. METHODS Structural analysis of wild-type and G51D α-syn-fibrils were performed using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The ability of α-syn fibrils forming aggregates was first assessed in in vitro mammalian cells. An in vivo mouse model with an intranigral injection of α-syn fibrils was then used to evaluate the propagation pattern of α-syn and related cellular changes. RESULTS We found that G51D α-syn fibrils have higher β-sheet contents than wild-type α-syn fibrils. The addition of G51D α-syn fibrils to mammalian cells overexpressing α-syn resulted in the formation of phosphorylated α-syn inclusions at a higher rate. Similarly, an injection of G51D α-syn fibrils into the substantia nigra of a mouse brain induced more widespread phosphorylated α-syn pathology. Notably, the mice injected with G51D α-syn fibrils exhibited progressive nigral neuronal loss accompanied with mitochondrial abnormalities and motor impairment. CONCLUSION Our findings indicate that the structural difference of G51D α-syn fibrils plays an important role in the rapidly developed and more severe neurotoxicity of G51D mutation-linked Parkinson's disease. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Hayakawa
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Rie Nakatani
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kensuke Ikenaka
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Cesar Aguirre
- Institute of Protein Research, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Chi-Jing Choong
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tsuda
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Seiichi Nagano
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Masato Koike
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeshi Ikeuchi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Bioresource Science Branch, Center for Bioresources, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| | - Masato Hasegawa
- Department of Neuropathology and Cell Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Stella M Papa
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Yoshitaka Nagai
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.,Department of Neurotherapeutics, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hideki Mochizuki
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kousuke Baba
- Department of Neurology, Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan
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17
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Martinelli AHS, Lopes FC, John EBO, Carlini CR, Ligabue-Braun R. Modulation of Disordered Proteins with a Focus on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Other Pathologies. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061322. [PMID: 30875980 PMCID: PMC6471803 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) do not have rigid 3D structures, showing changes in their folding depending on the environment or ligands. Intrinsically disordered proteins are widely spread in eukaryotic genomes, and these proteins participate in many cell regulatory metabolism processes. Some IDPs, when aberrantly folded, can be the cause of some diseases such as Alzheimer′s, Parkinson′s, and prionic, among others. In these diseases, there are modifications in parts of the protein or in its entirety. A common conformational variation of these IDPs is misfolding and aggregation, forming, for instance, neurotoxic amyloid plaques. In this review, we discuss some IDPs that are involved in neurodegenerative diseases (such as beta amyloid, alpha synuclein, tau, and the “IDP-like” PrP), cancer (p53, c-Myc), and diabetes (amylin), focusing on the structural changes of these IDPs that are linked to such pathologies. We also present the IDP modulation mechanisms that can be explored in new strategies for drug design. Lastly, we show some candidate drugs that can be used in the future for the treatment of diseases caused by misfolded IDPs, considering that cancer therapy has more advanced research in comparison to other diseases, while also discussing recent and future developments in this area of research. Therefore, we aim to provide support to the study of IDPs and their modulation mechanisms as promising approaches to combat such severe diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne H S Martinelli
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology & Department of Biophysics, Biosciences Institute-IB, (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
| | - Fernanda C Lopes
- Center for Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
| | - Elisa B O John
- Center for Biotechnology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
| | - Célia R Carlini
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre CEP 91501-970, RS, Brazil.
- Graduate Program in Medicine and Health Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre CEP 91410-000, RS, Brazil.
- Brain Institute-InsCer, Laboratory of Neurotoxins, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul (PUCRS), Porto Alegre CEP 90610-000, RS, Brazil.
| | - Rodrigo Ligabue-Braun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Federal de Ciências da Saúde de Porto Alegre (UFCSPA), Porto Alegre CEP 90050-170, RS, Brazil.
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18
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Szabo A, Tofaris GK. Monitoring α-Synuclein Proteotoxicity in Drosophila Models. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1948:199-208. [PMID: 30771179 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9124-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease without cure. It is characterized by α-synuclein accumulation and aggregation in dopaminergic and other types of neurons. Because α-synuclein accumulation leads to a toxic gain of function, its ectopic expression in Drosophila has been a useful in vivo model for testing modifiers of its toxicity. This chapter describes four assays: the rapid iterative negative geotaxis, rough eye phenotype, quantification of dopaminergic neuronal loss, and measurements of circadian effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aron Szabo
- Institute of Genetics, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szeged, Hungary
| | - George K Tofaris
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.
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19
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Yu W, Yang W, Li X, Li X, Yu S. Alpha-synuclein oligomerization increases its effect on promoting NMDA receptor internalization. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY 2019; 12:87-100. [PMID: 31933723 PMCID: PMC6944010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The internalization of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) is promoted by monomeric α-synuclein (α-syn). Because of the pathogenic role of oligomeric α-syn, the effect of aggregated α-syn on this regulation deserves investigation. Several α-syn oligomers were prepared by incubating recombinant human α-syn in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), plasma of normal controls (NC) and patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). The α-syn oligomers formed in PBS are not phosphorylated and are different from the α-syn oligomers formed in the plasma of NC and PD that are moderately and highly phosphorylated at serine 129, which is a key phosphorylation site of the α-syn molecule in PD patients. After being added into the culture medium, the α-syn monomers and its oligomers formed in different methods and rapidly entered into MES23.5 dopaminergic cells and induced an increase in the expression of Rab5B, an endocytic protein that has been shown to regulate clathrin-mediated endocytosis of NMDARs. The levels of surface GluN1, a subunit obligatory for the assembly of functional NMDAR, were reduced, but the total GluN1 changes didn't show a parallel reduction of the surface of GluN1, indicating the internalization of GluN1. Compared with the monomers, the oligomers, especially those formed in PD plasma, were more potent in promoting GluN1 internalization, and were abolished by clathrin inhibitor pitstop2. The above results suggest that α-syn oligomers, especially those formed in PD plasma, increase the effect of α-syn in promoting the internalization of NMDAR GluN1 subunits, possibly through a clathrin-mediated endocytic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjiao Yu
- Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- Clinical Center for Parkinson’s Disease, Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric DisordersBeijing, China
- Parkinson Disease Center of Beijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijing, China
| | - Weiwei Yang
- Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- Clinical Center for Parkinson’s Disease, Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric DisordersBeijing, China
- Parkinson Disease Center of Beijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijing, China
| | - Xuran Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- Clinical Center for Parkinson’s Disease, Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric DisordersBeijing, China
- Parkinson Disease Center of Beijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijing, China
| | - Xin Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- Clinical Center for Parkinson’s Disease, Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric DisordersBeijing, China
- Parkinson Disease Center of Beijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijing, China
| | - Shun Yu
- Department of Neurobiology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- Clinical Center for Parkinson’s Disease, Capital Medical UniversityBeijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric DisordersBeijing, China
- Parkinson Disease Center of Beijing Institute for Brain DisordersBeijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Parkinson’s DiseaseBeijing, China
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20
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Tofaris GK, Buckley NJ. Convergent molecular defects underpin diverse neurodegenerative diseases. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2018; 89:962-969. [PMID: 29459380 DOI: 10.1136/jnnp-2017-316988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In our ageing population, neurodegenerative disorders carry an enormous personal, societal and economic burden. Although neurodegenerative diseases are often thought of as clinicopathological entities, increasing evidence suggests a considerable overlap in the molecular underpinnings of their pathogenesis. Such overlapping biological processes include the handling of misfolded proteins, defective organelle trafficking, RNA processing, synaptic health and neuroinflammation. Collectively but in different proportions, these biological processes in neurons or non-neuronal cells lead to regionally distinct patterns of neuronal vulnerability and progression of pathology that could explain the disease symptomology. With the advent of patient-derived cellular models and novel genetic manipulation tools, we are now able to interrogate this commonality despite the cellular complexity of the brain in order to develop novel therapeutic strategies to prevent or arrest neurodegeneration. Here, we describe broadly these concepts and their relevance across neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- George K Tofaris
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Noel J Buckley
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Woerman AL, Watts JC, Aoyagi A, Giles K, Middleton LT, Prusiner SB. α-Synuclein: Multiple System Atrophy Prions. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2018; 8:cshperspect.a024588. [PMID: 28213437 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a024588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is a rapidly progressive neurodegenerative disease arising from the misfolding and accumulation of the protein α-synuclein in oligodendrocytes, where it forms glial cytoplasmic inclusions (GCIs). Several years of studying synthetic α-synuclein fibrils has provided critical insight into the ability of α-synuclein to template endogenous protein misfolding, giving rise to fibrillar structures capable of propagating from cell to cell. However, more recent studies with MSA-derived α-synuclein aggregates have shown that they have a similar ability to undergo template-directed propagation, like PrP prions. Almost 20 years after α-synuclein was discovered as the primary component of GCIs, α-synuclein aggregates isolated from MSA patient samples were shown to infect cultured mammalian cells and also to transmit neurological disease to transgenic mice. These findings argue that α-synuclein becomes a prion in MSA patients. In this review, we discuss the in vitro and in vivo data supporting the recent classification of MSA as a prion disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Woerman
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158.,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Joel C Watts
- Tanz Centre for Research in Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Biochemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5T 2S8, Canada
| | - Atsushi Aoyagi
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158.,Daiichi Sankyo Company, Limited, Tokyo, 140-8710, Japan
| | - Kurt Giles
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158.,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158
| | - Lefkos T Middleton
- Neuroepidemiology and Ageing Research Unit, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London W6 8RP, United Kingdom
| | - Stanley B Prusiner
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158.,Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158.,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158
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22
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Abstract
α-Synuclein is an abundant neuronal protein that is highly enriched in presynaptic nerve terminals. Genetics and neuropathology studies link α-synuclein to Parkinson's disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. Accumulation of misfolded oligomers and larger aggregates of α-synuclein defines multiple neurodegenerative diseases called synucleinopathies, but the mechanisms by which α-synuclein acts in neurodegeneration are unknown. Moreover, the normal cellular function of α-synuclein remains debated. In this perspective, we review the structural characteristics of α-synuclein, its developmental expression pattern, its cellular and subcellular localization, and its function in neurons. We also discuss recent progress on secretion of α-synuclein, which may contribute to its interneuronal spread in a prion-like fashion, and describe the neurotoxic effects of α-synuclein that are thought to be responsible for its role in neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Burré
- Appel Institute for Alzheimer's Disease Research, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York 10021
| | - Manu Sharma
- Appel Institute for Alzheimer's Disease Research, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York 10021
| | - Thomas C Südhof
- Departments of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, California 94305
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, California 94305
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Woerman AL, Kazmi SA, Patel S, Aoyagi A, Oehler A, Widjaja K, Mordes DA, Olson SH, Prusiner SB. Familial Parkinson's point mutation abolishes multiple system atrophy prion replication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2018; 115:409-414. [PMID: 29279394 PMCID: PMC5777081 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1719369115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In the neurodegenerative disease multiple system atrophy (MSA), α-synuclein misfolds into a self-templating conformation to become a prion. To compare the biological activity of α-synuclein prions in MSA and Parkinson's disease (PD), we developed nine α-synuclein-YFP cell lines expressing point mutations responsible for inherited PD. MSA prions robustly infected wild-type, A30P, and A53T α-synuclein-YFP cells, but they were unable to replicate in cells expressing the E46K mutation. Coexpression of the A53T and E46K mutations was unable to rescue MSA prion infection in vitro, establishing that MSA α-synuclein prions are conformationally distinct from the misfolded α-synuclein in PD patients. This observation may have profound implications for developing treatments for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L Woerman
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Sabeen A Kazmi
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Smita Patel
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Atsushi Aoyagi
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
- Daiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd., Tokyo 140-8710, Japan
| | - Abby Oehler
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Kartika Widjaja
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Daniel A Mordes
- C. S. Kubik Laboratory for Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114
| | - Steven H Olson
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Stanley B Prusiner
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158;
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
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24
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Abstract
Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is an orphan, fatal, adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder of uncertain etiology that is clinically characterized by various combinations of parkinsonism, cerebellar, autonomic, and motor dysfunction. MSA is an α-synucleinopathy with specific glioneuronal degeneration involving striatonigral, olivopontocerebellar, and autonomic nervous systems but also other parts of the central and peripheral nervous systems. The major clinical variants correlate with the morphologic phenotypes of striatonigral degeneration (MSA-P) and olivopontocerebellar atrophy (MSA-C). While our knowledge of the molecular pathogenesis of this devastating disease is still incomplete, updated consensus criteria and combined fluid and imaging biomarkers have increased its diagnostic accuracy. The neuropathologic hallmark of this unique proteinopathy is the deposition of aberrant α-synuclein in both glia (mainly oligodendroglia) and neurons forming glial and neuronal cytoplasmic inclusions that cause cell dysfunction and demise. In addition, there is widespread demyelination, the pathogenesis of which is not fully understood. The pathogenesis of MSA is characterized by propagation of misfolded α-synuclein from neurons to oligodendroglia and cell-to-cell spreading in a "prion-like" manner, oxidative stress, proteasomal and mitochondrial dysfunction, dysregulation of myelin lipids, decreased neurotrophic factors, neuroinflammation, and energy failure. The combination of these mechanisms finally results in a system-specific pattern of neurodegeneration and a multisystem involvement that are specific for MSA. Despite several pharmacological approaches in MSA models, addressing these pathogenic mechanisms, no effective neuroprotective nor disease-modifying therapeutic strategies are currently available. Multidisciplinary research to elucidate the genetic and molecular background of the deleterious cycle of noxious processes, to develop reliable biomarkers and targets for effective treatment of this hitherto incurable disorder is urgently needed.
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25
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Jellinger KA. Potential clinical utility of multiple system atrophy biomarkers. Expert Rev Neurother 2017; 17:1189-1208. [DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2017.1392239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Uversky VN. Looking at the recent advances in understanding α-synuclein and its aggregation through the proteoform prism. F1000Res 2017; 6:525. [PMID: 28491292 PMCID: PMC5399969 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.10536.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite attracting the close attention of multiple researchers for the past 25 years, α-synuclein continues to be an enigma, hiding sacred truth related to its structure, function, and dysfunction, concealing mechanisms of its pathological spread within the affected brain during disease progression, and, above all, covering up the molecular mechanisms of its multipathogenicity, i.e. the ability to be associated with the pathogenesis of various diseases. The goal of this article is to present the most recent advances in understanding of this protein and its aggregation and to show that the remarkable structural, functional, and dysfunctional multifaceted nature of α-synuclein can be understood using the proteoform concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir N Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer's Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd. MDC07, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA.,Laboratory of New Methods in Biology, Institute for Biological Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, 7 Institutskaya St., 142290 Pushchino, Moscow Region, Russian Federation.,Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding Of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 4 Tikhoretsky Av., 194064 St. Petersburg, Russian Federation
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